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Culture and Cultural Politics Under Reza Shah The Pahlavi State, New Bourgeoisie and The Creation of A Modern Society in Iran
Culture and Cultural Politics Under Reza Shah The Pahlavi State, New Bourgeoisie and The Creation of A Modern Society in Iran
Reza Shah
Professor Christoph Werner holds the Chair of Iranian Studies at the Center
for Near and Middle East Studies at the University of Marburg (Germany).
His main fields of interest are Qajar history, vaqf studies, and modern Persian
literature.
Iranian Studies
Edited by
Homa Katouzian, University of Oxford and
Mohamad Tavakoli, University of Toronto
Since 1967 the International Society for Iranian Studies (ISIS) has been a leading
learned society for the advancement of new approaches in the study of Iranian
society, history, culture, and literature. The new ISIS Iranian Studies series
published by Routledge will provide a venue for the publication of original
and innovative scholarly works in all areas of Iranian and Persianate Studies.
Edited by
Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
ROUTLEDGE
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2014
by Routledge
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Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
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without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Culture and cultural politics under Reza Shah : the Pahlavi state, new
bourgeoisie and the creation of a modern society in Iran / edited by Bianca
Devos and Christoph Werner.
pages cm. – (Iranian studies)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Politics and culture – Iran – History – 20th century. 2. Iran – Cultural
policy – History – 20th century. 3. Iran – Politics and government–1925-
1979. 4. Iran – Intellectual life – 20th century. 5. Iran – Social conditions –
20th century. 6. Social change – Iran – History – 20th century. I. Devos,
Bianca, author, editor of compilation. II. Werner, Christoph, 1967-author,
editor of compilation.
DS317.C85 2013
955.05’2 – dc23
2013005107
Introduction 1
BIANCA DEVOS AND CHRISTOPH WERNER
PART I
Intellectuals and technocrats: Key figures in Iran’s
cultural modernization 17
PART II
The Shah: State politics and authoritarian modernization 119
PART III
Life under Reza Shah: New bourgeois culture and other
forms of practiced modernity 199
Index 319
Figures
The reign of Reza Shah marks a crucial turning point in the history of
modern Iran, when centralized efforts were made to rebuild the state in
terms of a progressive nation. During the last decade the early Pahlavi period
has increasingly attracted scholarly attention. This development can be
ascribed to several reasons such as the quest for the roots of the revolution
of 1978–79; the sentimental glorification of the Reza Shah era (1926–41),
both inside Iran and in diasporic communities; and the ready availability
of primary source material after access to Iranian archives has finally
become possible.1 The culture and cultural politics of this period, however,
remain widely neglected. Until now, the reign of Reza Shah has been viewed
primarily through the lens of politics, international relations, and militarist or
autocratic modernism. Throughout, the political history of this period
has been at the centre of research, with an equally strong focus on tribal
politics and the military.2 At the same time, particular studies devoted to the
literature or the arts of this time rarely paid attention to the socio-political
background and the actual agendas of the state and its administrative
apparatus.3
Taking up the new stimulus provided by the concept of subaltern studies,
an increasing number of books have been published during the last couple of
years that challenge conventional historiographical approaches in writing the
modern history of Iran.4 Still, a state-centred perspective and an emphasis on
authoritarian modernization by the autocratic state remain the predominant
angle from which the 1920s and 1930s are examined.5 This might help to
explain the multitude of reforms implemented in such a short period of time,
as well as their long-term success, but fails to consider other central agents of
Iran’s modernity. Moreover, the study of the early Pahlavi period has been
dominated by generalizations and affected by black-and-white dichotomies
including admiration for Reza Shah’s modernization efforts on the one hand
and criticism of authoritarian censorship and stifling suppression of artists
and writers on the other. The overall negative evaluation of cultural life under
Reza Shah resulted in the firmly entrenched belief that the restrictive climate
prevented any positive development in theatre, press, or literature and drove
creative individuals to withdraw into academia.
2 Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
There is a clear contradiction between the idea of Reza Shah as a basically
uncultured and uneducated boor and the notion that everything in Iran,
including the country’s social and cultural renewal, originated in Reza Shah’s
authoritarian policy. From early on, he was ridiculed by Western diplomats
and observers as a Cosack and brutish drill sergeant. Statements such as the
one by the American minister Charles C. Hart, characterizing him as an “illit-
erate peasant’s equally illiterate son,” were to stay.6 This makes it so difficult to
imagine a deliberate cultural policy in the early Pahlavi period.
This pessimistic image of culture during the years of Reza Shah’s reign
prompted us to critically analyze different facets of the relationship between
cultural politics, the educational system, and the “life-world” of modernist
Iranians. We regard the relationship between politics and culture not as a hier-
archical order where politics determine culture, but rather as a double-sided
process of interaction – cultural production influences politics and politics
shape modes of cultural representation. Since our understanding of culture is
deliberately wide and open, it includes medicine and sports, theatre, literature
and music, architecture and iconography, the press and the educational
system with schools, museums, and universities.
With special reference to the practical implementation of specific reforms this
volume goes beyond the state-centred view by acknowledging the significance of
reform-minded individuals as masterminds of modernization. It also regards
the modern middle class as a crucial agent in the reform process and sheds
light on the mass of Iranians as the main target of cultural reforms. In order
not to adopt the state’s view too easily, such an approach must use new
sources as well as new readings of the available material; the contributions to
this volume integrate primary sources from Iran to a great extent. Hence, this
volume continues the recent trend in writing the history of twentieth-century
Iran by “moving away from the state as reference point of societal action”7
and challenging the paradigm of authoritarian modernization; however, not
by focusing on subaltern forces in society, but rather by stressing the highly
significant symbiosis between the state and individual reformers and the
common people’s contribution in appropriating modern culture.
The approach taken in this volume is reinforced by some works on the
history of Iranian women. Driven by the need to re-examine conventional
male perspectives, gender-related studies considered new theoretical frame-
works for writing the modern Iranian history, re-read established sources and
made use of new source material.8 This young, but productive field of
research has resulted in a number of general histories of women in Iran and
made considerable contributions to the treatment of specific periods, among
them the early Pahlavi period.9
As a phase of profound transformation it also has significance to researchers
of Iran’s feminist movement: a vivid women’s press with periodicals like the
successful paper ‘Alam-e Nesvan (Women’s world) or the second Eastern
Women’s Congress in Tehran in 1932 promoted new concepts of gender relations
and Iranian womanhood much more frankly than before.10 A major turning
Introduction 3
point for the movement came in 1936, when the government started the
official programme of emancipation for women, the nahzat-e banovan. Under
the auspices of Reza Shah’s strong, centralized state, several demands of
women’s rights activists were put into practice, but, at the same time, all
independent women initiatives were brought to an end or put under official
control. Facing the autocratic state, many activists chose to cooperate – be it
for fear of repression or by realizing a promising opportunity for a nation-
wide implementation of their ideas.11 The most prominent reform within the
nahzat-e banovan was the compulsory unveiling (kashf-e hejab) of Iranian
women.12
It was and still is a divisive issue – among women activists at the time of its
enforcement and today among scholars.13 Often considered a symbol of Reza
Shah’s brutality, the kashf-e hejab contributed to a rather negative assessment
of his reign.14 In contrast, some historians highlighted the beneficial effects of
this measure for the emancipation of Iranian women.15 Out of this dissent a
general discussion of Reza Pahlavi’s role in Iran’s social reform process has
evolved, in which the common overemphasis on the shah’s agency has been
strongly criticized.16 We regard this debate as a very inspiring one for writing
the modern history of Iran and see it perfectly reflected in the diverse
perspectives of the contributions included in this volume.17
Life under Reza Shah: new bourgeois culture and other forms
of practiced modernity
The third part concentrates on the practical implementation of the Pahlavi
reform agenda and its effects on daily life. In addition to the state and personally
committed intellectuals and technocrats, other groups and forces participated
in the task of national modernization and education. Confronted with the actual
appropriation of new cultural modes, both the Iranian intelligentsia and non-
elite modernists were forced to re-evaluate their concepts of modernity and
adjust them to the actual situation. Consequently, discussions about desired
and undesired culture and the necessity to regulate and administrate cultural
productions were of utmost importance. Their interaction with the populace to
be educated took also place outside the framework of state institutions. With
the emergence of a new bourgeois culture, the middle class created its own new
space for entertainment, music, and communication. Taking the subjective
dimension of their cultural experiences into account, the contributions of this
part explore the self-conception of the modernist middle class and its lifestyle
in the period from the 1920s to the beginning of the 1940s. Nevertheless, we
constantly have to keep in mind that protagonists from these strata of society
remained heavily dependent on the support of state institutions if they wanted
to put their ideas and concepts successfully into practice. Here, the interaction
between cultural politics and cultural expression becomes most apparent.
In Chapter 9 Christoph Werner challenges the prevalent negative evaluations
of theatre in the early Pahlavi period, which are ascribed to the general
Introduction 11
intellectual climate of the time, the rigorous censorship under Reza Shah,
and the premise that the idea of modern theatre in the European tradition
remained widely alien to Iranian culture and public interest. He shows that
theatre had its place in the middle of society where it was appreciated largely
because of its entertaining qualities and thus served the needs of a general public.
In Chapter 10 Roja Dehdarian portrays the group of young literati around
Sadeq Hedayat and Bozorg ‘Alavi and traces their position in cultural life
during the second decade of Reza Shah’s reign. We notice their struggle with
the literary establishment, their antipathy towards the government, and their
rejection of traditional religious authority. However, it is also undeniable that
they participated in the cultural discourse of the time; and their nationalist ideas
shared common ground with the official state nationalism. This dichotomy
highlights the necessity of recognizing the heterogeneity of the discourse that
encompassed different and at times competing ideas of modernity and nation.
In the course of Iran’s “rebirth” as a modern nation the profession of
midwifery gained a special and also a symbolic relevance. Elham Malekzadeh
examines in Chapter 11 the integration of midwifery as a new profession into
Reza Shah’s health care system. Special attention is paid to the education of
future midwives, the process of establishing obstetric schools in Iran, their
curricular and examinations. By focusing on the women who were trained in
and graduated from the newly established obstetric schools, this paper opens a
completely new field of research for the early Pahlavi period, based on the
analysis of mainly unpublished material from Iranian archives.
The visible change of Iran through the rapid spread of modern technology
was a vital aspect of Reza Shah’s reform agenda. Driven by the wish to extend
its control over all parts of society, the Pahlavi state was concerned about how to
regulate the adoption of modern technology. But modernists also felt responsible
to help the common Iranian people adapt to modern life. In Chapter 12 Bianca
Devos discusses the educational efforts of both the Pahlavi state and members
of the modernist middle class to instruct Iranians on how to use the new
technologies in the “right” way. At the same time this chapter sheds light on
the actual adoption of technical devices by the mass of Iranians.
The final chapter takes a look at the historical development of communication
practices in Iran from the end of the nineteenth century until the early Pahlavi
period. In the light of fundamental changes in Iranian society caused by mod-
ernization politics Katja Föllmer describes changing modes of communication
used by traditional religious authorities, the Pahlavi state, and members of the
opposition. She also examines how communication in the 1930s was structured,
and what parameters were essential for it.
Notes
1 Mansoureh Ettehadieh (Nezam-Mafi), Kaveh Bayat, “The Reza Shah Period:
Document Collections Recently Published in Iran,” Iranian Studies 26:3–4 (1993),
pp. 419–28. First published in 1998, Cyrus Ghani’s Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah is
one of the earliest examples of the new Western interest in early twentieth-century
12 Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
Iran. Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi
Rule (London: Tauris, 1998). A look at the Iranian book market shows that the
renewed interest in this crucial phase of modern Iranian history is also valid for
Iran. It resulted in many articles, monographs, and particularly in a multitude of
collections of edited documents from Iranian archives. For instance, the first
volume of Farhad Rostami’s Pahlavi-ha in three volumes presents a collection of
documents concerning Reza Shah and some of his wives. Farhad Rostami,
Pahlavi-ha: Khanedan-e Pahlavi be revayat-e asnad, vol. 1 Reza Shah (Tehran:
Mo’asseseh-ye motale‘at-e tarikh-e mo‘aser-e Iran, 1378/1999). Several bio-
graphies of the first Pahlavi ruler followed, for example Reza Niyazmand, Reza
Shah: Az tavallod ta saltanat (Tehran: Jame‘eh-ye Iraniyan, 1381/2002). Another
example for document collections is Mahmud Delfani, ed., Farhang-setizi dar
dowreh-ye Reza Shah (asnad-e montasher nashodeh-ye Sazman-e Parvaresh-e
Afkar), 1317–1320 hejri shamsi (Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli, 1375/1997).
2 With her outstanding study of the Pahlavi army Stephanie Cronin opened up new
fields of research and examined the new state from a clearly elite-centred
perspective with strong emphasis on its autocratic aspects: The Army and the
Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran: 1910–1926 (London: Tauris, 1997).
Following the trend of focusing on reform from above, Touraj Atabaki’s and Erik
Zürcher’s edited volume addresses the authoritarian modernization in Iran in
comparison with the reform program in Turkey: Men of Order: Authoritarian
Modernization under Atatürk and Reza Shah (London: Tauris, 2004). Also,
Stephanie Cronin, Tribal Politics in Iran: Rural Conflict and the New State,
1921–1941 (London: Routledge, 2007).
3 For instance, Homa Katouzian, Sadeq Hedayat: The Life and Literature of an
Iranian Writer (London: Tauris, 1999). Jutta E. Knörzer, Ali Dashti’s Prison
Days: Life under Reza Shah (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1994).
4 This trend has resulted in several edited volumes and monographs like Touraj
Atabaki, ed., The State and the Subaltern: Modernization, Society and the State
in Turkey and Iran (London: Tauris, 2007). Stephanie Cronin, ed., Subalterns and
Social Protest: History from Below in the Middle East and North Africa (London:
Routledge, 2008). Stephanie Cronin, Soldiers, Shahs and Subalterns in Iran:
Opposition, Protest and Revolution, 1921–1941 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2010).
5 Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah outlines the chronology of political events
resulting in the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty and is a typical example of
the state-centred view which dominated the historiography henceforth. An
impressive example of the shift in writing the history of the Reza Shah period is
Cyrus Schayegh’s monograph Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, in which he
evaluates the self-conception of the emerging middle class in the first half of
the twentieth century with special regard to education as a class marker.
Cyrus Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Science, Class, and the For-
mation of Modern Iranian Society, 1900–1950 (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2009).
6 Quoted in Mohammad Gholi-Majd, Great Britain & Reza Shah: The Plunder of
Iran 1921–41 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), p. 137.
7 Cyrus Schayegh, “Recent Trends in the Historiography of Iran under the Pahlavi
Dynasty, 1921–79,” History Compass 6:6 (2008), pp. 1400–406: 1401.
8 See, for instance, Afsaneh Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches and Men without
Beards: Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity (Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2005) for theoretical considerations. Camron Michael Amin’s
recent article is exemplary for the use of new sources. Camron Michael Amin,
“Globalizing Iranian Feminism, 1910–50,” Journal of Middle East Women’s
Studies 4:1 (2008): pp. 6–30. One of the analyzed sources is a document collection
Introduction 13
edited by Gholamreza Salami and Afsaneh Najmabadi, Nahzat-e nesvan-e sharq
(Tehran: Nashr va Pazhuhesh-e Shirazeh, 1384/2005).
9 Parvin Paidar, Women and the Political Process in Twentieth Century Iran
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Eliz Sanasarian, The Women’s
Rights Movement in Iran: Mutiny, Appeasement, and Repression from 1900 to
Khomeini (New York: Praeger, 1982). Haideh Moghissi, Populism and Feminism in
Iran: Women’s Struggle in a Male-Defined Revolutionary Movement (Basingstoke:
Macmillan, 1994). An excellent example for a study on the Constitutional Period
is Afsaneh Najmabadi, The Story of the Daughters of Quchan: Gender and
National Memory in Iranian History (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press,
1998).
10 On the women’s press see Monika M. Ringer, “Rethinking Religion: Progress and
Morality in the Early Twentieth-Century Iranian Women’s Press,” Comparative
Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24:1 (2004), pp. 47–54 and
Jasamin Rostam-Kolayi’s Ph.D. thesis “The Women’s Press, Modern Education,
and the State in Early Twentieth-Century Iran: 1900–1930s” (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan, 2000) as well as her article “Expanding Agendas for the
‘New’ Iranian Woman: Family Law, Work, and Unveiling,” in The Making of
Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921–1941, ed. Stephanie
Cronin (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 164–89. On the congress
see Charlotte Weber, “Between Nationalism and Feminism: The Eastern
Women’s Congresses of 1930 and 1932,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies
4:1 (2008), pp. 83–106; and for a more detailed examination Sarah Dusend,
Solidarische Vernetzung, gesellschaftlicher Fortschritt und die Rolle der Frau: Die
Debatten und Ergebnisse des Kongresses der orientalischen Frauen in Teheran 1932
(Berlin: EB-Verlag Dr. Brandt, 2010).
11 Reasons for cooperating with the state are stated in Paidar, Women and the
Political Process, p. 105 and Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches, p. 206.
12 For an historical account of the kashf-e hejab see H. E. Chehabi, “The Banning
of the Veil and Its Consequences,” in The Making of Modern Iran, ed. Cronin,
pp. 193–210.
13 Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Authority and Agency: Revisiting Women’s Activism
during Reza Shah’s Period,” in The State and the Subaltern, ed. Atabaki,
pp. 159–77: 174.
14 This notion is promoted particularly in the official historiography of the Islamic
Republic, as in two document collections on the forced unveiling. Khoshunat va
farhang: Asnad-e mahramaneh-ye kashf-e hejab (1313–1322), ed. Modiriyat-e
Pazhuhesh, Entesharat va Amuzesh (Tehran: Entesharat-e Sazman-e Asnad-e
Melli-ye Iran, 1371/1992). Morteza Ja‘fari, Soghra Esma‘ilzadeh, and Ma‘sumeh
Farshchi, ed., Vaqe‘eh-ye kashf-e hejab: Asnad-e montasher nashodeh az vaqe‘eh-ye
kashf-e hejab dar ‘asr-e Reza Khan (Tehran: Sazman-e Madarek va Farhang-e
Enqelab-e Eslami, Mo’asseseh-ye Pazhuhesh va Motala‘at-e Farhangi, 1373/1994).
15 For such a positive evaluation see Shireen Mahdavi, “Reza Shah Pahlavi and
Women: A Re-evaluation,” in The Making of Modern Iran, ed. Cronin,
pp. 190–202, especially p. 194.
16 Mana Kia, Afsaneh Najmabadi, and Sima Shakhsari disapprove of Mahdavi’s
article “Reza Shah Pahlavi and Women” in their contribution “Women, Gender,
and Sexuality in Historiography of Modern Iran,” in Iran in the 20th Century:
Historiography and Political Culture, ed. Touraj Atabaki (London: Tauris, 2009),
pp. 177–97: 184.
17 Several studies on Iranian women during the Reza Shah era focus on agents of
modernization other than the state and shed light also on the relationship of
culture and politics, while discussing the nahzat-e banovan. They looked at issues
that are also subject of this volume, like state policy and public debates
14 Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner
concerning hygiene and education, as well as propaganda and popular culture.
Camron Michael Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman: Gender,
State Policy, and Popular Culture, 1865–1946 (Gainesville: University Press of
Florida, 2002). Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet, Conceiving Citizens: Women and the
Politics of Motherhood in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
18 Cyrus Schayegh, “‘Seeing Like a State’: An Essay on the Historiography of
Modern Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010), pp. 37–61.
19 See Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam’s contribution in the present volume, Chapter 6.
20 See the contribution by Christl Catanzaro in this volume, Chapter 2.
21 Talinn Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’: The Early Pahlavi Modernists and
Their Society for National Heritage,” Iranian Studies 37:1 (2004), pp. 17–46.
Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, “Historiography and Crafting Iranian National
Identity,” in Iran in the 20th Century, ed. Atabaki, p. 5.
22 See the contributions by Roxane Haag-Higuchi and Christl Catanzaro, Chapters
1 and 2 respectively.
23 See the contributions by Keivan Aghamohseni and Houchang Chehabi, Chapters
4 and 3.
24 See the contributions by Roja Dehdarian and Christoph Werner, Chapters 10 and 9.
25 See the contributions by Keivan Aghamohseni and Bianca Devos, Chapters 4 and 12.
26 See the contribution by Talinn Grigor, Chapter 5.
27 See the contributions by Houchang Chehabi and Roxane Haag-Higuchi,
Chapters 3 and 1.
28 See the contribution by Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam, Chapter 6.
29 See the contributions by Elham Malekzadeh, Houchang Chehabi, and Bianca
Devos, Chapters 11, 3, and 12.
30 See for example Roja Dehdarian’s and Roman Siebertz’s contributions, Chapters
10 and 7.
31 See the contributions by Talinn Grigor and Roja Dehdarian, Chapters 5 and 10.
32 See the contributions by Keivan Aghamohseni, Talinn Grigor, Christoph Werner,
Bianca Devos, and Katja Föllmer: Chapters 4, 5, 9, 12, and 13.
33 Cronin, Soldiers, Shahs and Subalterns, p. 6.
34 This decade has been neglected also in other fields, since research on Pahlavi Iran has
focused on the initial stage of Reza Shah’s reign. See, for example, Ghani, Iran and the
Rise of Reza Shah; Nikki Keddie, Qajar Iran and the Rise of Reza Khan: 1796–1925
(Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1999), and Homa Katouzian, State and Society in Iran:
The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis (London: Tauris, 2000).
35 By investigating the murder of the American consul Imbrie, Michael Zirinsky
provides a valuable insight into the consolidation process of Reza Pahlavi’s power
in the first half of the 1920s. Michael P. Zirinsky, “Blood, Power, and Hypocrisy:
The Murder of Robert Imbrie and American Relations with Pahlavi Iran, 1924,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies 18:3 (1986), pp. 275–92.
36 Bianca Devos, Kleidungspolitik in Iran: Die Durchsetzung der Kleidungsvorschriften
.
für Männer unter Riza- Ša-h (Würzburg: Ergon, 2006).
37 Several of these changes had a lasting impact on Iran’s social and cultural life.
Therefore, other alternative periodizations, which take the years following Reza
Pahlavi’s abdication into account, are conceivable and make sense for judging the
effects of cultural policy from a larger perspective, like the one proposed by Amin
for describing the women’s movement. Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian
Woman, p. 5. Since this volume focuses on the practical implementation of cultural
politics under Reza Shah and the symbiosis between the state and other agents of
modernization, most contributions adhere to a conventional periodization
regarding the end of the early Pahlavi era.
38 For Teymurtash’s role in press censorship see Soleimani’s contribution in the
present volume, Chapter 8.
Introduction 15
39 Once the Farhangestan started a national campaign for the purification and
standardization of the Persian language, it made an important contribution to
Iran’s cultural modernization. Even if the language policy is a recurrent issue in
several chapters of this volume, unfortunately, a special chapter dedicated exclusively
to this topic could not be included. For an assessment of the Farhangestan’s suc-
cess see Ludwig Paul, “Iranian Language Reform in the Twentieth Century: Did
the First Farhangesta-n (1935–40) Succeed?,” Journal of Persianate Studies 3
(2010), pp. 78–103.
40 Among the challenges in preparing the present volume was the question of how
to translate the myriad of organizations, councils, offices, and administrative units
established and active during the early Pahlavi period. Only some of them
became known abroad under their official, usually French terms, from diplomatic
or governmental publications. In modern research, there is an often bewildering
variety of options. At one point we decided against unifying all terms; we made
sure, however, that the original Persian expressions would always be included.
The Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar is indeed one of the more tricky organizations
to translate.
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
Part I
Intellectuals and technocrats
Key figures in Iran’s cultural
modernization
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
1 Modernization in literary history
Malek al-Sho‘ara Bahar’s Stylistics
Roxane Haag-Higuchi
The educational politics of the early Pahlavi period are generally conceived of
as an integral and pivotal part of Reza Shah’s “revolution from above,” which
was to change Iran swiftly into a modern centralized nation-state. Within this
context, the foundation of Tehran University (officially inaugurated in 1934)
is certainly an enormous landmark. This university, which has been the most
influential institution of higher learning in Iran up to the present day, is
positioned as a standard bearer of modernized education and as a pioneer in
the teaching of modern ways. Research has highlighted the circumstances of
its founding: its institutional aspects, political impact, the persons involved,
and the subjects taught. The publications that deal with the foundation of this
university concentrate on the institutional, as well as on the social aspect of
cultural modernization.1 In this context, we learn about which disciplines
were implemented in the new institution, about the teachers and professors,
and about the social background of its students, but little is known about
what was taught in its classes, what the professors actually talked about in
front of their students.
As far as I know, there is only one curricular text pertaining to the found-
ing period of Tehran University that has been available on the common book
market ever since: Mohammad Taqi Malek al-Sho‘ara Bahar’s three-volume
literary history, which has become known under the title of Sabk-shenasi
(Stylistics).2 In 1937, the Minister of Culture, ‘Ali Asghar Hekmat,3 commis-
sioned a textbook for the newly established Ph.D. course on Persian literature
from Bahar, who at that time taught literature classes at Tehran University.
Bahar took on the task and wrote Sabk-shenasi, the three volumes of which
were not published until 1942 and 1947 and therefore do not, strictly speaking,
belong to the Reza Shah period. But as the work was the outcome of Bahar’s
lifelong reflections on literature and literary history, which he had previously
published separately in various articles, we can safely assume that Sabk-shenasi
is a product of the early Pahlavi period.
The complete title of the work Sabk-shenasi ya tarikh-e tatavvor-e nasr-e
farsi: bara-yi tadris dar daneshkadeh va dowreh-ye doktori-ye adabiyat is
threefold: the first part, Sabk-shenasi (Stylistics), refers to the basic theoretical
concept underlying Bahar’s study. The second part, Tarikh-e tatavvor-e nasr-e
20 Roxane Haag-Higuchi
farsi (The history of the evolution of Persian prose), offers an alternative
theoretical approach; whereas the third part refers to the work’s institutional
function: Bara-ye tadris dar daneshkadeh va dowreh-ye doktori-e adabiyat
(A textbook for the Faculty of Literature and its doctoral course).
The genesis of the work implies that it has to be read critically both as a
programmatic text for the imagined community of the Iranian nation and as a
basic text for the implementation of Persian literature as an academic discipline.
Wali Ahmadi regards Bahar’s work as crucial for the institutionalization of
Persian literature as a discipline and
contend[s] that the exemplary status of the text rests significantly on the
recognition of its particular disciplinary or institutional achievements.
[ … ] It is necessary, then, to situate and examine Sabk-shinasi precisely
within the context of a literary history bound to a national imaginary
order and the institutional politics of literary studies.4
It has become clear from the foregoing that the style of each author or
speaker reflects his view and perception of the outside world. And since
“everybody sees the world through the window of his own eyes,” we have
to create the same intellectual milieu (mohit-e ma‘navi) for ourselves when
we study his [a specific author’s] style.27
The actual factors effecting the alteration of words, are exactly the same
as those that bring about different species (in nature), namely development
(tahavvol), natural selection (entekhab-e tabiy‘i), struggle (tanazo‘) and
the survival of the fittest (baqa-ye ansab).32
Bahar does not reveal what made him strike on the idea of transferring
the evolutionary concept onto literary history. It had become a commonplace
by the period of the First Iranian Congress of Writers in 1946, when
“[e]ven the most traditionalist participants in the congress spoke of ‘the
evolution of literature’ and the ‘advances’ made in ‘the Soviet culture’.”33
We cannot assume that this discourse had already taken hold in the 1930s.
It is more likely that Bahar played a pivotal role in spreading it through his
academic lectures and Sabk-shenasi. His Soviet contemporary Jurij Tynianov
(d. 1943) had touched on the idea of literary evolution within the framework
of Russian formalist theory34 in the 1920s, but it is more than doubtful that
Bahar knew his work. Moreover, Tynianov’s study discussing the problem of
historical change in the synchronic approach of Russian formalism is rooted
in the strict framework of literary theory. By drawing on evolutionary theory
Bahar, however, tries to bring together all kinds of individual, social, historical,
cultural, linguistic, or literary influences on literature.
Bahar’s literary history Sabk-shenasi combines stylistics as an instrument of
synchronic analysis on the microtextual level of lexis and syntax with the theory
of evolution which merges the micro- and the macrotextual levels and provides
the diachronic quality. By bringing the two together, Bahar creates a dynamic
analytic framework for literary history and formulates a metatext which for the
first time drafts a logic for long-term developments in language and literature.
We consider literary reforms more practicable and more useful than the
negation of what exists and the affirmation of what is imaginary or the
invention of something, the durability and superiority of which [ … ] will
be warranted by a future milieu.42
Modernization in literary history 27
The milieu in turn is responsible for creating the conditions for people to
foster and “buy” literature. In this point, Bahar endorses solidly materialistic
views:
The Persian language is one of those languages that [ … ] rest for their
greater part buried under the ground. One part of it has been excavated,
another part has been unearthed to a certain extent; one part has been
damaged, another part has remained sound and beautiful in the depths of
the earth. These should be unearthed by virtue of expertise and learning
and the dust of oblivion and non-existence should be wiped off their
surface.50
The academy Farhangestan, the main body concerned with language planning,
was established in 1935 and can be regarded as the institutional culmination
of the idea of language “purification” and as an integral part of the Pahlavi
concept of nation building. The Farhangestan and Sabk-shenasi are comparable
both in terms of institutional linkage and of their focus on language. But
whereas the Farhangestan is generally perceived as an institution that advocates
Persification,53 Bahar’s position is not so easy to grasp.
Bahar’s analysis of changing stylistic preferences over the centuries relies
for the greatest part on the introduction and use of Arabic vocabulary in
Persian prose. The evolution from simple, fluent prose towards a complex,
Modernization in literary history 29
adorned style runs parallel to the quantity of Arabic words used in the texts –
in other words, “the establishing of the literary-aesthetic (versus referential)
function of Arabic in prose texts written in Persian.”54 Bahar draws up
painstaking statistics of how many Arabic words are used in Persian texts
during a given period of time. The amount of Arabic lexis and grammar in the
Persian sources forms Bahar’s main criterion for the construction of stylistic
epochs,55 an instance of heightened linguistic influence being tantamount to
the deterioration of the language as a whole. On the structural level of its
“plot,” Sabk-shenasi appears as “a study of the increasing (and increasingly
degenerate) Arabization of Persian prose” and its “history (or story) [ … ]
appears to have been one of unsullied pristine origins, lofty early elegance,
and increasing adulteration, corrosion, and decay.”56
Still, Bahar cannot be called a fighter for language purism and his set
of arguments is worth a more detailed consideration. As a true evolutionary
theorist, Bahar suggests that each and every cultural contact entails linguistic
blending. A language takes what it needs from the other and adapts these
elements to its own conditions: “The result of this kind of mixture is linguistic
wealth, abundance in speech, broad thinking, and competent speakers
who will be able to express the most varied meanings and intentions.”57 The
fittest, who will survive, are neither the most noble nor the purest, but rather
the ones able to adapt to new circumstances. According to Bahar, after the
Islamic conquest the Persian language was able to respond to Arabic influ-
ence in a creative way and was greatly enriched by it. Indeed, we find in
Bahar’s Sabk-shenasi many of the arguments that Bert Fragner put forward in
his Persophonie.58
The style [of the court poets] encouraged people to take up ancient Persian
words, and some of them began to prepare dictionaries. So they accu-
mulated ancient words in books, no matter whether they had understood
30 Roxane Haag-Higuchi
them or whether these words were correct or not. In order to augment
their books, they turned to Zand and Avesta and asked the Zoroastrians
for help. It is through them that constructed words found their way into
the dictionaries.60
Bahar certainly does not downplay the cultural and political achievements of
the Iranians in the centuries after the Islamic conquest, but he discusses the
question of the Iranian emancipation under Arab domination as an answer to
political suppression, not as a reaction to cultural difference and not as the
necessary result of cultural superiority. The question of “Iranian-ness” in
Bahar’s teachings, be it the emergence of independent governments on Iranian
soil or the endurance of the Persian language, is never linked to a “natural”
superiority, let alone to purity. As a true evolutionary theorist, he deals
prominently with the factor of mixtures which will yield cultural wealth.
Conclusion
Mohammad Taqi Bahar wrote one of the most enduring books of the early
Pahlavi period. Since it was commissioned for the newly established doctoral
course of Persian literature at Tehran University and conceptualized as a
textbook to teach Iranian literary history as an academic discipline to the
country’s future elite, one might expect Sabk-shenasi to reflect and substantiate
the official ideology. A text written for state purposes and on official demand
should corroborate the idea of a splendid imperial pre-Islamic history, a long
deterioration of the country’s real values and potential by the Islamic Arab
and enforced by subsequent Turkish and Turco-Mongol conquests. It should
further speak up for language “purification” and simplification. But Bahar’s
approach to Iranian history, literature, and language does not lend itself to a
simplistic construction of national identity along guidelines proposed by the
state of the first Pahlavi ruler.
In terms of history, he does not consider the Islamic conquest of Iran as a
major historical disruption but rather stresses aspects of continuity.70 The
emancipatory movement of the conquered peoples is not treated as a mile-
stone of national uprising but mainly as an intellectual movement. In terms of
Modernization in literary history 33
language and literary history, the influence of Arabic on Persian is the main
factor in the periodization but he does not opt for the de-Arabization of the
language. Language is first and foremost a means of communication within
society, and Bahar’s criticism is directed against a number of Arabic words in
Persian that make the language lose its communicative functions. He advocates
simplification in the service of comprehensibility, not ideological “purification”
for its own and nationalism’s sake.
The system of consecutively evolving, geographically defined periods of
style he established in literary history, like every system of classification, redraws
boundaries in perception.71 But it is this approach that turns Sabk-shenasi into
the first modern literary history: Bahar explicitly presents the analytical set of
instruments he applies to analyze and systemize the vast material – stylistics
and the theory of evolution – and he discusses the reasons for doing so. We
might criticize him for the vagueness of his analytical devices, but his choice of
device was guided by an inclination towards inclusive rather than reductionist
approaches.
Within the course of modernization in Iran, Bahar may be identified with
the narrator in Jamalzadeh’s short story Farsi shekar ast:
The type who, in this century, lost the game to Europeanist and traditionalist
alike: he is modern, but his grasp of European culture does not restrict a
realistic understanding of his own society and genuine sympathy for its
people.72
Notes
1 David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1992); Rudi Matthee, “Transforming Dangerous Nomads into
Useful Artisans, Technicians, Agriculturalists: Education in the Reza Shah Period,”
Iranian Studies 26: 3/4 (1993), pp. 313–36; Christl Catanzaro, “Zwischen Statussymbol
und Allheilmittel für alle sozialen Übel: zur Rolle der Universität Teheran beim
Aufbau der iranischen Nation,” Ph.D. dissertation (Bamberg: Bamberg University,
1999). See also the contribution by Christl Catanzaro in the present volume.
2 Mohammad Taqi Bahar (Malek al-Sho‘ara), Sabk-shenasi ya tarikh-e tatavvor-e
nasr-e farsi: bara-yi tadris dar daneshkadeh va dowreh-ye doktori-ye adabiyat, 3
vols. (Tehran: Ketabha-ye Parastu, 1321–26/1942–47; repr. 1349/1970).
3 He served as Minister of Culture from 1933–38.
4 Wali Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature and the Genealogy of Bahar’s
Stylistics,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 31 (2004), pp. 141–52: 142.
34 Roxane Haag-Higuchi
5 Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature,” p. 149.
6 Ibid.
7 This argument is elaborated by Matthew C. Smith in his article “Literary Con-
nections: Baha-r’s Sabkshena-si and the Ba-zgasht-e Adabi,” Journal of Persianate
Studies 2 (2009), pp. 194–209.
8 E.g. he is not accorded an extra chapter in Iraj Parsinejad, A History of Literary
Criticism in Iran (1866–1951): Literary Criticism in the Works of Enlightened
Thinkers of Iran: Akhundzadeh, Kermani, Malkom, Talebof, Maraghe’i, Kasravi
and Hedayat (Bethesda, MD: Ibex, 2003).
9 For a categorization of the major political tendencies that appeared after the
Constitutional Revolution see Homayoun Katouzian, “Nationalist Trends in
Iran, 1921–26,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979), pp. 541–47.
10 Katouzian, “Nationalist Trends,” p. 544.
11 Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature,” p. 142.
12 For Bahar’s biography cf. Michael B. Loraine and Jalal Matini, “Baha-r,
Moh.ammad Taqı- Malek al-Šo‘ara’,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 3 (1988),
pp. 476–79; Michael B. Loraine, “A Memoir on the Life and Poetical Works of
Maliku’l-Shu‘arâ Bahâr,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972),
pp. 140–68; see also the list of biographical data in Mohammad Golbon’s
“Sal-shomar-e Bahar,” in Bahar va adab-e farsi, ed. Mohammad Golbon, 2
vols (Tehran: Entesharat-e Elmi va Faranghi, 1382/2003), vol. 1, p. haft-sizdah.
13 Shahrokh Meskoob lists a number of prominent contemporaries who played a
role in the discourse of nationalism in his Iranian Nationality and the Persian
Language, 900–1900 (Washington DC: Mage, 1992), p. 34.
14 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, Tarikh-e mokhtasar-e ahzab-e siyasi-ye Iran, 2 vols
(Tehran: Sherhat-e Sahami-e Ketabhya-ye Jibi, 1323/1944).
15 Loraine, “A Memoir,” p. 141.
16 Ibid., p. 150.
17 Ibid.
18 Bozorg Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung der modernen persischen Literatur
(Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1964), p. 59.
19 “Bahar, der sicherlich selber der größte iranische Dichter der letzten Jahrhunderte
gewesen ist,” Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 30.
20 “ … bei einem Gefühlsmenschen wie Bahar, der sich an keine weltanschaulichen
Prinzipien hielt,” ibid., p. 59. “Im Grunde ist er fortschrittlich; aber er ist kein
Held,” ibid., p. 63.
21 Yahya Aryanpur, Az Saba ta Nima (Tehran: Entesharat-e Zavvar, 1372/1993),
vol. 2, p. 335.
22 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, Tarikh-e tatavvor-e she‘r-e farsi, ed. Taqi Binesh
(Mashhad, n.p., 1334/1955); cf. Loraine/Matini, “Baha-r,” p. 478.
23 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. yb.
24 See Julia Rubanovich’s most instructive article “Literary Canon and Patterns of
Evaluation in Persian Prose on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion,” Studia Iranica
32 (2003), pp. 47–76.
25 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, pp. d and h.
26 We witness the same perception of style in Europe in early modern times, e.g. in
the Earl of Buffon’s dictum “Le style c’est l’homme mème” (1753), cf. Bernhard
Sowinski, Stilistik (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1991), p. 20.
27 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. v.
28 Ibid., p. z.
29 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “Enteqadat dar atraf-e maram-e ma,” Majalleh-ye
Daneshkadeh 2 (1297/1918), pp. 115–24, reprinted in Bahar va adab-e farsi, ed.
Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 389–94: 394.
30 Bahar, “Enteqadat dar atraf-e maram-e ma,” p. 394.
Modernization in literary history 35
31 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. 174. I am greatly indebted to Professor Werner
Ende, who solved the riddle of Bahar’s BWKNR for me and kindly provided all the
relevant information. Ludwig [“Louis”] Büchner was a brother of the famous play-
wright Georg Büchner. Ludwig Büchner’s works were translated into Arabic by
Shibli-Shumayyil. Cf. my article “Der Dichterkönig und die Literaturgeschichte:
Betrachtungen zu einem dynamischen Konzept,” in Iran und iranisch geprägte
Kulturen: Studien zum 65. Geburtstag von Bert G. Fragner, ed. Markus Ritter, Ralph
Kauz and Birgitt Hoffmann (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2008), pp. 198–209: 204, n. 26.
32 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. 176.
33 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak, “Nima Yushij: A Life,” in Essays on Nima Yushij, ed.
A. Karimi-Hakkak and K. Talattof (Leiden: Brill, 2004), pp. 11–68: 60.
34 The respective article was written in 1927, cf. Jurij Tynjanov, “Über literarische
Evolution,” in Jurij Tynjanov, Die literarischen Kunstmittel und die Evolution in
der Literatur (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1967), pp. 37–60.
35 Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature,” p. 145.
36 For the effect of the Bazgasht construct on the assessment of Persian poetry and
literary history cf. Paul E. Losensky, Welcoming Figha-nı-. Imitation and Poetic
Individuality in the Safavid-Mughal Ghazal (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1998),
pp. 50–52; for a telling example of the reasoning of a Bazgasht literary historian
cf. the passage cited from Riza Quli Khan’s Majma’ al-fosaha, ibid, p. 50f.
37 Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature,” p. 151.
38 Rubanovich, “Literary Canon and Patterns of Evaluation,” pp. 47–49.
39 Cf. Ahmad Golchin Ma‘ani, Tarikh-e tazkereh-ha-ye farsi (Tehran: Ketabkhaneh-ye
Sana’i 1363/1984), vol. 1, pp. 60–67.
40 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “Ta’sir-e mohit dar adabiyat,” Majalleh-ye Daneshkadeh
4 (1297/1918), pp. 171–78, and 5 (1297/1918), pp. 227–35, reprinted in Bahar va
adab-e farsi, ed. Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 395–405: 399.
41 For the debate between the journals Daneshkadeh (edited by Bahar) and Tajaddod
(edited by Taqi Raf‘at) on poetic modernity see Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak,
Recasting Persian Poetry: Scenarios of Poetic Modernity in Iran (Salt Lake City:
University of Utah Press, 1995), pp. 104–36.
42 Bahar, “Enteqadat dar atraf-e maram-e ma,” p. 389.
43 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “‘Elm dar ‘ahd-e Moghol,” Majalleh-ye Bakhtar 1,
no. 3 (Bahman 1312; January–Febuary 1934), pp. 119–25, reprinted in Bahar va
adab-e farsi, ed. Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 32–39: 38.
44 Karimi-Hakkak, Recasting Persian Poetry, p. 117.
45 Rubanovich, “Literary Canon and Patterns of Evaluation,” p. 58.
46 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “Ta‘lim-e zaban-e farsi va ketab-ha-yi ke lazem darad,”
Majalleh-ye ta‘lim va tarbiyat 7, nos 3–4 (Shahrivar 1317/August–September 1938),
pp. 1–8; reprinted in Bahar va adab-e farsi, ed. Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 407–13: 410.
47 Cf. Mohammad Ali Jazayery, “The Modernization of Persian Vocabulary and
Language Reform in Iran,” in Language Reform: History and Future, ed. István
Fodor and Claude Hagège, 6 vols. (Hamburg 1983–94), vol. 2 (1983), pp. 241–67.
48 Bahar, “Ta‘lim-e zaban-e farsi,” p. 410. He set a good example by editing the
chronicles Tarikh-e Sistan (5th/11th century; ed. 1314/1935) and Mojmal al-tavarikh
va-l-qesas (6th/12th century, ed. 1318/1939).
49 Bahar, “Ta‘lim-e zaban-e farsi,” p. 410.
50 Ibid., p. 407.
51 Ibid., p. 408.
52 Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, “Historiography and Crafting Iranian National
Identity,” in Iran in the 20th Century: Historiography and Political Culture, ed.
Touraj Atabaki (London: Tauris, 2009), pp. 5–21: 6.
53 Ludwig Paul, “Iranian Language Reform in the Twentieth Century: Did the First
Farhangesta-n (1935–40) Succeed?” Journal of Persianate Studies 3 (2010), pp. 78–103.
36 Roxane Haag-Higuchi
54 Rubanovich, “Literary Canon and Patterns of Evaluation,” p. 50.
55 E.g. Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 2, pp. 7–8.
56 Ahmadi, “The Institution of Persian Literature,” p. 146.
57 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. 252.
58 Bert G. Fragner, Die “Persophonie”: Regionalität, Identität und Sprachkontakt in
der Geschichte Asiens (Berlin: Das Arabische Buch, 1999).
59 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. 274.
60 Ibid., vol. 1, p. 172.
61 Rubanovich, “Literary Canon and Patterns of Evaluation,” pp. 50–58, in her
discussion of Shams-e Qeys’ al-Mu‘jam fi ma‘ayir ash‘ar al-‘ajam (compiled 630/
1232–33) and Baha al-Din Baghdadi’s al-Tavassul ila l-tarassul (compiled late
6th–12th century).
62 Cf. Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “Gerd-avardan-e loghat-e farsi,” Majalleh-ye ta‘lim
va tarbiyat 8, nos 5 and 6; 9, nos 7 and 8, pp. 9–12 (1317–18/1938–39), reprinted
in Bahar va adab-e farsi, ed. Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 413–24: 414.
63 Bahar, “Gerd-avardan-e loghat-e farsi,” pp. 415–16.
64 Ahmad Ashraf, “Iranian Identity. III Medieval Islamic Period,” Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 13 (2006), pp. 507–22, with references for the nationalistic inter-
pretation of the movement and the controversial discussion of this view; cf.
Fragner, Die “Persophonie,” pp. 16–18.
65 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, “Sho‘ubiyeh,” Tufan-e haftegi 5 (25 Esfand 1306/März
1928), pp. 1–2, reprinted in Bahar va adab-e farsi, ed. Golbon, vol. 2, pp. 1–6.
66 Ibid., p. 3.
67 Ibid.
68 Bahar, Sabk-shenasi, vol. 1, p. 149.
69 Ibid., p. 150.
70 Ibid., pp. 142–43.
71 Cf. Smith, “Literary Connections,” p. 200.
72 Homa Katouzian, Sadeq Hedayat: The Life and Legend of an Iranian Writer
(London: Tauris, 1991), p. 9.
2 Policy or puzzle?
The foundation of the University of
Tehran between ideal conception and
pragmatic realization
Christl Catanzaro
“The night in which the university was born” is the title of a chapter in ‘Ali
Asghar Hekmat’s memoirs where he claims that it was he who had the idea of
establishing the first modern and western style university in Iran in February
1934, only one year before the official inauguration of the University of
Tehran.1 In reality many others had come up with the same idea before him,
and some Iranians, statesmen as well as private individuals, had already taken
the first steps towards its implementation. But did a master plan for the
transformation of the existing institutions of higher education into the Uni-
versity of Tehran exist, including its extension and consolidation? In order to
answer this question the first part of this article follows the steps towards the
creation of the University of Tehran chronologically, focussing on the ideas,
concepts, and contributions of two Iranian statesmen who played pivotal roles
in its formation. The first significant player was ‘Isa Sadiq who had written
his doctoral thesis on “Modern Persia and her Educational System” at
Columbia University in 1931. Upon his return to Iran at the end of the same
year, he was employed to prepare the first draft of the university law and
appointed head of the Teachers’ College which was to become the nucleus of
the new university. The second figure was the minister of education,2 ‘Ali
Asghar Hekmat, who supervised the legislative process and presided over the
official inauguration ceremony in 1935. Analysis of the contributions made by
these two statesmen will be followed by discussion of the role played by Reza
Shah and his motives. By looking at the actual implementation of the University
of Tehran the second part of the article aims at contextualizing some character-
istics of the modernization of the educational system that were paradigmatic for
the modernization process as a whole during the era of Reza Shah.
The committee
In order to discuss the draft for the foundation of the university that Sadiq had
submitted in November 1932 to the then minister of education, a committee was
convened. Hekmat and Sadiq provide different versions of the composition of
this committee: apart from himself and Mohammad ‘Ali Gorgani, the director
of the state’s Department of Retirement (Edareh-ye Taqa‘od), who is also
mentioned by Hekmat, Sadiq lists four members whom he introduces exclu-
sively as instructors at the Teachers College: Gholamhoseyn Rahnama, ‘Ali
Akbar Siyasi, Rezazadeh Shafaq, and Mahmud Hesabi. According to
Hekmat, Siyasi was admitted to the committee in his capacity as head of the
bureau of higher education at the Ministry of Education, a position he was
appointed to only in November/December 1933, i.e. after the committee had
been set up. Hesabi is not named in Hekmat’s records;22 however, he includes
five members not mentioned by Sadiq: the director of the College of Law ‘Ali
Akbar Dehkhoda, two physicians holding doctoral degrees from French uni-
versities, and two members whom he subsumes under the rubric of traditional
Islamic education, i.e. instructors who had not acquired any western educa-
tion and taught at the Madreseh-ye Sepahsalar. Hekmat himself was not a
permanent member of the committee but attended its meetings by virtue of
his office whenever he was able to.
Detailed information on the timeframe of the committee as well as on the
issues of discussion is not available. Hekmat speaks of numerous meetings,
Sadiq refers to only three or four.23 Hekmat states that the assembled gentle-
men worked out a detailed plan through an open exchange of views and joint
consultation, Sadiq asserts that his draft was modified only insignificantly.24
Policy or puzzle? 43
The Majles debates
On 13 March 1934 Hekmat, in his capacity as minister of education, pre-
sented the committee’s revised draft to the Majles. He praised the fortunate
era which had already answered so many of their wishes. Now the time had
come to grace it with a university. Having obtained the permission and
backing of the shah he asked the deputies to consent to this “blessed idea”
(fekr-e moqaddas) so that the Ministry of Education could arrange as soon as
possible for the necessary preparations.25
Exactly two months later, on 13 May 1934, the first reading of the draft
took place. Most of the speakers praised the government, above all the prime
minister and the minister of education, and agreed in principle with the
founding of a university. Only one serious argument against the establishment
of a university was brought forward: Iran was still not adequately endowed
with institutions of primary and secondary education and since the Ministry
of Education had not enough money to advance both projects simultaneously,
the foundation of a university should be postponed. Interestingly enough,
nobody was troubled by the incompatibility of primary, secondary, and higher
education itself, only the financial aspect was taken into account. After the general
discussion of the draft, its 21 articles were read and discussed in parts.26
The second reading of the draft took place three sessions later, on 29 May
1934. The minutes of this session comprise 14 machine-typed, double-columned
pages. The deputies were eager to express their opinions, but despite the fact
that the articles were discussed controversially and passionately, all of them – with
the exception of one minor linguistic modification – were approved in their
original form and at the end the bill was passed with 88 out of 94 votes. The
first article of the law authorized the minister of education to establish an
institution of higher education in the fields of science, engineering, literature,
and philosophy by the name of university (daneshgah) in Tehran. The fol-
lowing articles laid out rules for the organization of the university in six
faculties, its administration by a rector, a senate, and faculty councils, its
autonomy and budget, as well as the ranks, the conditions of employment,
and the salaries of the teaching staff.27
Nationalization of education
In 1811 the Iranian government had started efforts to create an educated
national elite by sending students to Europe. Soon they had to recognize that
these measures were not sufficient to meet the growing need for specialized
personnel. Furthermore some of the students did not return or – even worse –
returned with ideas that were condemnable in the eyes of the ruling elites.
Thus, to realize the dream of a renaissance of the nation and a self-reliant
and self-sufficient Iran, the influence of foreigners was to be curtailed as far as
44 Christl Catanzaro
possible.28 The Dar al-Fonun was founded in 1851 and the new institutions of
higher education were to play a prominent role in this process: they should be
responsible for training a new generation of not only domestic, but also
domestically instructed specialists.
In addition to the secularization of the educational system this nationalistic
element was obviously the main reason why Reza Shah gave his consent to
the establishment of the university – Reza Shah, who originated from a very
ordinary family, had himself had only a very modest education and is alleged
to have detested intellectuals.29 I do not believe that the education of the
people – as Hekmat had put it in his words of thanks after the ratification
of the law by the Majles – was really as close to Reza Shah’s heart as the
education of his own children. But there is no doubt that he approved of
higher education in Iran – as Hekmat continued to state – because students
abroad did not receive a “national” education (tahsil-e melli).30 On several
occasions the shah and his heir emphasized that patriotism is the highest
precept and service to the country the foremost duty of the new university
graduates.31 The shah seems to have understood instinctively that education
was not only an important basis for economic development, but also a basic
component of nation building.32 He also realized that he needed the western-
educated specialists (whom he otherwise feared and fought as sources of for-
eign influence and possible dissidents or spies) together with the graduates
from the new University of Tehran in order to implement the measures of
modernization that served the nation’s independence.33
The circumstances of his takeover had shown clearly the importance of the
nationalist criterion for the legitimacy of Reza Shah’s rule.34 After the over-
throw of Sepahdar’s government he had promised to lead Iran into national
independence and to undertake reforms which would put an end to foreign
interference in Iran.35 Reza Shah was the strong man many had waited for,
the one who established order and bestowed new self-esteem on the country,
necessary to accomplish the reforms many had hoped for for a long time. In
his draft Sadiq had identified the education of future national leaders as the
most important task of the university.36 In the Majles debate many deputies
noticed with particular satisfaction that in future there would be no need to
send students abroad, which would make the country more independent.37
The vice dean of the Faculty of Medicine stressed that the moral and mental
education of the students had to be the primary target of the university so
that they would become scholars loyal to the shah, loving their country, and
conscious of their duty towards society.38 After decades of anarchism and
civil war many statesmen favored a strong government which could restore
the nation’s grandeur as the solution to Iran’s problems.39 A large amount of
national pride united academics and politicians, intellectuals and pragmatists
and caused them to collaborate with a shah who in many respects may not
have corresponded with their ideals of liberty and democracy.40 Men like
Firuz Mirza Nosrat al-Dowleh, ‘Ali Akbar Davar and ‘Abdolhoseyn
Teymurtash, who were educated in the West and had an unshakable belief in
Policy or puzzle? 45
westernization, finally fell victim to the power that they had helped to establish
themselves.41
Highest authority
Although Reza Shah had at least two good reasons for supporting the estab-
lishment of a university, he hardly ever took the initiative himself, but only
approved the projects suggested to him. Needless to say, without his consent
it would have been impossible to establish a university;43 but his active con-
tribution to the project appears to have been extremely small. Neither in
Sadiq’s nor in Hekmat’s initiative can one detect a substantial input or distinct
involvement from the shah, although both of them sang the shah’s praises.
This praise was due to the politician who with his drastic measures had provided
law and order and guaranteed the necessary conditions for the implementa-
tion of their desired projects. After having given his general consent to the
university’s foundation, Reza Shah rarely intervened in its affairs.44 It was
pure coincidence that he was the one to choose the terrain for the university’s
new buildings, although the Council of Ministers had already passed a different
resolution.
That Reza Shah himself laid the foundation stone of the university should
not be taken as an expression of special interest, but rather compliance with
the principle of highest authority. Whenever in Iran an inauguration took
place, the shah had to affix his “golden label” to it – a principle which is still
valid today, although the authorities and labels have changed. Stories such as
the following are part of a hoard of anecdotes which surrounded Reza Shah;
it is not important whether they are true or not, but only that they obviously
were accepted unquestioned and passed on as part of the ruler’s image.
Hekmat reports that the laying of the foundation stone was almost cancelled
46 Christl Catanzaro
due to bad weather. The day before, heavy rain had rendered the ground a
sludge pit. The minister of education anxiously inquired whether the shah
intended to pay his visit under these circumstances and received the answer
that he would even come if stones were falling from the sky.45
The inauguration
The building operations began in April 1934; in January 1935 the first building
was completed. On 4 February 1935 the shah visited the new building and
affixed a commemorative plaque, an act of state in the presence of many
high-ranking officials and statesmen which is commonly interpreted as the
inauguration of the university. The ex-prime minister and educationalist
Mehdi Qoli Hedayat, who was present at the ceremony, is said to have com-
pared the historical importance of this event with the beginning of the railway
construction in Iran and to have thanked God for the ability to see this day.46
In reality, the foundation of the University of Tehran was not the creation of
a completely new institution, but merely the merging of five pre-existing
institutions with the newly established Faculty of Engineering under a
common administration.47 These already existing institutions were: the
College of Law (established 1919 and merged with the College of Political
Science, founded in 1899), which became the Faculty of Law and Political
Science; the Faculty of Medicine (launched in 1918); the Faculty of Letters
and the Faculty of Science, which had evolved out of the Teachers College
(established in 1929); and the Faculty of Islamic Studies, which by some is
regarded as a new creation,48 but, to my mind, should be considered as a
continuation of the Madreseh-ye Sepahsalar, which had been placed under
the control of the Ministry of Education in 1931 and was gradually reshaped
into a modern institution of higher education.49
The enrollment for the first academic year had already taken place
in September 1934 and teaching officially started in November when the
university campus was still a huge construction site. Courses were taught in
the locations of the former institutions of higher education which now
had become part of the university. In the academic year 1936/37 still not a
single faculty had moved into the new campus.50 Since the construction work
continued very slowly it took years before the faculties moved in, one after
the other. The modern institutions of higher education which had existed
for up to 30 years continued for quite a while to preserve a life of their own
under the common roof of the university.
Conclusion
The success of any idea in the early Pahlavi period was highly dependent on
the support of influential statesmen with direct contact to the shah, whereas
the shah himself quite often did not play an active role. It was not the intel-
lectual reformers who drew up unrealistic concepts of how the educational
system should look, but rather the pragmatists already engaged in educational
institutions who were the motor behind the spread of western-style education
and the foundation of the University of Tehran. The foundation of the uni-
versity, if seen from this perspective, was not a turning point; it was neither
the end nor the beginning of a development, but a mere confirmation of the
actual situation at that particular moment in the long course of a develop-
ment which had begun with the establishment of the Dar al-Fonun in 1851
and still continues.60 What seems important to me is to stress that the fre-
quently made assertion that the University of Tehran was exclusively based
on a French model is not true.61 As a matter of fact, it was not based on one
single coherent model, neither the French, nor the American, nor any other
pre-existing one. As a result, a conscious and consistent transfer of knowledge
from western models did not take place and the introduction of modern
education in Iran did not follow a master plan, but was a colourful puzzle
of many, simultaneous and sometimes contradictory actions by individuals
producing singular pieces of a big puzzle mostly not yet fitting together
coherently.
Notes
1 ‘Ali Asghar Hekmat, Si khatereh az ‘asr-e farkhondeh-ye Pahlavi (Tehran:
Sazman-e Entesharat-e Vahid, 2535/1976), p. 333.
2 The minister and ministry responsible for educational issues are referred to as
“minister of education” and “Ministry of Education” respectively throughout this
article, although the names and responsibilities of the ministry changed several
50 Christl Catanzaro
times. The major Persian equivalents are Vezarat-e ‘olum, Vezarat-e ma‘aref va
owqaf va sanaye‘-e mostazrefe, and Vezarat-e amuzesh-o parvaresh.
3 For a detailed discussion see David Menashri, Education and the Making of
Modern Iran (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 27–45; Afshin
Marashi, Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power and the State, 1870–1940 (Seattle:
Washington University Press, 2008), pp. 86–109.
4 The same is true for most editors and authors of newspapers from the Mashrutiyat
period who called for the awakening of the people, but did not contribute
themselves to this objective: Christl Catanzaro, “Leserbriefe in Su-r-e Esrafil und
Ru-h ul-Qods als Forum des Informationsaustausches für die Intelligenzija der
Mašru-tiyat-Zeit,” in Presse und Öffentlichkeit im Nahen Osten, ed. Christoph
Herzog, Raoul Motika, and Anja Pistor-Hatam (Heidelberg: Heidelberger
Orientverlag, 1995), pp. 15–22.
5 Usually the Dar al-Fonun is taken as the earliest example. It should be referred to
as either a “polytechnic school” (Arasteh, p. 327), “polytechnic college” (Gurney/
Nabavi, p. 662) or “Academy of Applied Sciences” (Ringer, p. 67) rather than a
university: see Reza Arasteh, “The Growth of Higher Institutions in Iran,”
International Review of Education 7.3 (1961), pp. 327–34; John Gurney and Negin
Nabavi, “Dar al-Fonun,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 6 (1993), pp. 662–68;
Monica M. Ringer, Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in
Qajar Iran (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2001), pp. 67–108. However, the debate
over whether or not and to what degree the Dar al-Fonun was an institution of
higher education is not relevant in this context.
6 According to Menashri, Education, p. 144, n. 4, this discussion is to be found in
Mozakerat-e Majles, Dowreh-ye haftom-e taqniniyeh. Unfortunately, the page he
indicates (4386) does not exist and I have not been able to locate the passage
elsewhere in the records of parliamentary debates, although the Mozakerat-e
Majles are now online at the site of the Ketabkhaneh, Muzeh va Markaz-e Asnad-e
Majles-e Shura-ye Melli at http://www.ical.ir. Professor Mansureh Ettehadiyeh
(Tehran) confirmed this information, but unfortunately the bibliographical refer-
ence she provided, an article by Changiz Pahlavan in the journal Agah, could not
be identified either. Matthee recounts that in 1918, according to the Archives du
Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (Asie, Perse 65, 2), “a number of prominent
figures in Iranian education discussed the idea of setting up a university along
French lines” without giving further details. He adds that “nothing was heard of
any further planning until 1925”; see Matthee, “Transforming Dangerous
Nomads into Useful Artisans,” p. 320.
7 ‘Isa Sadiq, Yek sal dar Amrika (Tehran: Ketabkhaneh-ye Tehran, 1311/1932; 2nd
edition 1321/1942). A summary of this book can also be found with the same title
in the first chapter of the second volume of his memoirs: ‘Isa Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr:
khaterati az sargozasht (Tehran: Dekhoda Institute, 1354/1975), vol. 2, pp. 1–29.
8 ‘Isa Sadiq, Modern Persia and Her Educational System, no. 14, Studies of the
International Institute of Teachers College (New York: Columbia University,
1931), pp. 90–123.
9 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, pp. 84–92.
10 Sadiq claims in his memoirs that he was charged with the mission to transform
the Teachers College into the nucleus of the university by the minister of education
Qaragozlu, ibid., p. 92. For more detailed information on Sadiq’s role as educational
reformer, see Felix Waltermann, “Die Modernisierung des Erziehungswesens von
Iran nach den Memoiren des Erziehungspolitikers Îsâ S.adîq,” M.A. thesis (Freiburg:
University of Freiburg, 1998); also Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet,
Religion and Politics in Iran (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000), pp. 54–67.
Whereas Waltermann’s study is based on written sources and interviews with
Mirkamal Nabipour, Sadiq’s son Anushirvan Sadiq provided Mottahedeh with
Policy or puzzle? 51
additional material about his father not to be found in the printed sources on
Sadiq.
11 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, pp. 172–77.
12 Actually, during his first term in charge of the Ministry of Education, Hekmat
was only designated as kafil, i.e. interim minister; without a minister being appoin-
ted, he acted with full authority, see Ahmad ‘Abdollahpur, Nakhost-vaziran-e Iran
(Tehran: ‘Elmi, 1369/1990), p. 161.
13 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, pp. 177–79.
14 For example, in the entry “Hekmat, ‘Ali-As.g-ar” in the Encyclopaedia Iranica
(authored by EIr with an initial contribution by Abbas Milani), vol. 12 (2004),
pp. 145–49) Hekmat is introduced as the “chief architect of the modernization of
the educational system” (p. 145); whereas ‘Isa Sadiq until now has had no entry
of his own, but is mentioned as only one among many other educational refor-
mers and cited with reference to his memoirs as well as his articles and books on
education: see “Education xix. Teachers’-Training Colleges,” by Majd-al-Din
Keyvani, in Encylopaedia Iranica, vol. 8 (1998), pp. 221–23; and “Faculties of
the University of Tehran iv. Faculty of Letters and Humanities,” by Ahmad
Tafazzoli, in Encylopaedia Iranica, vol. 9 (1999), pp. 140–56. Mottahedeh, The
Mantle of the Prophet, pp. 54–67 draws a very positive picture of Sadiq and
praises him as the most important authority on Iran’s modern educational
system.
15 Hekmat, Si khatereh, pp. 333–34.
16 The personal rivalry between Sadiq and Hekmat has not been mentioned in any
written sources at my disposal, but was referred to by several persons interviewed
for my dissertation. I would like to express my special thanks to Ahmad Birashk,
the only contemporary witness I interviewed who had come to know both
Hekmat and Sadiq, not only as teachers, but also as colleagues. Menashri, who
had the opportunity to interview Sadiq, reports that his relationship with Hekmat
was tense, see Education, p. 146.
17 The heading of the chapter is “shabi ke daneshgah motevalled shod,” Hekmat, Si
khatereh, p. 333.
18 Ibid., p. 96.
19 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, pp. 83–152.
20 Ibid., pp. 172–86.
21 Ibid., pp. 179–80.
22 Hesabi had formed the science department of the Teachers College in 1928, he
was the first dean of the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Tehran and he
supervised the establishment of the Faculty of Engineering: see Hessamaddin
Arfaei and Fariborz Majidi, “H -
. esabi, Mahmud,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol.
12 (2004), p. 302. His particular role in the foundation of the University of
Tehran has not yet been studied in detail, but it certainly was much more
important than the memoirs of Hekmat and Sadiq suggest.
23 Hekmat, Si khatereh, pp. 353–55; Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, p. 180.
24 Hekmat, Si khatereh, pp. 356; Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, p. 180–81.
25 See the parliamentary records of the 72nd session of the 9th legislative period, 22
Esfand 1312, Mozakerat-e majles: dowreh-ye nohom-i taqniniyeh, pp. 1071–72.
26 See the parliamentary records of the 82nd session of the 9th legislative period, 23
Ordibehesht 1313, Mozakerat-e majles: dowreh-ye nohom-i taqniniyeh, pp. 1171–84.
27 See the parliamentary records of the 85th session of the 9th legislative period, 8
Khordad 1313, Mozakerat-e majles: dowreh-ye nohom-i taqniniyeh, pp. 1211–25.
Menashri argues that the Majles approved only 10 of the 21 articles and that the
bill was not passed as a whole, see Education, p. 146. This argument is obviously
due to the fact that he – as he states himself in note 12 – read only pages 1211–16
of the minutes. After the discussion of article 10 a short interruption of the
52 Christl Catanzaro
session has been recorded (item 4), then the discussion of the draft continued
(item 5, still on page 1216).
28 Ringer, Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform, p. 71 recounts
that at the time of the founding of the Dar al-Fonun its main promoter, Amir
Kabir, was also “concerned about the dangerous political and perhaps cultural
impact that study in Europe had on students sent abroad.” Deringil states that at
the end of the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire, too, tried to prevent the
younger generation from studying abroad in order to “prevent the spread of
‘harmful’ ideologies”: see Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains (London:
Tauris, 1999), p. 97.
29 Thus at least the classical narrative, see Nikki Keddie and Mehrdad Amanat,
“Iran under the Later Qajars, 1848–1922,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, ed.
Peter Avery, Gavin R. G. Hambly, and Charles Peter Melville (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1991), vol. 7, p. 211; and Gavin R. G. Hambly,
“The Pahlavi Autocracy: Riza Shah 1921–41,” in The Cambridge History of Iran,
vol. 7, p. 232.
30 Mozakerat-e majles: dowreh-ye nohom-i taqniniyeh, p. 1225.
31 For example on the occasion of the heir’s visit to the Faculty of Law, 31
December 1936: Rahnama-ye Daneshgah-e Tehran (1318–19/1939–40), chapter VII:
1v, 2v, and 3r.
32 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran dedicates a whole chapter to the role of education in
the process of nation building, see chapter 3: “The Pedagogic State: Education
and Nationalism under Reza Shah,” pp. 86–109. In carrying out the project “to
construct an official nationalism [ … ] the Pahlavi state presented itself as the
embodiment of national culture, the bearer of a common authenticity shared by
state and society. [ … ] The state thus became the vanguard of national
authenticity, and society in turn was seen to need the moralizing leadership of a
pedagogic state,” p. 88.
33 Hambly, “The Pahlavi Autocracy,” p. 232. Joseph S. Szyliowicz, Education and
Modernization in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973), p. 2.
34 Leonard Binder, Iran: Political Development in a Changing Society (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1962), pp. 76–83.
35 Keddie and Amanat, “Iran under the Later Qajars,” pp. 209–10.
36 Sadiq, Yek sal dar Amrika; and Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, pp. 1–29.
37 Mozakerat-e majles: dowreh-ye nohom-i taqniniyeh, pp. 1171–84.
38 Javad Ashtiyani in his address on the occasion of the heir’s visit on 5 February
1939: Rahnama-ye Daneshgah-e Tehran (1317–18), chapter II: pp. 2–3. A similar
statement was made by the representative of the student body: ibid., p. 8.
39 According to Rostam-Kolayi the same was true for the editors of and con-
tributors to Alam-e Nesvan, who “like other reformers of the period, had every
confidence that a strong, centralized state with a broad range of powers could at
last carry out reform ignored by previous rulers and long overdue.” Jasamin
Rostam-Kolayi, “Foreign Education, the Women’s Press, and the Discourse of
Scientific Domesticity in Early-Twentieth-Century Iran,” in Iran and the Sur-
rounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics, ed. Nikki R.
Keddie and Rudi Matthee (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002),
pp. 182–202: 198.
40 The American Presbyterian missionaries, too, approved of the Pahlavi dictatorship,
admired Reza Shah for his “vigour and presumed objectives,” and tolerated his
brutality because “they assumed that dictatorship was necessary under Iranian
conditions and that the shah’s rule was progressive.” See Michael P. Zirinsky,
“Render Therefore unto Caesar the Things Which Are Caesar’s: American
Presbyterian Educators and Reza Shah,” Iranian Studies 26, 3/4 (1993),
pp. 337–56: 344.
Policy or puzzle? 53
41 For a discussion of the terms modernization and nationalism, as well as the
contradictions and dilemmas caused by their combination, with special reference
to educational reforms under Reza Shah, see Matthee, “Transforming Dangerous
Nomads,” pp. 326–33.
42 Hambly, “The Pahlavi Autocracy,” pp. 230–36.
43 Reza Arasteh, “The Role of Intellectuals in Administrative Development and
Social Change in Modern Iran,” International Review of Education 9.3 (1963),
pp. 326–34: 331, with reference to Mehdiqoli Hedayat’s memoirs, affirms that
public officials during the Pahlavi reign “had been entirely dependent upon the
Shah for direction.”
44 Menashri, Education, p. 147, to the contrary, states that the shah was personally
involved in every single stage of planning, an assertion for which I have not found
any evidence.
45 Hekmat, Si khatereh, p. 338.
46 Ibid., p. 341.
47 Arasteh, “Growth of Higher Education,” p. 332 gives a less emotional and quite
short account of this event, which to my mind should be considered as one of
the most realistic: “In 1934 a law was passed to establish a university in Tehran. The
colleges which had been under the administration of the Ministry of Education,
namely the faculties of law, science, literature, theology and medicine, were put
under one administrative head, the Chancellor of the University.”
48 “Faculties of the University of Tehran” (multiple authors) in Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 9 (1999), p. 140; David Menashri, “Education xvii. Higher Education,”
in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 8 (1998), pp. 216–19.
49 Christl Catanzaro, “Zwischen Statussymbol und Allheilmittel für alle sozialen
Übel – zur Rolle der Universität Teheran beim Aufbau der iranischen Nation”
Ph.D. dissertation (Bamberg: Bamberg University, 1999), pp. 59–61.
50 Rahnama-ye Daneshgah-e Tehran (1315–16/1936–37), pp. 5, 10, 13, 17, 18, 22 of
the Persian / pp. 11–12, 18, 23, 29, 31, 36 of the English part.
51 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, p. 142.
52 Catanzaro, “Zwischen Statussymbol und Allheilmittel,” pp. 49–101.
53 For discussion of this topic I am much obliged to Bert Fragner, who has helped
me to place my observations in a wider context and to realize that they are not –
as I initially supposed – the exception, but the rule. Since this did not fit in the
current concepts of modernization, this fact has been neglected for quite a long
time. See also Bert G. Fragner, “World War I as a Turning Point in Iranian his-
tory,” in La Perse et la Grande Guerre, ed. Oliver Bast (Tehran: Institut Français
de recherché en Iran, 2002), pp. 443–47.
54 According to a report by the Ministry of Education, out of the 640 students sent
abroad by this ministry in 1935, 481 studied in France, 74 in England, 39 in
Germany, 21 in Belgium, 9 in Switzerland, and 16 in the United States; statistics
provided by Reza Arasteh, “Education of Iranian Leaders in Europe and America,”
International Review of Education 8. 3/4 (1962), pp. 444–50: 445, on the basis of
the Yearbook of the Ministry of Education 1935, section II, pp. 116–17.
55 For example, on the first page of the French summary at the end of the yearbook
for 1932–33: Sal-nameh-ye Dar al-mo‘allemin (1311–12).
56 Detailed information on the French educational system is to be found in the
EACEA report, “Organisation of the education system in France 2009/10,”
accessible at http://estudandoeducacao.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/franc3a7a.pdf,
pp. 148–81; for the grandes écoles and the École normale supérieure and its
distinction from other institutions of higher education, see pp. 154–55.
57 Dewey taught at the Teachers College of Columbia University from 1904 to
1930, the same institution where Sadiq and Bizhan did their Ph.D.’s. Although
they might never have met him personally – Sadiq in his memoirs does not
54 Christl Catanzaro
mention a personal encounter – both of them were influenced by Dewey’s philoso-
phy. Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet, pp. 63–34 argues that Dewey’s ideas
are noticeable everywhere in Sadiq’s writings. In Modern Persia Sadiq mentions
Dewey explicitly, pp. 98–99. He praises his theory and declares the activity school
to be “the best type of school.” For the schools in Iran he postulates that “the
content of the courses of study needs to be carefully analyzed [sic] and revised in
order to eliminate all that is dead, formal, and useless, while methods of instruc-
tion should be reformed in order to provide as much opportunity as possible for
active learning and personal participation” (p. 100). This conviction is responsible
for one of Sadiq’s most radical reforms, the implementation of hands-on lessons
in the Teachers College. Cyrus Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Sci-
ence, Class, and the Formation of Modern Iranian Society, 1900–1950 (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2009), p. 161 asserts that Columbia at the time
Bizhan was studying there (1922–29) “was at the forefront of educational psy-
chology in the United States.” According to him the “interest in Anglo-Saxon
education formed part of a crucial debate about ta‘lim and tarbiyat, factual
knowledge and moral education: [ … ] many wished to boost tarbiyat, and
Anglo-Saxon education was praised in this regard” (p. 187); the promotion of
practical education and sports was one of its most important issues (p. 188). On
the missionary schools in Iran which also had a strong emphasis on extra-
curricular activities see Michael P. Zirinsky, “A Panacea for the Ills of the
Country: American Presbyterian Education in Inter-War Iran,” Iranian Studies
26.1/2 (1993), pp. 119–37, especially pp. 129–33. It is quite obvious that these
schools also served as a model for reformist educational ideas and that nobody
had to go abroad to study foreign educational systems (Schayegh, Who Is
Knowledgeable, p. 187). But those who implemented the new ideas in Iran were
Iranians who had studied abroad and had witnessed foreign education personally.
58 Sadiq, Modern Persia, pp. 106–7; and Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, pp. 25–29, 85–86, 136.
59 Like Dewey’s concept of the “laboratory school” the concept of the “activity
school,” elaborated by Georg Kerschensteiner, which opposed the then current
“Buchschule” in Germany, is a reformatory educational concept stressing the
need for experiential learning. In his Ph.D. thesis, Sadiq argues very much in
favour of the activity school which “promotes manual skill and manual expression,”
“develops the creative power of mind,” and “promotes right reasoning and
thinking, which are essential to solving the problems of life” (Modern Persia, p. 98);
in Sadiq’s argument the distinction between Dewey’s and Kerschensteiner’s con-
cepts is somehow lost. For his actual work as an educational reformer Dewey’s
model was probably more decisive.
60 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, p. 86, argues that education constituted an “element
of continuity” in Iran.
61 See for example Jamshid Behnam, “Tajrobeh-ye shast-saleh-ye nezam-e daneshgahi,”
Goft-o-gu (Tehran) 5 (autumn 1373/1994), pp. 99–109: 100; Szyliowicz, Education
and Modernization, p. 241. Menashri, “Education xvii. Higher Education.” Reza
Arasteh, “Growth of Modern Education in Iran,” Comparative Education Review
3.3 (February 1960), pp. 33–40: 40.
3 Mir Mehdi Varzandeh and the
introduction of modern physical
education in Iran1
H. E. Chehabi
Biographical sketch
Mir Mehdi Varzandeh was born in 1880 in the town of Shabastar, in Iranian
Azerbaijan, a largely Turkophone province bordering Anatolia. Having lost his
parents when he was still a child, his brother, who was a merchant in Istanbul,
took him to that city and brought him up there. In Istanbul he first attended the
Iranian School, then the Rüşdiye Tophanesi, and finally the prestigious Kuleli
Askeri Lisesi, Istanbul’s premier military high school. At that school he caught
the eye of Selim Sırrı Tarcan (1874–1956), the founder of modern physical edu-
cation in the Ottoman Empire, who became his mentor.2 He attended fencing
classes at the Union Française school, and also taught physical education at the
Iranian School and the Darüşşafaka School. Encouraged by Selim Sırrı Bey,
he then went to Brussels to study physical education at the École normale de
gymnastique et d’escrime (ENGE). In 1914 he returned to Iran, stopping in
Istanbul, where, according to Varzandeh himself, he was offered the directorship
of the college of physical education in Istanbul, but refused the offer since the
position was contingent on him becoming an Ottoman subject.3 Upon his
return to Iran he immediately set out to convince the authorities of the impor-
tance of exercise and sport, and after initial setbacks was instrumental in getting
parliament to pass legislation instituting physical education in the nation’s schools.
56 H. E. Chehabi
Sometime in the early 1920s Mir Mehdi Khan adopted the surname
Varzandeh. Family names had been officially registered in Tehran in 1918 and
became obligatory in the entire country in 1924;4 Mir Mehdi’s choice reflects
his vocation, for Varzandeh is related to varzesh (meaning both “physical
education” and “sport”), the two words being the present participle and
verbal noun, respectively, of the verb varzidan, one of whose meanings is “to
exercise.”
Varzandeh was in state service from 1925 to 1934, when he retired into
private life, for reasons that we shall see. He also founded a number of
modern sports clubs, including Iran’s first public swimming pool.5 In the mid
1950s he bought land in Shahryar, west of Tehran, and as time went on spent
more and more time tending his orchards. After his wife’s death in 1974, he
moved to Istanbul and lived with his daughter’s family.6 He died in 1982 and
was buried in the Iranian cemetery, the Seyyid Ahmed Deresi, at Üsküdar.7
The orchestra of drum, voice, and bell played throughout, slackening and
quickening its rhythm, so that the performers were visibly responding to a
musical impulse, faces and bodies were vivid with enjoyment, and the
contrast with Swedish drill, as it transforms the hope of Europe into
ranks of gesticulating automata, became even more painful to us than to
[the] Persian pupils.17
When I ask people to come to the club, they say they want to be strong.
The aim of physical education is neither to become a pahlavan, nor an
acrobat, nor a weight-lifter. What is it, then? The aim is to be healthy; have a
long life; be jovial, well humoured, clear minded, brave, and disciplined;
meaning that one should be absolutely dutiful, love one’s king and one’s
nation, and thus become a complete human being. Gentlemen: one has
to admit that technique (fann) has no homeland. All methods that the
civilized countries have accepted and from which they derive benefit,
we have to accept as well. I am not saying that the sports offered at the
Varzandeh Club are the best, but I can state with confidence that they are
the same that are practised in civilized countries.19
The American school for girls also taught physical education and instilled in
its graduates the importance of physical fitness: in 1911 a woman who twenty
years earlier had been one of the school’s first two Muslim graduates,23
Badr al-Duja Khanum, complained in her graduation address that because
of veiling Iranian women had been deprived of sports, for which reason most
of them were weak and unhealthy.24
The two types of physical education that were vying for supremacy in
Europe were thus both represented in Iran: the competitive athletic games
played in Britain and America, and the non-competitive gymnastics and
callisthenics favoured on the continent.25 But given the scarcity of physical
education teachers of any variety, the borders were not drawn strictly in Iran;
in fact, Varzandeh was hired to teach physical education at the American School
at a time when he was still not taken seriously by the country’s educational
establishment.26 However, these efforts to introduce physical education to
school curricula were not systematic and did not involve the Iranian state
directly. Nor were the times propitious for large-scale state involvement: in
the years following the outbreak of World War I governments in Tehran were
weak and hardly exercised effective control over the country. The political and
social backdrop to Varzandeh’s efforts is worth noting, as it explains why
some in the ruling elite gradually came to find his message attractive.
The article then explains that what is meant is not traditional zurkhaneh
exercises but such disciplines as horse riding, boating, and swimming.
Varzandeh’s message began to be heard. The great turning point came
in 1925, when a parliament dominated by the supporters of Reza Khan
Pahlavi legislated a number of reforms to modernize the state. The reform
zeal culminated in the abolition of the Qajar dynasty, whose rule was equated
with decline and degeneration, and the advent of Reza Shah’s modernizing
autocracy.
Varzandeh and modern physical education in Iran 61
Degeneration, moral regeneration, and Swedish gymnastics
As Cyrus Schayegh has shown, improving the Iranian “race” and reversing
the “degeneracy” of Iranians was an important item on the modernists’
agenda, and a healthier life style that included vigorous physical exercise was
one of the ways this could be achieved.33 Preoccupation with “degeneracy”
was of course widespread in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
Europe,34 and vigorous physical exercise was considered the best way to
remedy it.35 Iranian modernists were influenced in their conceptualizations of
the problem by the writings of Europeans, but let us not forget that there was
a strong material basis for the anxieties of modernists. The state of public
health, for instance, was terrible: to give but one example, syphilis was wide-
spread, and it is estimated that 20–40 per cent of Tehran’s population was
infected, including many 8–10-year-old boys.36
The ideas that Varzandeh propounded in his few extant writings to improve
the general well-being of the Iranian nation clearly show the influence of the
Swedish school of gymnastics he studied in Belgium. The Swedish school was
created at the beginning of the nineteenth century by Per Henrik Ling (1776–
1839), a man who also achieved fame as a patriotic poet.37 Sweden’s decline
as a world power, exemplified by the loss of Finland to Russia in 1809, was
the impetus behind his search for ways to revive the nation’s strength. The
exercises Ling devised sought to combine the military virtues of his Viking
forefathers with the qualities of self-restraint and control demanded of citizens
in the modern age. Like other continental European proponents of gymnastics,
he had no use for competitive games, but he differed from the German Turnen
in his rejection of rings, ropes, bars, and other equipment.38 Instead, he devised
callisthenics which aimed at fostering a harmonious development of all the
body’s organs and limbs. After Ling’s death, his successors at the Central
Gymnastics Institute (Gymnastiska centralinstitutet), which he had created in
Stockholm in 1814, “were all preoccupied with the moral and physical deca-
dence that they thought characterized Sweden: exaggerated love of pleasure,
weakness, sickness, self-indulgence.”39 The resistance against competitive
sports became less fierce, and they were accepted as a complement to non-
competitive exercises. By the 1870s, Social Darwinism crept into the movement,
and with it a certain militarism. The influential director of the military division
of the Institute, Viktor Balck, believed that competitive athletics promoted
“patriotism, a sense of duty, the will to defend, [and a reduction of] social
conflict”; for Balck, athletics “became the cure for all evils that threatened
man and society: social unrest, sexual temptation, decadent entertainment,
and so on.”40
Ling’s system became popular in France in the aftermath of its defeat
against Prussia in the War of 1870, when notions of national decline were pop-
ular and led to a search for ways to halt it.41 The main institution for the training
of French physical education teachers was the École normale de gymnastique
de Joinville-le-Pont, founded in 1852, which served as a model for the Belgian
62 H. E. Chehabi
École normale de gymnastique et d’escrime, founded in 1894 in Brussels, the
school Varzandeh attended. In 1902 Clément Lefébure, an admirer of Swedish
gymnastics who had studied at Stockholm’s Central Gymnastics Institute,
became its director and replaced the previous, French-inspired system of physical
education with Swedish gymnastics, arguing that only it was capable of coun-
teracting the moral and physical degeneration which threatened the Belgian
nation and thus “regenerate the race.”42 In 1903 he published L’Éducation phy-
sique en Suède,43 and two years later a course on Swedish gymnastics which was
translated by Selim Sırrı Tarcan into Turkish.44 Varzandeh may very well have
made his first theoretical acquaintance with Swedish gymnastics through this
translation, published while he was living in Istanbul.
In the beginning, the goals were modest: two hours of physical education
per week. Varzandeh taught at a number of schools, including the military
Varzandeh and modern physical education in Iran 63
school (Madreseh-ye Nezam) and the officers’ academy (Daneshkadeh-ye
Afsari), and continued championing the introduction of physical education
classes into school curricula. In 1919 he succeeded: physical education
officially became part of the compulsory curriculum under the minister of
education Ahmad Bader (Naser al-Dowleh).50
In 1924 Varzandeh was sent by the Iranian government to Paris, where
he studied fencing and gymnastics for over a year at the abovementioned
École de Joinville, which had received a Persian delegation in 1923.51 Upon
his return to Iran in 1925, he was named inspector (mofattesh) for physical
education at Tehran high schools, and proceeded to appoint Abolfazl Sadri as
his deputy.52 One of the measures he instituted was to suspend elementary
school classes on Monday afternoons and send pupils to the outskirts of the
city for play,53 something Lefébure had suggested for fair-weather days.54
On 29 December 1925 (8 Dey 1304) the Association of Propagators of Sport
(Hey’at-e moravvejin-e varzesh) was founded in Tehran, with the aforementioned
Naser al-Dowleh at its head. Varzandeh, Sadri, the constitutionalist statesman
Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh, and the newspaper editor ‘Ali Dashti were “consult-
ing” (moshaver) members. Under the guidance of Varzandeh, the members
exercised thrice a week. The future plans of the association included positive
eugenics, described as “improving the Iranian race,” (eslah-e nasl-e Iran) and
preventing the spread of immorality (monkerat va raza’el-e akhlaqi). To do so,
it planned to set up free spaces in the city where members of the public could
exercise. At one of the association’s meetings, Varzandeh was asked to com-
pile a survey of the capital’s athletic facilities and activities. It transpired that
there were eighteen zurkhanehs, and that thirteen private schools had regular
physical education classes taught by teachers employed by the Ministry of
Education. At the American School (the future Alborz) physical education
was taught by an American; the school of political science and the Alliance
Française had no physical education classes; and at the German Technical
School (Madreseh-ye San‘ati) Geranmayeh was teaching.55
The new dynamism generated by the advent of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925
and 1926 provided Varzandeh with forums to publish a few articles expounding
his ideas. In the summer of 1925 he wrote a short piece in the new monthly
publication of the Ministry of Education. After recounting the story of his life
and struggles so far, he suggested instituting physical education teacher-training
classes at the Dar al-Fonun school, so that with the help of these teachers the
ministry would “succeed in improving (eslah) the Iranian race (nasl-o nezhad)
and training the nervous (asabi) and bone marrow (ozvi) cells of Iranian
children so as to provide people with sound bodies and sound morals for the
future of Iran.” He further explained: “It is obvious that people whose ner-
vous system (selseleh-ye a‘sab) and mental powers (qova-ye damaghi) have
matured in accordance with sound methods, and whose bodies are fit and can
sustain all sorts of difficult activities, and whose muscles do their duty naturally,
will have a healthy mind, [enabling them to] achieve all sorts of progress and
attain their goals and ideals.”56 Here Varzandeh clearly echoes the Social
64 H. E. Chehabi
Darwinism and associated eugenics that were popular at the time in Europe
and had crept into the ideology of Swedish gymnastics.
The propagation of physical education was also high on the agenda of
Mahmud Afshar, a fiercely nationalist intellectual who proposed modernizing
remedies for Iran’s problems in his influential publication Ayandeh (Future).57
In the very first issue of this journal, which included what might be termed his
manifesto, he wrote:
Another matter that the people need and to which we hope the government
will pay serious attention is the generalization and propagation of physical
exercise and public health. … Although no one doubts the benefits and
necessity of sport, it is not as developed in Iran as it ought to be. …
Physical education must not be limited to elementary schools and should
be instituted in middle and high schools as well. … Special teachers are
needed for this, and they need to be trained. … We believe that sport is so
important for Iran that the government would render the nation a great
service if it forced all those who are on the state’s payroll to exercise. The
way to do this is to establish sports halls offering facilities for gymnastics,
tennis, and football in various points of the city, and force civil servants
to exercise by deducting membership fees from their salaries.58
Mr. Varzandeh used all his skills to attract the youth to sports and games.
With his bald head, short stature, and his histrionic style he would speak
both earnestly and in jest, and he was very effective. He took his students
on hiking trips to the mountains and founded a number of sports clubs,
including Iran’s first public swimming pool.66
Conclusion
Iranian modernists were united in their rejection of traditional Iranian athletics
as a basis for a modern physical education system. We can see this not only in
the writings of prominent opinion-making intellectuals in the interwar period, but
also here and there among non-elite people. In his reminiscences of pre–World
War II Mashhad, Gholam Hoseyn Baqi‘i writes that his uncle was an habitué
Varzandeh and modern physical education in Iran 67
of a zurkhaneh but did not want his nephew to follow in his footsteps,
arguing:
In the past, when wars were fought with bows and arrows, bludgeons,
and swords, and warriors wrestled with each other, these kinds of exercises
were necessary and useful. But in the age of canons and rifles they have
no effect other than making one ill-shaped and arrogant. But military
sports and callisthenics, and especially swimming, are always useful, and
one can practice them even in the public bath-house.77
Notes
1 I thank ‘Ali Mohammad Amirtash, Sadreddin Elahi, Willem Floor, Allen Guttmann,
Cyrus Schayegh, Farah Varzandeh, Nushin Turan Varzandeh, Maryam Wozniak,
and Ehsan Yarshater for their help in collecting material for this paper.
2 Selim Sırrı Bey had studied at the Galatasaray in Istanbul and was named gymnas-
tics teacher at that school in 1900. He then spent two years in Stockholm studying
physical education, and on his return endeavoured to reform the existing Ottoman
physical education teaching along Swedish lines. World War I interrupted his
activities, but in the new republic he founded the Terbiye-i Bedeniye Mektebi, a
teacher-training college for physical education, and in 1923 became General
Inspector of Sport. He is considered the father of modern Turkish physical educa-
tion. Herbert Riedel, Leibesübungen und körperliche Erziehung in der osmanischen
und kemalistischen Türkei (Würzburg: Konrad Triltsch Verlag, 1942), pp. 48–49.
3 The following account is based on a short biography Varzandeh dictated to one
of his relatives in Istanbul, of which I have a copy, and on a biographical sketch
published as “Yaddasht-ha-ye Mir Mehdi Khan Varzandeh mo‘allem va mofattesh-
e koll-e madares,” Ta‘lim va tarbiyat 1:6 (Shahrivar 1304/September 1925),
pp. 33–38.
4 See H. E. Chehabi, “Reforming Nomenclature in Iran: The Abolition of Titles
and the Introduction of Family Names under Reza Pahlavi,” in Converging
Zones: Persian Literary Tradition and the Writing of History, Studies in Honor of
Amin Banani, ed. Wali Ahmadi (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2012).
5 Mehdi Bazargan, Shast sal khedmat va moqavemat (Tehran: Rasa, 1996), pp. 75–76.
6 Personal Interview with Nushin Turan Varzandeh, Istanbul, 14 May 2005.
7 On which see Thierry Zarcone, “The Persian Cemetery of Istanbul,” in Cimetières et
traditions funéraires dans le monde islamique, ed. Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont
and Aksel Tibet (Ankara: Türk Tarih Basimevi, 1996), pp. 217–21.
8 The literature on the zurkhanehs is voluminous. See Sayyed Mohammad Ali
Jamalzadeh, Isfahan Is Half the World: Memories of a Persian Boyhood, trans. W.
L. Heston (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), chapter 3, “The
World of Chivalry and Manliness,” pp. 170–200; A. Riza Arasteh, “The Social
Role of the Zurkhana (House of Strength) in Iranian Urban Communities during
the Nineteenth Century,” Der Islam 36 (1961), pp. 256–59; and H. E. Chehabi,
Varzandeh and modern physical education in Iran 69
“Zu-rkha-na,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, vol. 11 (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
2002), pp. 572–74.
.
9 On whom see Abbas Amanat, “E‘teza-d-al-Salt.ana, ‘Alı-qolı- Mı-rza-,” in Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 8, 1998, pp. 669–72.
10 Shoko Okazaki, “The Great Persian Famine of 1870–71,” Bulletin of the School
of Oriental and African Studies 49 (1986), pp. 183–92.
11 As shown by Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the
Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
12 The only manuscript of this work is kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris,
and a critical edition with a French translation is being prepared by Philippe
Rochard. My discussion is based on his paper, “The Ganjina-ye Koshti of Ali Akbar b.
Mahdi al-Kashani,” presented at the Fourth Biennial Convention of the Association
for the Study of Persianate Societies, Lahore, 26 February – 1 March 2009.
13 Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy, and Reform under the Qajars,
1858–1896 (London: Ithaca Press for the Middle East Centre, St. Antony’s College,
1978); and A. Riza Sheikholeslami, The Structure of Central Authority in Qajar
Iran: 1871–1896 (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1997).
14 I analyzed this in my “The Invention of ‘Ancient Sport’ in Twentieth-Century
Iran,” paper presented at the 71st Anglo-American Conference of Historians,
London, 3–5 July 2002.
15 Ruhollah Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi-ye Iran, vol. 2 (Tehran: Safi ‘Ali Shah, n.
d), p. 106; Gholam Hoseyn Baqi’i, Angizeh (Tehran: Resa, 1373/1994), p. 136;
and Bazargan, Shast sal khedmat, p. 75.
16 ‘Isa Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr: khaterati az sargozasht, vol. 2 (Tehran: Dehkhoda,
1354/1975), p. 164.
17 Robert Byron, The Road to Oxiana (1937; London: Picador, 1981), pp. 186–87.
18 Hoseyn Partow Beyza’i Kashani, Tarikh-e varzesh-e bastani-ye Iran: Zurkhaneh
(1957; Tehran: Zavvar, 2003), p. 384. Beyza’i writes that this happened “34 years
ago.” His book having been finished in March 1959, the event must have taken
place in 1924 or 1925, when Reza Khan Pahlavi was prime minister.
19 Mir Mehdi Varzandeh, “Mikhvaham qavi shavam,” Iran, 9 Farvardin 1316/29
March 1937.
20 Amir Kabir’s plan to have a theatre had foundered on clerical opposition. Only
later in the century was the auditorium sometimes used by the Court for theatrical
performances. Maryam Dorreh Ekhtiar, “The Dar al-Funun: Educational
Reform and Cultural Development in Qajar Iran,” Ph.D. dissertation (New York:
New York University, 1994), pp. 284–85. See also Willem Floor, The History of
Theater in Iran (Washington, DC: Mage, 2005), p. 214.
21 Abolfazl Sadri, Tarikh-e varzesh (Tehran: Vezarat-e Farhang – Edareh-ye Koll-e
Tarbiyat-e Badani, 1962), pp. 138–39.
22 Samuel M. Jordan, “The Power Plant in Persia,” Women and Missions (Decem-
ber 1929), p. 329.
23 Mangol Bayat-Philipp, “Women and Revolution in Iran, 1905–11,” in Women in
the Muslim World, ed. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie (Cambridge, MA: Harvard,
University Press, 1978), p. 300.
24 Iran-e Now 3 (1 July 1911), p. 3, as quoted in Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Veiled
Discourse – Unveiled Bodies,” Feminist Studies 19 (Fall 1993), p. 509.
25 See Allen Guttmann, Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), chapter 7, “Turnen,” pp. 141–56, for
a discussion of the various national forms the reaction against Anglo-Saxon
games took.
26 Arthur C. Boyce, “Alborz College of Tehran and Dr Samuel Martin Jordan:
Founder and President,” p. 194. Boyce wrote: “One Persian young man, not from
our school, went to Europe for study and came back with a full training in Physical
70 H. E. Chehabi
Education. The Ministry of Education would give him no opening at all in Per-
sian Schools and laughed at him for wasting his time and money in Belgium
becoming a ‘dancing master.’ Dr Jordan encouraged him by giving him a part-
time job training our students in group games and exercises. Later on, Persian
schools were glad to have him and he became a very popular Director of Athletics
and trainer of Physical Education directors for the Ministry of Education.”
27 See the various articles in Touraj Atabaki, ed., Iran and the First World War:
Battleground of the Great Powers (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006).
28 Amir Arsalan Afkhami, “Compromised Constitutions: The Iranian Experience
with the 1918–19 Influenza Pandemic,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77:2
(Summer 2003), pp. 367–92.
29 Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 144–67.
30 See Rouzbeh Parsi, In Search of Caravans Lost: Iranian Intellectuals and Nation-
alist Discourse in the Inter-War Years (Lund: Dissertation Series, Department of
History, Lund University, 2009).
31 On which see Tim Epkenhans, Die iranische Moderne im Exil: Bibliographie der
Zeitschrift Kave, Berlin 1916–1922 (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2000).
32 “Khiyalat,” Kaveh, n.s. 2:6 (8 June 1921), pp. 1 and 2.
33 Cyrus Schayegh, “‘A Sound Mind Lives in a Healthy Body’: Texts and Contexts
in the Iranian Modernists’ Scientific Discourses of Health, 1910s-40s,” Interna-
tional Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37:2 (May 2005), pp. 167–88; and Cyrus
Schayegh, “Sport, Health, and the Iranian Modern Middle Class in the 1920s
and 1930s,” Iranian Studies 35:4 (2002), pp. 341–69.
34 See Robert Nye, “Degeneration and the Medical Model of Cultural Crisis in the
French Belle Époque,” in Political Symbolism in Modern Europe: Essays in
Honor of George L. Mosse, ed. Seymour Drescher, David Sabean, and Allan
Sharlin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1982), pp. 19–41.
35 See, for instance, Eugen Weber, France, Fin de Siècle (Cambridge, MA: Belknap
Press, 1986), chapter 11, “Faster, Higher, Stronger,” pp. 213–33.
36 Willem Floor, Public Health in Qajar Iran (Washington, DC: Mage, 2004), pp. 33–34.
37 On the history of Ling gymnastics see Jan Lindroth, Idrottens väg till folkrörelse:
Studier i svensk idrottsrörelse till 1915 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1974).
Since, alas, my Swedish is not what it ought to be, my discussion of Ling and
Swedish gymnastics is based on Jens Ljunggren, “The Masculine Road through
Modernity: Ling Gymnastics and Male Socialisation in Nineteenth-Century
Sweden,” in Making European Masculinities: Sport, Europe, Gender, ed. J. A. Mangan
(London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 86–111.
38 Guttmann, Games and Empires, p. 148.
39 Ljunggren, “The Masculine Road through Modernity,” p. 92.
40 Ibid., p. 101.
41 Gilbert Andrieu, “L’Influence de la gymnastique suédoise sur l’éducation physi-
que en France entre 1874 et 1914,” Stadion 14:2 (1988), pp. 163–80.
42 Pascal Delheye, “La Patrie régénérée? Clément Lefébure, l’École normale de
gymnastique et d’Escrime de l’Armée et la percée de la gymnastique suédoise en
Belgique 1885–1908,” in L’empreinte de Joinville: 150 ans de sport, ed. Pierre
Simonet and Laurent Veray (Paris: INSEP, 2003), pp. 335–57.
43 Clément Lefébure, L’Éducation physique en Suède (Brussels: Lamertin, 1903).
44 Méthode de gymnastique éducative suédoise: cours professé à l’École normale de
Gymnastique et d’Escrime (Brussels: Guyot, 1905). The title of the Turkish
translation was General Lefebure’ün beden terbiyesi. See Selim Sırrı Tarcan,
Hatıratlarım (Istanbul: Türkiye Yayınevi, 1946), p. 4.
45 In 1911 the Iranian government had contracted Swedish officers to set up a gen-
darmerie to police the countryside. See Markus Ineichen, Die schwedischen Offiziere
Varzandeh and modern physical education in Iran 71
in Persien (1911–1916): Friedensengel, Weltgendarmen oder Handelsagenten einer
Kleinmacht im ausgehenden Zeitalter des Imperialismus? (Bern: Peter Lang, 2002).
46 Muhammad Madadi, in his Su’edi-ha dar Iran (Tehran: Gofteman, 2002), p. 80,
states that the Swedes did offer him employment as gymnastics teacher.
47 According to Seyyed Reza Sakkaki (a student and colleague of Varzandeh),
Varzandeh was even invited to Court to treat Ahmad Shah, reportedly showing
him physical exercises that would relieve pain induced by his gout. Personal
communication to ‘Ali Mohammad Amirtash, who conveyed it to me.
48 A fellow Azerbaijani, Ebrahim Hakimi (Hakim al-Molk) was minister in
numerous cabinets and prime minister on a number of occasions in the course of
his long political career. He had a reputation for probity and integrity. See Ja‘far
Mahdiniya, Zendegi-ye siyasi-ye Ebrahim Hakimi (Hakim al-Molk) (Tehran:
Omid-e Farda, 1380/2001).
49 A photocopy of the note (dated 10 Borj-e ‘aqrab 1333q), obtained at the National
Archives in Tehran (Ketabkhaneh-ye melli va Sazman-e Melli-ye Asnad), is in my
possession. Current file location is not available.
50 Danesh-e varzesh 2:13 (Bahman 1367/January 1989), p. 43.
51 Jean Saint-Martin, “L’École de Joinville: une pièce maîtresse dans le rayonnement
géopolitique de l’EP française entre les deux guerres mondiales,” in L’empreinte
de Joinville, ed. Simonet and Veray, pp. 47–66. On p. 51 there is a photo showing
Persian, Moroccan, and Portuguese delegations visiting the school in 1923.
52 In subsequent years Sadri would become one of the top sports functionaries of
Iran.
53 Varzandeh, “Yaddasht-ha-ye Mir Mehdi Khan Varzandeh,” p. 36.
54 Delheye, “La Patrie régénérée?” p. 347.
55 Shafaq-e Sorkh, 24 Dey 1304 (14 January 1926), p. 4, as quoted in Mehdi
‘Abbasi, Tarikh-e koshti-ye Iran, vol. 3 (Tehran: Sepas, 1998), p. 295. The thirteen
schools were Tadayyon, Aqdasiyeh, Tamaddon, Nowshiravan, Itam (for
orphans), Baladiyeh, Tarbiyat (a Baha’i school), St. Louis (Catholic), Sharaf,
Mohammadiyeh, Falahat, Zartoshtiyan (Zoroastrian), and Alliance Israélite. In
other words, four were non-Muslim, testifying to the pioneering role of minority
schools in Iranian education.
56 Varzandeh, “Yaddasht-ha-ye Mir Mehdi Khan Varzandeh,” pp. 37–38.
57 See Parsi, In Search of Caravans Lost, pp. 176–204.
58 Ayandeh 1:1 (Tir 1304/July 1925), pp. 10–11.
59 Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, p. 165.
60 Ta‘lim va tarbiyat 2:4 (Tir 1305/July 1926), pp. 214–18.
61 “Tarikh-e peydayesh-e varzesh,” Ayandeh 1:11 (Tir 1305/June 1926), pp. 654–57.
The anecdote is on p. 656. Varzandeh seems to have written a book on the history
of sport, but I have not found any trace of it.
62 Mir Mehdi Khan Varzandeh, “Lozum-i bazi va tarbiyat-e badani,” Ayandeh 1:12
(Mehr 1305/September 1926), pp. 749–57.
63 Ta‘lim va tarbiyat 3:7–8 (Mehr–Aban 1306/September–October 1927), p. 1.
64 Sadri, Tarikh-e Varzesh, p. 139.
65 Siamak Bigdel Chahsavani, “Die Entwicklung und der Stand der modernen
Sportarten im Iran,” Diploma thesis (Cologne: Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln,
1967/68), p. 21; and Sadiq, Yadgar-e ‘omr, vol. 2, p. 165.
66 Bazargan, Shast sal khedmat, pp. 75–76.
67 Iran-e Bastan no. 17 (5 Khordad 1312/25 May 1933), p. 7.
68 Hassan-Ali Nazari-Kangarloo, “The History and Development of Physical Edu-
cation and Sports in Iran,” Unpublished doctoral dissertation (Washington, DC:
School of Education, The George Washington University, 1976), p. 72.
69 Farah Varzandeh, personal telephone communication, 29 March 2008.
70 It is possible that his retirement was caused by the closure of the school.
72 H. E. Chehabi
71 Nazari-Kangarloo, “The History and Development of Physical Education and
Sports in Iran,” p. 73.
72 See “Akharin jashn-e mosabeqeh-ye futbal,” Ta‘lim va tarbiyat 4:2 (Ordibehesht
1313/April–May 1934), p. 117. See also Ta‘lim va tarbiyat 5:9–10 (Azar–Dey
1314/November 1935–January 1936), pp. 549–51.
73 Article 4 of the statute of the new institution laid down fifteen subjects to be
taught: Persian; foreign language; history and geography from the point of view
of generating and strengthening patriotism; psychology, pedagogy, and ethics;
history of sports and different methods of physical education; physiology; hygiene;
anthropometry and sports medicine; music; physical education for elementary
schools; organization; handicrafts; military drills; physical exercises; and scouting.
“Asas-nameh-ye daneshsara-ye parvaresh-e badani,” Amuzesh va parvaresh 8:5–6
(1317/1938), pp. 90–91.
74 Nazari-Kangarloo, “The History and Development of Physical Education and
Sports in Iran,” p. 72.
75 Shahrzad Kordbachcheh, Ketabshenasi-ye towsifi-ye tarbiyat-e badani va ‘olum-e
varzeshi (Tehran: Farr-e Daneshpazhuhan, 2003), p. 125.
76 Ahmad Mahdavi Damghani, personal communication, 22 April 2009.
77 Gholam Hoseyn Baqi’i, Mazar-e Mir Morad: Nama’i az Mashhad-e qadim
(Tehran: Gutenberg, 1373/1994), p. 70.
78 The story of his gradual estrangement from traditional religious culture and
espousal of communism is told in his autobiographical Angizeh.
79 Mehrzad Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph
of Nativism (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996).
80 See A. Destrée, Les fonctionnaires belges au service de la Perse 1898–1915
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976) ; and Eric Laureys, Belgen in Perzië 1915–1941 (Louvain:
Peeters, 1996).
81 See Delheye, “La Patrie régénérée?” p. 356 n. 92.
4 Modernization of Iranian music during
the reign of Reza Shah
Keivan Aghamohseni
Introduction
The reign of Reza Shah is considered a turning point in the social and poli-
tical history of Iran. This period was characterized by the implementation of
a comprehensive modernization program, which left its mark on a vast
number of social and cultural aspects of Iranian life, including music. The
modernization of Iranian music during the first Pahlavi era comprised certain
attempts to free this music from its traditional form and content and bring it
closer to the structure of European classical music. One can identify intellec-
tual trends which must be considered as pro-Western rather than modernist,
because their main objective was to fully eliminate Iranian music and replace
it with European music. Also, regardless of the technical discussions about
music and whether or not the Modernizers believed in the transformation of
traditional forms of Iranian music, modernization represents certain thoughts
that tried, by way of imitation from Western societies, to give a totally new
definition of the place of music in Iranian society. In addition to pro-Western
and modernist trends of thought, Iranian music in its then prevailing structure
and form went through a natural evolution that was caused by the changing
social conditions in Iran. The present study begins with reviewing the situa-
tion of Iranian music during the late Qajar period before the reign of Reza
Shah, then discusses the modernization trends in Iranian music, and finally
reflects on the degree of acceptance of these trends by the Iranian society at
large during the Reza Shah period.
1 motrebi music
2 classical music
3 religious music
4 military marches.
Motrebi music was a kind of urban folk music during the Qajar period that
was specially used in popular rites and festivities. It used to be played in
groups and was accompanied by dances. Musicians playing in such groups were
called the motrebs. Since men and women attended separately held festivals, we
find distinct motrebi bands consisting of either men or women in this genre of
music. During the Qajar period, the women’s motrebi bands were always
greater in number and enjoyed a much higher prestige than the men’s bands.2
They could perform in privately held women’s festivities, harem celebrations,
and even in the presence of the shah. Men’s bands could only perform in
men’s private parties and certain other public ceremonies. A limited amount
of information on these bands can be found in travelogues of foreigners visiting
Iran during the Qajar period. Eugène Flandin, the French traveller, describes
how a men’s motrebi band performed during his visit:
Voice recording sessions, that began in January 1906 in Tehran, were orga-
nized by the Gramophone Company through the agency of the American
Vice-Consul, who was obliged to get the king’s personal permission for
such recording sessions, because a number of court-affiliated musicians
were involved in this kind of recording.11
During the next decade, however, the recording companies entered into direct
negotiations with the musicians. Thus, following the conclusion of a contract
with the Gramophone Company, a group of eight Iranian performers managed
to record a number of Iranian musical works in 1909. The recordings took
place in London.12 Indeed, within a short period after the Constitutional
Revolution, circumstances enabled musicians to directly enter into contracts
with foreign companies.
The next factor that transformed the situation of Iranian music after the
Constitutional Revolution was the holding of public concerts.
[a] picturesque place with lovely nature and weather and a bunch of
befitting clients from among politicians and high-ranking individuals such
as those having travelled to Europe, regular governmental staff members,
writers, intellectuals and activists, more or less similar to European cafés,
where they could enjoy light music in addition to being served an afternoon
snack or supper.16
These cafés became the new places of activity and performance for the musicians.
Most of the famous musicians including Reza Mahjubi (violinist), Morteza
Mahjubi (pianist) – both coming from aristocratic families – and Darvish
Khan used to perform in such cafés.17
The post–Constitutional Revolution social conditions of Iran left their
mark on motrebi music as well. The most important outcome of the emerging
78 Keivan Aghamohseni
social conditions was the collaboration between the motrebs and the actors in
a dramatic species known as the ruhowzi. In fact, the formation of ruhowzi
was the result of collaborations between motrebi bands and actors who played
in ruhowzi bands, who consequently produced a joyful musical show.
Non-governmental modernization
Prior to being implemented through governmental policies, musical moder-
nization was initiated by the middle class and took place in two forms:
teaching music, and the advent and expansion of gramophone records. It was
also sparked by a musician named ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, who re-opened Tehran’s
open school of music (Madraseh-ye ‘Ali-ye Musiqi) in 1924. This non-regular
school was the first educational institution where both Iranian and European
classical music were taught. A study of Vaziri’s life and thoughts shows
that he was a product of the same ideas that played a crucial role in putting
Modernization of Iranian music 79
Reza Shah in power and in explaining the shah’s cultural policies during
his reign.
‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s life (1886–1979) can be divided into two periods: before
visiting Europe and after visiting Europe. He began to learn techniques of
playing tar with his maternal uncle when he was 15 years old. He was a
trainee of some of the abovementioned celebrated tar players of that period,
including Aqa Hoseynqoli and Darvish Khan.20 At the age of 17 he joined
the military service. His presence in the army proved quite fruitful as during
this time he became further acquainted with European classical music. While
learning violin and piano, he was introduced to European classical-music
notation with the help of an army officer, which was followed by a deeper
learning of European classical-music theory with a French priest in Tehran.21
One of his important musical activities prior to travelling to Europe was
the transcription of the Iranian musical repertoire on the basis of performances
by Mirza ‘Abdollah.22 In addition to his musical activities, he was a political
activist in the real sense of the word. He was in charge of the military com-
mittee of the Iranian Social-Democratic Party (Hezb-e Ejtema‘iyun-e
‘Ammiyun) during the post–Constitutional Revolution period.23 ‘Alinaqi
Vaziri left the army in 1918 and went to Paris to continue his studies in music,
theatre, and aesthetics. He then moved to Berlin to complete his studies. The
years of ‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s stay in Berlin deserve a deeper consideration, as it
was during this same period that he established connections with certain Iranian
cultural and political activists residing in Berlin and became deeply influenced
by ideas that provided the impetus for the majority of cultural policies of the
Reza Shah period. Hoseyn Kazemzadeh was the editor and publisher of the
monthly magazine Iranshahr in Berlin during those years. Kazemzadeh had
also founded a literary society where the main topics discussed included dif-
ferent aspects of politics and culture. ‘Alinaqi Vaziri established and main-
tained close relations with Kazemzadeh and his magazine during his stay in
Berlin.24 Published from 1922 until 1927, Iranshahr was one of the magazines
that promulgated the demands of the Tajaddod (Modernity) political party.25
Recruiting its members mainly from among young people educated in the
West, the party was the main supporter of Reza Shah in his efforts to seize
power, and most of its members such as ‘Ali Akbar Davar, ‘Abd al-Hoseyn
Teymurtash, and ‘Ali Forughi became major political figures during his reign.
The subjects dealt with in Iranshahr, which had a relatively considerable influence
in Iran and was distributed in 40 towns, can be categorized as follows:
Of the total of 236 articles published in the journal, 73 stressed the impor-
tance of public and secular education, 45 emphasized the need to improve
the status of women, 30 described – in favorable terms – pre-Islamic Iran,
and 40 discussed aspects of modern technology and Western philosophy.26
Most of the ideas discussed in these articles were actually realized during the
reign of Reza Shah. In addition, two other articles appeared in Iranshahr
80 Keivan Aghamohseni
during ‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s stay in Berlin that specifically touched on Iranian art
and music. One article, entitled “Sanaye‘-e Zarifeh” and addressing different
aesthetic aspects of the art and the artist, was written by ‘Alinaqi Vaziri
himself.27 The second article, entitled “Music and Theatre in Iran,” was
written by Morteza Moshfeq Kazemi, a student of sociology in Berlin, the
contents of which indicate the opinions of Iranian music ‘Alinaqi Vaziri had
been exposed to while in Berlin and provide a background for the musical
modernization campaign he launched upon return to Iran. In parts of the
article, the author introduces Iranian music as a saddening and boring music:
In another part of the article, the author complains of the impotence of Iranian
music to raise national feelings and create such excitements:
So far, the Iranian music has not arranged an exciting national anthem
for us. If Iranians listen to the famous German hymn (Germany! Germany!
Above all!) as a sample anthem reflecting the Germans’ national pride
and self-importance, they will understand the real meaning of music.29
In still another part of the article the author equates musical literacy with
knowledge of Western music, referring to Iranian musicians as a number of
musically illiterate performers:
With the exception of few Iranian musicians having completed their studies
in Europe or at least in Tehran school of music (military music school), all
contemporary Iranian musicians are far away from a real knowledge of
music and cannot be changed for the better by way of encouragement
because they know nothing of the principles of composing musical pieces.30
From this intellectual context, which pushed for modernization in all aspects
of social and cultural life in Iranian society, including music, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri
Modernization of Iranian music 81
returned to Iran and in the winter of 1924 – a few months after the appoint-
ment of Reza Shah as the prime minister – took the initial steps towards
establishing his own school named Madreseh-ye ‘Ali-ye Musiqi in Tehran. In
the same year, he established a musical society called the “Musical Club”
(Klup-e Muzikal); most of the intellectuals and men of letters applied for
membership. In addition to the performance of music by the orchestra of the
musical school, in this musical club ‘Alinaqi Vaziri began to explain and
elaborate on his ideas concerning art and music as well. A study of Vaziri’s
lectures shows that he was under the influence of an intellectual trend that
was supporting modernization in the form of opening Iranian society to the
Western world. On the necessity of modernization in Iranian music, ‘Alinaqi
Vaziri suggests:
‘Alinaqi Vaziri and Morteza Moshfeq Kazemi, the author of “Music and
Theatre in Iran,” are of the same opinion in most cases. ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, too,
believes that parts of Iranian music are saddening and detrimental to the
human soul and morality; he considers the Iranian musician as an illiterate
person because of his non-familiarity with Western music. In contrast to
Morteza Moshfeq Kazemi, however, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri believes that Iranian
music has a sound foundation. He embarked on modernizing Iranian music
through the establishment of his music school, following his belief in the
necessity of introducing changes in it. He began to teach Iranian music from
82 Keivan Aghamohseni
his own perspective, which challenged prevailing standpoints in Iranian music
of the day. The most significant change sought by ‘Alinaqi Vaziri was to har-
monize Iranian music. The main problem here was the existence of rob‘-e
pardeh (a quarter note) in Iranian music. ‘Alinaqi Vaziri managed to realize
his objective by introducing a 24-part chromatic scale.34 But the scale did not
conform to a number of intervals in Iranian music. With the intention of rein-
forcing the orchestral performance of Iranian music, in addition to his efforts
towards solving the problem of harmony, he proceeded to invent a number of
new instruments as well, such as soprano tar, tuned a fifth above tar; alto tar,
which tuned a quarter lower than the ordinary tar; and bass tar, which together
with the ordinary tar formed a tar quartet.35 Indeed, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s inno-
vations in all aspects of Iranian music including teaching, methods of playing,
singing, and composing were oriented towards European classical music.
Such innovations by Vaziri faced reactions from traditionalist musicians.
The most important criticism came from ‘Aref Qazvini, the celebrated poet
and composer of tasnif during the late Qajar period and the first decades of
the Pahlavi period, in the form of a letter addressed to ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, published
in Nahid magazine on July 18, 1925.36
Popularization of the gramophone record was another aspect of non-
governmental modernization during the reign of Reza Shah. In fact, the
emerging middle class in Iran prepared the grounds for the resumption of
activity by gramophone record–producing companies in Iran. Gramophone
recording developed during the Reza Shah period as follows:37
With these regulations, from 1928 onwards the government pursued a policy
of controlling and censoring recording, which was unknown in the past, when
companies and artists could freely decide on the selection of artists and the
contents of recording, respectively. Gradually and in proportion to the spread
of gramophone records, the government decided not only to control this
medium, but also to use it as a means of propaganda for its modernization
policy. One important reform, which this medium was used to support, was
the compulsory removal of the women’s veil in 1936. Murmurs related to an
intended unveiling were first heard in 1929 and were reflected in gramophone
recordings in the same year. The famous female singer Qamar al-Moluk
Vaziri recorded a vocal work entitled Zan Dar Jame‘eh (Women in society)
in defence of the idea of unveiling, which was produced in Tehran by the
Polyphon Company and marketed in 1929.41 In the winter of 1936, and soon
after the removal of the veil in January 1936, the Sodwa Company recorded
another vocal work by Mr. Badi‘zadeh in Aleppo, entitled Be Yadgar-e Raf‘-e
Hejab-e Nesvan-e Iran (In commemoration of the removal of the veil by
Iranian women).42
84 Keivan Aghamohseni
Governmental modernization
This section deals with a number of modernization trends in Iranian music
that were realized through the intervention of the government. In fact, this
type of modernization was the direct outcome of the cultural policies of the
government of Reza Shah. His first important measure for modernizing
Iranian music was taken in the context of education. Before this measure, and
since the Qajar period, the military music school was considered part of
official education. The management of this school was offered to ‘Alinaqi
Vaziri in 1928. Upon accepting the new position and taking advantage of the
assistance provided by the then prime minister, Mehdiqoli Hedayat, and the
minister of culture in his cabinet, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri began to introduce changes
in the curriculum of this school.43
Whereas the school’s syllabus had been adopted specifically for military
music, it was given a more or less general direction after ‘Alinaqi Vaziri took
office, and several books were written on topics such as music, systematic
study of instruments, orchestras, and harmony of Iranian music. At the
beginning of 1928–29 academic year, the school was inaugurated under
the name of public school of music (Madreseh-ye Musiqi-ye Dowlati)
with nearly 40 students.44
Indeed, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri transferred his musical activities from his own school
to this officially established school under the protection of the government.
Vaziri was functioning as the principal of this school, renamed the technical
high school of music (Honarestan-e ‘Ali-ye Musiqi), until the winter of 1935;
he was then replaced by Gholamhoseyn Minbashiyan on the pretext of non-
compliance with the instruction to perform music at the court supper cere-
mony held in honour of the Swedish crown prince. However, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s
dismissal from this position seems in fact to have been the result of changes
in Reza Shah’s cultural policies, which will be discussed in greater detail
further below.
Gholamhoseyn Minbashiyan, a graduate of music in the field of violin
from Germany,45 did not believe in Iranian music at all, as his following
remark shows:
Later on in 1933, upon the official ratification of the subject by the High
Council of Culture (Shura-ye ‘Ali-ye Farhang), ‘Alinaqi Vaziri’s book, entitled
Sorud-ha-ye Madares (School songs), was published.50 The ratification of
teaching music in schools was itself another confirmation of the proximity
of ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, the initiator of non-governmental modernization, to the
cultural policymakers of Reza Shah’s government at that historic juncture.
Indeed, the expansion of teaching music, either as a specialized topic in the
music school or as a general subject in all schools, played a decisive role in
the improvement of the Iranian social approach to music and created a far
more suitable social context for musical activities than had existed in the past,
which had its benefits for all musicians of that period regardless of their
standpoints and musical tendencies.
Another musical institution formed during the reign of Reza Shah was the
newly founded State Department for Music (Edareh-ye Musiqi-ye Keshvar),
86 Keivan Aghamohseni
by direct command of Reza Shah in 1938 and under the supervision of
Gholamhoseyn Minbashiyan. According to a communiqué of the Ministry of
Culture, the objectives of the department can be identified as follows: “Following
communiqué no. 23519 per His Majesty’s order, a department was agreed upon
to be established in this ministry under the title of State Department for
Music, the foundations of which shall be based on the principles, rules, and
scales of Western music.”51 This same communiqué specifies the most impor-
tant tasks of the State Department for Music as the composition and publication
of musical pieces and songs; the compilation of books in accordance with the
principles and regulations of modern music; and the popularization of Western
music.52 A remarkable measure taken by this department was the publication
of the magazine Muzik-e Iran (Iran’s music). Apart from publishing this
magazine, the State Department for Music tried to popularize music in Iranian
society by holding concerts and presenting lectures.53
Besides the State Department for Music, the government established
another influential institution that was concerned with music, amongst other
things: the Organization for Public Enlightenment (Sazman-e Parvaresh-e
Afkar). Its foundation charter was ratified by the cabinet on January 2, 1939.54 It
describes the objectives of establishing this institution and the method of its
activity:
Inside the Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar a special musical committee was formed
under the supervision of Gholamhoseyn Minbashiyan. As to the responsibilities
of this committee, the foundation charter suggests:
He believed in reforming the society’s religious affairs and traditions, but had
no intention of eradicating them. The idea of removing the women’s veil
began to spread through certain individuals from the political elite during his
tenure in office, but it was not put into action during this period. Right from
the beginning, Hedayat expressed his outspoken opposition to the unveiling
movement, but made certain proposals for the modification of the women’s
veil in order to promote their greater participation in society at large. As to
his proposed plan, he made the following remarks to Reza Shah: “My intention
of the program presented to His Majesty was that instead of the chador, an
outer garment or manteau in a befitting style be used so that the women’s full
body can be covered except their face.”66 As a whole, Mehdiqoli Hedayat was
keen to reconcile social modernization with tradition. Under such conditions
and while believing in Iranian music, ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, who sought to introduce
reforms in Iranian music from a Westward-looking standpoint, succeeded in
attracting the attention of Mehdiqoli Hedayat.
Step by step, a group of individuals from the political elite with a greater
inclination towards the Westernization of Iranian society moved closer to
Reza Shah, a measure that led to the dismissal of Hedayat.
Hedayat’s main defect, i.e., his dislike of modernity and Iran’s submission
to Europe’s superficial culture, was finally made public at a time when the
Modernization of Iranian music 89
shah had decided to put into effect his plans for women’s liberation: A
prime minister who did not shave his beard, did not take his wife anywhere
unveiled … was not bearable.67
[I]t is not enough to ask What is the nature or the meaning of this work of
music? … [W]e can ask the wider and more interesting question: What
does it mean when this performance (of this work) takes place at this time,
90 Keivan Aghamohseni
in this place, with these participants? … [T]he nature of that work is part of
the nature of the performance, and whatever meanings it may in itself posses
are part of the meaning of the event – an important part but only a part.70
Conclusion
Modernization of Iranian music during the reign of Reza Shah comprised
different aspects. New musical ideas reflecting the influence of Western music
appeared, at one end of which we find ‘Alinaqi Vaziri, who sought to intro-
duce changes in Iranian music based on his Western approach, and at the
other end, we see Gholamhoseyn Minbashiyan, who wanted to eradicate
Iranian music. These intellectual trends did not receive considerable accep-
tance in Iranian society at this time. However, the project for modernizing
Iranian music during the early Pahlavi period had another aspect: giving
music a more prominent role in modern Iranian society. This was quite suc-
cessful and all the prevailing intellectual trends in Iranian music benefited
from music’s incorporation into Iranian society. Indeed, the promotion of
teaching music at school level led to an increase in music’s influence on dif-
ferent social classes. Some social strata had encountered musicians only in the
capacity of motrebs, particularly in festivities, in the recent past, but now
came into contact with the teachers of music at high schools. This played a
major role in changing social attitudes towards music and musicians. Another
indication of the modernization of the social life of music was the expanding
scope of activity for women musicians. “During the Pahlavi era Women’s
involvement in musical life steadily grew.”76 This becomes definitely clear if
we review the catalogues of musical works recorded during the reign of Reza
Shah and compare them to similar catalogues of works recorded during the
Qajar period. We come across the names of only three women singers during
the Qajar period with recorded works. However, the figure reaches 56 women
singers during the rule of Reza Shah.77 This shows that the social context had
improved a lot during this period, so that even women found better opportu-
nities to actively participate in the arena of music despite being always faced
with doubled social and cultural restrictions in comparison to men.
Notes
1 Sara Kalantari, “Tahavvolat-e musiqi-ye Iran dar ‘asr-e mashruteh,” Mahur 32
(1385/2006), pp. 25–47.
2 Sasan Fatemi, “Music, Festivity, and Gender in Iran from the Qajar to the Early
Pahlavi Period,” Iranian Studies 38 (2005), pp. 399–416.
92 Keivan Aghamohseni
3 Eugene Flandin, Voyage en Perse, vol. 1 (Paris: Gide et Jules Baudry, 1851),
pp. 224–25.
4 Sasan Fatemi, “Motreb-ha az safaviyeh ta mashrutiyat,” Mahur 13 (1380/2002), p. 42.
5 Ibid., p. 42.
6 Houchang E. Chehabi, “From Revolutionary Tas.nı-f to Patriotic Suru-d: Music
and Nation-Building in Pre-World War II Iran,” Iran: Journal of the British
Institute of Persian Studies 37 (1999), pp. 143–54.
7 Ruhollah Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi-ye Iran (Tehran: Marvi, 1335/1956), p. 214.
8 Mashhun, Tarikh-e musiqi-ye Iran, p. 386.
9 Ibid., p. 441.
10 Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi, p. 305.
11 Michael Kinnear, “Tarikhcheh-ye zabt-e musiqi dar Iran,” Mahur 29 (1384/2005),
p. 52.
12 Amir Mansur, “Diskugrafi va nagofteh-ha-ye safar-e London 1288 shamsi,”
Safheh Sangi 7 (1385/2006), p. 4.
13 Bruno Nettl, “Persian Classical Music in Tehran: The Process of Change,” in
Eight Urban Musical Cultures, ed. Bruno Nettl (Urbana and London: University
of Illinois Press, 1978), p. 151.
14 Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi, p. 309.
15 Sasan Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz-e musiqi-ye Iran (Tehran: Mash‘al, 1369/1990), p. 45.
16 Jafar Shahribaf, Tarikh-e ejtema‘i-ye Tehran dar qarn-e sizdahom, vol. 4 (Tehran:
Rasa, 1367/1988), p. 478.
17 Mashhun, Tarikh-e musiqi, p. 584.
18 Sasan Fatemi, “Sheklgiri-ye ruhowzi va tahavvol-e sonnat-e motrebi,” Mahur 18
(1381/2003), p. 116.
19 Fatemi, “Sheklgiri-ye ruhowzi,” pp. 115–16.
20 Habibollah Nasirifar, Mardan-e musiqi-ye sonnati va novin-e Iran (Tehran: Rad,
1369/1990), p. 40.
21 Nosrat Haddadi, Farhang-nameh-ye musiqi-ye Iran (Tehran: Tutiya, 1376/1997),
p. 365.
22 Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz, p. 46.
23 ‘Alireza Mir ‘Alinaqi, Musiqi-nameh-ye ‘Alinaqi-ye Vaziri (Tehran: Mo‘in, 1377/
1998), pp. 577–79.
24 Ibid.
25 Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1982), p. 123.
26 Ibid.
27 Mir ‘Alinaqi, Musiqi-nameh, p. 42.
28 Morteza Moshfeq Kazemi, “Musiqi va te’atr dar Iran,” Iranshahr 5–6 (1302/1924),
pp. 326–34.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Mir ‘Alinaqi, Musiqi-nameh, p. 249.
32 Tasnif is the only composed and vocal form in Iranian music.
33 Mir ‘Alinaqi, Musiqi-nameh, p. 77.
34 Taqi Binesh, Shenakht-e musiqi-ye Iran (Tehran: Daneshgah-e Honar, 1376/1997),
p. 75.
35 Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz, p. 150.
36 Mirza Abu al-Qasem ‘Aref Qazvini, Kolliyat-e divan-e Mirza Abu al-Qasem ‘Aref
Qazvini, ed. ‘Abd al-Rahman Seyf Azad (Tehran: Sepehr, 1358/1979), p. 124.
37 Mohammad-Reza Sharayeli and Reza Samim, “Die Rolle der Musik in Iran von 1925–
41: Partizipation der Frauen und Minderheiten an iranischen Musikproduktionen”
(paper presented at the “Seminar für Iranistik,” Georg-August-University,
Göttingen, Germany, February 4, 2010).
Modernization of Iranian music 93
38 Mir Hoseyn Hejazi, “Gramafun dar Iran ya bala-ye jame‘eh,” Ettela‘at, 31
Shahrivar 1307 (September 22, 1928).
39 The modal system of Iranian music.
40 Shahram Aqa’ipur, “Nezam-nameh-ye zabt-e sowt dar safahat-e gramafun,”
Safheh Sangi 2 (1384/2005), p. 22.
41 Sharayeli and Samim, “Die Rolle der Musik.”
42 Ibid.
43 Mir ‘Alinaqi, Musiqi-nameh, p. 580.
44 Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz, pp. 135–36.
45 Ibid., pp. 144–63.
46 Ibid., p. 163.
47 In ancient musical treatises, “circle” was used in the sense of scale.
48 Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi, pp. 82–84.
49 Ibid., p. 85.
50 Ibid.
51 ‘Ali Akbar ‘Ali-Akbar-e Bayegi and Iraj Mohammadi, Asnadi az musiqi, te’atr va
sinema dar Iran: 1300–1357 h.sh. (Tehran: Vezarat-e farhang va ershad-e eslami,
1379/2000), p. 158.
52 Ibid.
53 Reza Mokhtari Esfahani, Tarikh-i tahavvolat-e ejtema‘i-ye radiyo dar Iran
(Tehran: Daftar-e pazhuhesh-ha-ye radiyo, 1388/2009), p. 158.
54 Mahmud Delfani, Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah (Tehran: Entesharat-e
Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli, 1375/1996), p. 1.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid., pp. 2–3.
57 Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz, p. 218.
58 ‘Alireza Esma‘ili, Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyo dar Iran (Tehran: Vezarat-e farhang
va ershad-e eslami, 1379/2000), p. 5.
59 Ibid., p. 8.
60 Ibid., p. 9.
61 Mokhtari Esfahani, Tarikh-i tahavvolat, p. 162.
62 Ibid., p. 163.
63 Esma‘ili, Asnadi az tarikhcheh, pp. 6–7.
64 Mokhtari Esfahani, Tarikh-i tahavvolat, p. 161.
65 Hadi Vakili, “Mehdiqoli Khan Mokhber al-Saltaneh-ye Hedayat va siyasat-e
farhangi-ye ‘asr-e Reza Shah,” Majalleh-ye daneshkadeh-ye adabiyat va ‘olum-e
ensani-yi Mashhad 128–129 (1380/2001), p. 136.
66 Mehdiqoli Hedayat, Khaterat va khatarat (Tehran: Zavvar, 1375/1996), p. 407.
67 Mas‘ud Behnud, Dowlat-ha-ye Iran az Seyyed Ziya ta Bakhtiyar: Sevvom-e
Esfand 1299-bist-o-dovvom-e Bahman 1357 (Tehran: Javedan, 1366/1987), p. 124.
68 Ibid., p. 127.
69 Ibid., p. 137.
70 Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover,
NH: Wesleyan University Press and University Press of New England, 1998), p. 10.
71 Khaleqi, Sargozasht-e musiqi, pp. 82–83.
72 Amir Mansur, “Moruri bar zabt-e safheh dar safar-e Paris (1907),” Safheh Sangi
10 (1386/2007), p. 11.
73 Michael Kinnear, Safheh-ha-ye farsi-ye gramafun: 1899 ta 1934 (Tehran: Anjoman-e
asar va mafakher-e farhangi, 1386/2007), p. 227. See also, Michael Kinnear, The
Gramophone Company’s Persian Recordings: 1899 to 1934 (Victoria: Bajakhana,
2000).
74 Sepanta, Cheshm-andaz, p. 147.
75 Shahin Farhat, Kambiz Rowshanravan, and Mohammad-Reza Sharayeli, “Seyri
dar 50 sal asar-e orkestri-ye musiqi-ye irani” (paper presented at the Forty-First
94 Keivan Aghamohseni
Session on Iranian Music Research by the Ava-ye Mehrabani Institute, Tehran,
Iran, Azar 23, 1386/December 14, 2007).
76 Houchang E. Chehabi, “Voices Unveiled: Women Singers in Iran,” in Iran and
Beyond. Essays in Middle Eastern History in Honor of Nikki R. Keddie, ed.
Rudolph P. Matthee and Beth Baron (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2000),
pp. 151–66.
77 Sharayeli and Samim, “Die Rolle der Musik.”
5 The king’s white walls
Modernism and bourgeois architecture
Talinn Grigor
In July 1944, Reza Shah Pahlavi died in exile in Johannesburg. The majority
of his compatriots did not mourn his passing despite the fact that no other
king, perhaps with the exception of Shah ‘Abbas the Great, had managed to
alter the individual lives of so many ordinary Iranians. Reza Shah’s body was
transported to Cairo and temporarily buried in Sunni grounds in the follow-
ing October.1 With some seven years delay, it was brought back to Iran and
was ceremoniously interred in 1951 under a modernist white structure – a
new hybrid architecture that drew its vocabulary from the main tenets of the
Modern movement of Europe and the Zoroastrian fire temples of ancient
Iran. By then, the Iranian bourgeoisie, the modern middle class that had
come of age under Pahlavi rule, enjoyed its modernist villas, cinemas, swim-
ming pools, national banks, and train stations, while the rest of the nation,
regardless of class, were exposed to its historicist, yet equally modernistic,
museums, mausoleums, and governmental buildings. The avant-garde archi-
tectural vocabulary of the former was set against the invented historicism of
the latter. The evocation of the timely in the whiteness and the austerity of
avant-garde structures – villas, cinemas, leisure architecture – strengthened the
timelessness of historicist monuments – museums, mausoleums, official archi-
tecture. Both were invented as interdependent strategies to imagine the nation
into being through aesthetic tropes.
The rise of the middle-class bourgeoisie in Iran has been, by and large,
credited to the secularist and modernist ruling ambitions of Reza Shah.
Modern architecture in Tehran and in other major urban centres throughout
the country consisted of the most vivid expression of this shift from an aristo-
cratic to a bourgeois ascendancy in the 1920s and 1930s.2 The formation of the
architectural profession as a separate discipline and vocation – hence the birth
of the local architect as the paramount representative of the bourgeois class –
was a result of the modernizing and secularist policies of the early Pahlavi
period, which was instituted by the reformist ministers of the king’s first
cabinet (see Figure 5.1). After 1925, a dialectical and ambivalent relationship
developed between the architects at the service of the state and the centralist
state, which had founded institutions with the aim of producing the professional
middle class, including these same architects.
96 Talinn Grigor
Figure 5.1 Reza Shah’s cabinet members and other high-ranking officials during a
horserace event in Gorgan, 1928. The central figure with the camera is
court minister ‘Abd al-Hoseyn Teymurtash; on his right, finance minister
Firuz Mirza Nosrat al-Dowleh; and on his left, justice minister ‘Ali Akbar
Davar.
Source: Library of Prince Firouz Mirza Firouz, by the permission of Shahrokh Firouz.
This chapter traces the symbiotic dynamics between two invented archi-
tectural traditions – modernist and historicist – under Reza Shah with two
distinct aims on the larger body politics of bourgeois identity and class for-
mation. The opening of a space, a modernist tabula rasa, was often literal in
the form of radical urban renewals. On this empty space, new structures from
a novel aesthetic tradition represented and shaped the activities and identity
of the bourgeois class. The professional, pedagogical, urban, and architectural
policies established during this period of rapid change transformed the very
appearance of Iran’s modernity, enshrining it with white austere walls in
juxtaposition to ornate surfaces and Orientalist revival. Until the Iranian
Revolution of 1977–79, bourgeois architecture under the two opposing gar-
ments of avant-garde modernism and Orientalist historicism provided the
semblance of the certainty of national modernity.
Tabula rasa
In August 1927, Reza Shah’s powerful court minister admitted to the British
secretary that “Persia, after twenty years of so-called Constitutional Government,
had made little progress. Everything had to be started over again … ”.3
The king’s white walls 97
The Pahlavi “progress along modern lines” was underpinned by a modernist
impulse to erase the past – a deep desire to change and start over again –
similar to other modernist movements around the world in the 1920s and
1930s. The realization of a tabula rasa, a utopian blank slate upon which a
new Iran could be conceived “over again,” was endemic to the strategies of
Pahlavi modernization. Buildings and cities were the first to be affected by
this desire for change. The eradication of historical structures and urban
pockets meant that a newly built environment could emerge free from the burden
of history, geography, and colonialism. It also meant that a new historical con-
tinuity with the national past needed to be fabricated. Raised on this tabula
rasa, the set of structures that projected an image of timeliness appealed to
notions of progress, fashionability, masculinity, and modernity – all of which
characterized bourgeois anxieties vis-à-vis the project of modernity. The set of
monuments that represented the timelessness of the nation instead evoked
notions about venerated heritage, racial rootedness, historical longevity, and
the very validity of the nation’s claim to existence. While in opposition to
each other in stylistic discourses, the two movements in modern architectural
history under Reza Shah served the same fiction by providing a solid image of
the rise of a secular and national middle class in Iran.
In order to implement this strategy of secular and class formation, Tehran
served as the model for urban renewal projects around the country. Here, the
state transformed the urban fabric as rapidly and forcefully as it envisioned
the advent of modernity and civilization. The first symbol of this conception
of progress was the removal of the old Tehran’s fortifications.4 Between 1932
and 1937, the nineteenth-century ramparts and eleven gates were dismantled.
Quite literally space was opened up for the expansion of the capital city, while
the historical markers of Qajar power were eradicated. This also enabled the
state to disperse the class network of the traditionalist merchants in their
bazaar, the ‘olama in their mosques, and the old nobility in their residential
quarters. These three groups, which belonged to the aristocratic formation of
Qajar class structure, had clung to sections of Tehran’s urban fabric as an
important component of their political power; now they were forced to either
relocate their power base or suffer significant loss of political influence
brought about by Reza Shah’s urban renewal. While the rising bourgeoisie
moved northward for better water, air, view, and an urban clean slate, the old
aristocratic families, the clerics, and the merchants remained by and large in
their places and over the years figured less and less in the country’s political
apparatus; that is, until 1979.
The need for military accessibility in the bazaar and the religious com-
plexes set off a major urban renewal that often knocked down entire neigh-
bourhoods. At its heart Tehran centred on the Palace of Golestan and
predominantly consisted of the residential quarters and service areas of the
Qajar royal complex; approximately 30 percent of the built environment was
levelled to the ground.5 Some of the demolitions were replaced by new struc-
tures; others were left vacant, most probably because of the lack of construction
98 Talinn Grigor
time and the need for wider streets and open spaces. As part of a controlling
urbanism to decentralize dense urban centres and to bring Tehran to look like
European major cities, “1.8 square kilometres – 9 percent of the whole city”
was transformed into open squares, including wide avenues, urban squares,
and municipal parks.6 The new Ministry of Finance was erected on the site of
the royal harem with great symbolism, while the Nayeb al-Saltaneh palace
gave way to the new building of the Justice Ministry by Gabriel Guevrekian
in 1936. In a similar vein, the main barracks and royal stables were trans-
formed into the Ministry of Trade. That which was preserved, namely the
major structures of the Golestan Palace such as the Shams al-Emareh,
Khalvat-e Karimkhani, and the Emarat-e Badgir, was rendered presentable,
monumental, and heritage-like by the removal of surrounding minor and
service constructions.
Perhaps the most impressive single demolition, both in terms of scale
and symbolism, was that of the “magnificent” Takiyeh Dowlat. Erected in
1868, it is described by historians as “the brainchild of Naser al-Din himself”
and “one of the greatest edifices built under Qajar rule.”7 The complete
destruction of this state theatre was, on the one hand, notable because
the structure was a massive work of architecture that housed the royal
patronage of Shi’a rituals. Seating some one thousand spectators around a
circular stage and three-story balconies under a semi-permanent dome, it was
a hybrid of local decorative program and European building typologies, for
Naser al-Din had decreed its design after Charles Garnier’s Paris opera house
began in 1857. On the other hand, the choice to destroy the building was
highly symbolic because it was the most imposing structure raised in the
capital city by the most influential Qajar monarch for the specific purpose of
Shi’a passion plays (ta‘ziyeh) – the very performance of which the Pahlavi
state had perceived as regressive, certainly un-modern, and unfit for the
bourgeois lifestyle, and had outlawed. Ironically, Naser al-Din had erected
Takiyeh Dowlat as his marked contribution to Iran’s nineteenth-century
modernization.
Whereas much of these demolitions took place from the mid 1920s
throughout the 1930s, the legal basis of this urban renewal policy was the
“Street Widening Act,” unanimously passed by the parliament on 13
November 1933.8 While the king’s opening speech of the ninth Majles had
demanded a “rapid industrialization,” which the British felt “the country
could hardly stand,” the local deputies were pressed to approve “the Law
concerning the creation and widening of avenues and streets.”9 The case
presented to them under the rubric of preservation and modernization instead
would sanction an array of destructions with relative ease. “The false
discourse on the preservation of heritage, which was born during the Renaissance,
aims at concealing the real destruction and disfigurements” of the built
environment that now was being shaped by a bourgeois elite.10 When the state
applied the same “protection” tactics to Tehran’s residential quarters, where
ordinary people lived, the symbiotic of construction and destruction was
The king’s white walls 99
rendered visible. Charles Calmer Hart, the American attaché to Iran, reported
in 1931:
Nine years later, the American embassy estimated that the number of residential
structures demolished ranged from 15,000 to 30,000. In a memo, it remarked,
“Tehran looks as if it has been destroyed by an earthquake,” further under-
scoring that “[t]he ruthlessness of its methods is bewildering to anyone not
used to the ways of modern Iran.”12 Rosita Forbes, an American traveller to
Iran in the early 1930s, similarly described Tehran as “slightly Hollywoodesque,
for the new streets looked as if they had not quite settled where they were going,
and the rows of new houses, one room deep, were all frontage.”13
Tehranis were not uncritical of what was happening to their city. The most
vocal anti-Pahlavi clergy in the parliament, Seyyed Hasan Modarres, objecting
to Reza Shah’s urban renewal, stressed during his 1925 parliament speech,
“modernization had to be distinguished from such lawless acts against the
people and their possessions.”14 In 1932, German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld,
who had supported the government cabinet in its drive for urban change and
had collaborated with many of its members, confessed to Hart: “It is a system
of ruining established authorities of old, without replacing them with anything
at all,” further adding, “Everything we see [is] a methodic destruction … .
The result is a vacuum. One day the consequences will appear.”15 Historians
have described these urban changes as “a good example of bureaucratic
reformism and mindless vandalism,” where “[t]he vandals played havoc with
community life and historic architecture at will.”16 Others characterized the
1930s Tehran as “a massive unfinished tableau worked on by several artists,”
and a mere “external Westernization” aimed at “impress[ing] foreign obser-
vers, who usually visited only Tehran.”17 The state “ripped down sections of
cities,” Cottam wrote, “ruthlessly destroyed mosques and other edifices
mellow with the charm of age, and replaced them with broad, tree-lined but
incongruous boulevards.”18
It was certainly true that, as historians Banani and Lockhart put it, “the
Tehran of 1941 bore no resemblance to the Tehran of 1921.”19 The northward
urban growth accelerated by the bourgeoisie’s desire for rapid development
resulted in an entire new city: “well-planned” with “wide streets intersecting
each other at right angles, some paved with cut granite, others with asphalt
and concrete.”20 “[I]n the construction of new streets, or the extension and
100 Talinn Grigor
widening of the old, the policy was to demolish any and all buildings –
residential, monumental, historical or whatever – merely in order to keep them
straight.”21 By design, the master plan was intended to project “a glaring con-
trast to the labyrinthal lanes of the old quarters” in southern Tehran where
the merchants and the ‘olama continued to occupy their historical urban
pockets.22 In the north, the straight streets in addition to the new squares and
parks “added to the European aspect of the capital,” as later observed. While
in the early 1930s the American diplomats could hardly see the benefits of a
hurried urban renewal, a decade later they praised the city’s “remarkable
changes since His Majesty came to the throne.”23
Streets have been widened and paved; trees have been planted to take the
place of the old ones destroyed by the alterations; modern government
buildings have been erected in various parts of the city, and a number of
small parks in local squares are being landscaped. Previous efforts, however,
are not to be compared with the present activity under the direction
of the Acting Chief of the Tehran Municipality, Mr. Gholam Hossein
Ebtehaj. … Buildings on all main streets must be at least two stories high
to add more dignity to the city.24
Despite accusations of being a vandal, Reza Shah persisted until the end of
his rule with his drive to transform Tehran into a modern capital. A year
before his exile, while taking a stroll in Tehran, he took issue with the height of
the buildings on designated streets. “Why do these ugly, one-story shops still
remain?” he asked. “I have told the military to force the owners to add another
story or have their shops destroyed. I wonder if you, a civilian, could succeed
where the army has failed?”25 He then gave the owners the two options either to
add a story to their original structure or face destruction. Reportedly, after
the incident, Tehran’s mayor, who was held responsible for this disappointment,
“plunged into the task” of mending the problem, “and within a few weeks
sections of the avenues looked as if they had been bombed from the air.”26
Notwithstanding his harsh methods, on the eve of the king’s abdication, for
those Iranians who could remember the pre–Reza Shah Tehran, the changes,
including the speed at which they had happened, “were nothing short of
miraculous,” while for those who had had the opportunity to either study or
work in cities like Paris, London, and Berlin, “the chasm between the mate-
rial progress of the West and their own country was a source of frustration
and defeatism.”27 This gulf between Iran and the West, often explicitly man-
ifested in architecture and urbanisms, would continue to be a cause of shame
and disappointment for the following generations of Iranian architects and
politicians alike. Throughout the Pahlavi era, Iran’s measures of progress
and modernity would often be observed and scrutinized in its architectural
production. The urban renewal projects in Tehran and other urban centres
throughout the country provided the utopian clean slate to build a new future
that matched the ambitions of the rising bourgeoisie.
The king’s white walls 101
The timelessness of historicism
In 1922, four years before Reza Shah crowned himself king of Iran, a group
of secular reformists established the Society for National Heritage (Anjoman-e
asar-e melli), the SNH.28 While the SNH’s founding members came from
diverse class and intellectual upbringings, they all were in agreement regarding
the implementation of secular, national, and heavy-handed reforms under the
new monarchy. Many of the most influential men of Reza Shah’s first cabinet
included the SNH’s prominent founders: court minister ‘Abd al-Hoseyn
Teymurtash, described as a man of “brilliancy [with] elements of madness,”
was the mastermind of the SNH.29 The prominent scholar among the group
was former prime minister Hasan Pirniya, who was to write the three-volume
History of Ancient Iran30 and is often credited with preventing Iran from becom-
ing a British protectorate in 1919. Another scholar–politician, Mohammad ‘Ali
Forughi, remained the most popular figure of the SNH. Firuz Mirza Firuz
Nosrat al-Dowleh, the sharp Qajar nobleman and minister of finance, was
instrumental in dealings with the French in the sphere of archaeology. The
Zoroastrian representative to the parliament, Arbab Keykhosrow Shahrokh,
was central to the revival of Achaemenid and Sasanian architecture in the
1930s. Justice and finance minister ‘Ali Akbar Davar assisted in financing the
SNH’s projects by his manipulation of the bureaucratic machine.
Other high-ranking politicians and founders of the SNH included former
prime minister Hasan Mostowfi; former ministers of public instruction Hasan
Esfandiyari, Ebrahim Hakimi, and Hajj Seyyed Nasrollah Taqavi; and the
politician and scholar Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh. The SNH later recruited
other men of power, such as future education and culture minister ‘Isa Sadiq,
professor and editor Sa‘id Nafisi, and future minister of public instruction ‘Ali
Asghar Hekmat. Most of these men had benefited from either a state-founded
secular schooling in Iran or a state-sponsored education in Europe, which
had convinced them of the rewards of modernization. They had often gained
social mobility by Qajar efforts to modernize. No less critical was their
exposure to western literature, etiquette, fashion, technology, and architecture,
which were often first adopted by Qajar kings as new norms of culture. In
matters of fine arts, especially architecture and cultural heritage, these highly
influential men defined the parameters of the definition of high culture and
good taste for the Iranian middle class. During its sixty years of activity, the
SNH constructed some forty national monuments, carried out over sixty
preservation projects, and erected a national museum and a public library. The
cultural scope and diversity of the SNH’s undertakings were unprecedented in
the history of Iran and were bolstered by numerous publications, lectures,
exhibitions, and contributions to the tourist industry.31
The series of national monuments that were erected by the SNH employed
historicism and eclecticism in design. Each also had a direct link to Iran’s
history in its architectural program. The major landmarks included the tomb
complex of the poet Ferdowsi (1926–34) in Tus by French archaeologist
102 Talinn Grigor
André Godard; the tomb-garden of Sufi poet Hafez (1936–39) in Shiraz
designed by French architect Maxim Siroux; the burial complex of scientist
Avicenna (1945–52) in Hamadan proposed by Iranian architect Hushang
Seyhun; the mausoleum of Nader Shah (1955–59) in Mashhad, also the work
of Seyhun; the tomb of poet ‘Omar Khayyam (1956–62) in Nishapur, a col-
laboration between Seyhun and Mohsen Forughi; and the double-tombs of
American Art Historians Arthur Pope and Phyllis Ackerman (1969–72) in
Isfahan designed by Forughi. While each was programmatically modern, its
style aimed to convey the eternity of the nation, deeply rooted in conceptions
of tradition, race, language, and culture. Therefore, even though none were
modernistic in style or iconography, intentionally so, they all served modern
structures of knowledge, organization, and experience through a juxtaposition
relationship to other sets of structures that was created to appeal to a timely
modernity. They each aimed to work as heritage, which had to be read as
venerable and timeless. While they were clearly implemented as part of the
larger project of modernity – in fact they were the project of modernity – they
were not intended to be deciphered as modernistic, timely, or fashionable.
The pseudoscientific process, or rather the semblance of scientificity, to
which these monuments were exposed, was highly consistent. The burial
places of historical figures that suited the national agenda were selected,
located, and eliminated. After the confiscation of the corpse for autopsy, a
modern building was erected on the original site, after which the relics were
interred as part of an official royal inauguration. While ordinary Iranians were
excluded from witnessing these events, state-run media covered each ceremony
in detail. The main result of this process was that historical figures were given
a physical place to inhabit in the form of modern, yet historically recognizable
tombs. Their physiognomic particularities were reconstructed based on skull
and bone examinations. This in turn served to produce each figure’s life-size
sculpture and color portrait. The modified biography and persona of these
men were circulated among the masses by means of photographs, stamps,
postcards, and coins. Each fragment endlessly authenticated the implicit
totality of the historically sanitized image invented by the SNH. Each also
reinforced the cultural discourse on Iranian middle-class identity that was at
once national, secular, and inherently bourgeois in its structural premise.
The significance of this historicist architecture lay in the way it penetrated
most aspects of modernizing efforts, while providing the image of an enduring
nation with a long history. Despite their simplicity, the monuments incorpo-
rated a complex range of modern practices under the gist of historicity. As a
component in the larger mechanism of Pahlavi public instruction, these civil sites
came to replace the Shi‘a pilgrimage destinations through a historicist stylistic
language. Religious pilgrimage became middle-class tourism (see Figure 5.2).
Autopsies of the remains of the historical figures stood as proof of the racial
superiority of the nation, while the museums adjoining the modern tomb
validated the logic of its display. The revival of both pre-Islamic and Islamic
icons and prototypes was incorporated into centuries-old lived practices. The
The king’s white walls 103
CASPIAN
TABRIZ SEA
TUS
NISHAPUR
i
MASHHAD
QAZV1N
TEHRAN
HAMMMN RfV i
OOM
BACHDAD
KARBALA ISFAHAN
IRAN
NAJAF
SHRAZ
Figure 5.2 Map of major historical sites of pilgrimage for Twelver Imami Shi‘ism in
Iran, overlaid by the modern sites of secular/civil pilgrimage constructed
between 1934 and 1979 by the SNH. As an integral part of Iran’s moder-
nization project, the state and the SNH intended first to utilize and then to
shift the network and rituals of the Shi‘a pilgrimage to a different set of
secular national destinations.
Source: Talinn Grigor, 2009.
Figure 5.3 André Godard, main and southern façade of the Archaeological Museum
of Iran (Muzeh-ye Iran Bastan), Tehran 1936–39.
Source: Private collection, photo by Farokh Khadem; courtesy of Cyrus Samii.
revivalist street-façades: the first National Bank (Bank-e Melli, 1935) designed
by German architect H. Heinrich; the Archaeological Museum (Muzeh-ye
Iran Bastan, 1939) designed by André Godard (see Figure 5.3); the first
public library (c. 1940) proposed by Maxim Siroux; the central post office; the
Anushirvan school for girls; the Police Headquarters (1933); along with a
dozen monumental structures to house the newly established ministries. In
these works, both Iranian and foreign architects designed public monuments
that were imbedded in historicism – i.e. neo-Achaemenid, neo-Sasanian, neo-
Samanid, neo-Seljuk, neo-Safavid, etc. – while simultaneously erecting private
residential houses, leisure architecture, and military structures that rebelled
against any kind of academic and historicist tradition.
In commissions that had to fulfil the demands of historical heritage, archi-
tects complied with the historicist trends despite their general discontent with
eclecticism. In private commissions and those fulfilling contemporanity, they
had license to remain faithful to the architectural discipline and its con-
temporary global trends. In these latter bids, their bourgeois patrons insisted
on a modern built environment that matched their class ambitions. Free from
the burden of history, often with a self-Orientalist underpinning, architects
ventured into a range of imported and invented schemes that were distinct
from the historicist architectural vocabulary reserved for the SNH’s
The king’s white walls 105
monuments and state structures: from a minimalist art deco in the then fash-
ionable New Lalehzar Street apartments, to the austere International Style
villas tucked in the small alleys of northern Tehran. Rarely, if at all, did
Achaemenid and Sasanian revivalism find its way to these private commissions.
Revivalism under Reza Shah was a mere strategy to arrive at a modernity
that aimed to be uniquely Iranian. The modern middle class desired a time-
liness that was only possible with the presence of a timely architecture juxta-
posed to the timelessness of historicism. Being modern meant inhabiting the
modern as timely.
For the project of nation-building, the historicist style met the central need
of historical lineage as well as national symbolism. Those architects who
practiced historic eclecticism believed that their work was part of a con-
tinuous process of cultural evolution that was capable of recapturing the true
spirit of a given period in Iran’s (art) history. The various Muslim golden
ages – Seljuk, Samanid, Safavid, etc. – were recast as a purified version of an
Islam that was deeply Persian and uninhibited by colonial expansionism. The
various pre-Islamic golden ages – Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian –
were reinvented as unpolluted from Muslim-Arab influence and equally
deeply Persian in essence. In either case, these authors were in search of a
visual language that was appropriate for their age – as all modern architects
had been since the nineteenth century inside and outside the western canon of
architectural practice. In spite of the claims of its protagonists and its later
apologists, in the case of Reza Shah’s Iran, both historicism and avant-gardism
in architecture were deeply modernist practices in search of the same thing:
formulating new ways to look authentically modern, yet of a nation millennia
old. Iranian architects were not only rethinking the nature of their own rela-
tionship to Iranian history and its contemporary political currents, but also
the nature of their rather unstable affinity with the hegemonic West as the
centre of modernity’s image.
Figure 5.5 General view of Reza Shah’s mausoleum by architects Mohsen Forughi,
Keyqobad Zafar, and ‘Ali Sadeq, Rey 1947–51. In the background is visible
the Shah ‘Abd al-‘Azim Shrine, 9th–20th centuries.
Source: Ali Khadem Collection, courtesy of Farrokh Khadem and Cyrus Samii.
110 Talinn Grigor
problem was singular: how to represent a modernizing king, who aspired to
become a historical figure among a long list of historical great men? How
was the tomb’s design going to position itself vis-à-vis the segregations of avant-
gardism and historicism? Where would that fit into the formula of the avant-
garde reserved for private, leisure, and technologically advanced programs or
the historicist styles reserved for funerary, religious, symbolic, and historical
programs? The aesthetics of Reza Shah’s tomb was set in direct opposition to
those of Ferdowsi, Hafez, Sa‘di, and Avicenna in that the former projected
the images of a timely, fashionable, and hence modernist structure. White
walls, simple form, abstinence from ornament. The latter constantly repre-
sented a semblance of timelessness, of non-modernist venerable heritage, the
heritage that was the ancient nation. While the first was masculine, based on
solid structure and function, the rest were invested in the fantasies of the
Orient and ornamentation. One defined itself in opposition to the other. Both
catered to the needs of middle class identity formation (see Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 Local tourist posing on the steps of Hafeziyeh’s southern courtyard, Shiraz
1954. This kind of practice by an unveiled woman, much less by a Christian
Iranian, would not have been tolerated before the 1938 spatial metamor-
phosis of the Mosalla cemetery into Hafez’s tomb garden, nor would she
have visited the site. Here she practices tourism and citizenry in the context
of a secularized space, not a religious pilgrimage.
Source: Courtesy of Seda Hovnanian.
The king’s white walls 111
The Allied invasion of Iran in August 1941 forced Reza Shah into exile in
Johannesburg, where he died of a heart attack three years later. The return
of his body to Iran turned out to be a political controversy. On a number of
occasions, Mohammad Reza Shah had tried to convince the government to
organize an elaborate state funeral. In 1947, prime minister Ahmad Qavam
vetoed such a request.43 The ‘olama had rejected the proposition of burying
him in Qom or Mashhad. The king’s own wish to be buried in the Saadabad
palace complex was denied by clerics who took issue with the fact that Reza
Shah had already been buried in a non-Shi‘a land and therefore needed to be
interred near a Shi’a shrine within Iran.44 Rey, the city of Qajar royal burial
south of Tehran, was finally agreed upon. By order of the young king, the
construction of a mausoleum began in 1948 adjacent to the shrine of Shah
‘Abd al-‘Azim. When completed in March 1950, Reza Shah’s body, embalmed
in a coffin, was sent to Cairo to join a group of high-ranking Iranian officials,
including his son.45 After a stop in Mecca and Medina, the coffin was placed
on a special train from Ahwaz to Tehran. Reza Shah would have no doubt
wanted that. The Trans-Iranian Railway was one of the legacies of his reign –
the carrier of avant-gardism from the metropolitan center to the peripheries
of the nation. After a slow procession through the boulevards of Tehran, his
body arrived in his final resting place. On 8 May 1951, he was buried under a
simple but austere modernist structure.
Designed by three well-known Pahlavi architects – Mohsen Forughi, Keyqobad
Zafar, and ‘Ali Sadeq – the landmark evoked not only Iran’s modern leap into
the future under Reza Shah, but also its renewed bond with Zoroastrian anti-
quity. Forughi was the leading architect among the three. Born into a prominent
secular family of Tehran, he was not only a man of the Pahlavi system, but
also a product of the Society of National Heritage. In fact, his father was
none other than Reza Shah’s prime minister Mohammad ‘Ali Forughi, one of
the founders of the SNH in 1922 and its director until his forced resignation
in 1935. Described by those who worked with him as “a very gentle and kind
individual with his love for Iranian art” and by later authors as “the best-
known architect of his generation” as well as “one of the first modern Iranian
architects,” Forughi was sent by the Iranian government to and graduated
from the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1937.46 He returned
to Iran to join the literature and technology schools of Tehran University
and await the establishment of the school of architecture. He proved pivotal to the
politics of the architectural profession in the 1950s and 1960s and its relationships
to the state. When younger architects like Hushang Seyhun returned to Iran
from Europe armed with ideas influenced by major avant-garde architects, it was
Forughi and his generation that defended the grand tradition of the Beaux-Arts
while simultaneously remaining attached to Iranian ways of doing things.47
Employed by the technical office of the Ministries of Education and Finance
and the National Bank, and well connected to both Godard and Siroux, For-
ughi succeeded Godard to become the first Iranian dean of the school of
architecture, a post he held until 1962. He was also one of the founders of the
112 Talinn Grigor
Society of Iran’s Architects and a prominent member of the SNH throughout
the 1960s and 1970s. As a leading figure of these establishments, he was a vital
link between the state and the profession throughout the late Pahlavi era. His
main works included the master plan of Tehran University (1934), the faculty
of law of the university (the first major academic construction by an Iranian
architect), the Ministry of Finance, the Senate (with Heydar Ghiaï, 1959), and
the bazaar branch of the National Bank (Bank-e Melli) in south Tehran. His
skilful synthesis of historical decorative motifs and modern morphologies in
these structures, along with his personal connections to the court and to such
figures as Pope, enabled him to live up to royal and colonial expectations.
As a member of the Ilkhani-Bakhtiyari tribe and family clan, Keyqobad
Zafar was not as privileged as Forughi. Despite his training at the Royal
College of Arts in England, he initially struggled with political opposition in
order to establish himself as a respectable architect among the bourgeois cir-
cles of Tehran. Like his partner, however, he was a modernist who aspired to
simplicity in ornamentation, use of modern methods and materials, and the
articulation of geometric forms. ‘Ali Sadeq was the third partner in designing
Reza Shah’s tomb. During the most radical times in terms of urban planning
and the implementation of other secular reforms, from 1930 to 1937, he studied
in Europe and received his education from Caen University and Brussels’
Academy of Fine Arts. When he returned to Tehran, he refrained from
working for the government. Given the autocratic methods of the king during
the last years of his reign, many architects saw in the private corporate sector
a freedom that was rarely available to those architects and engineers who
worked for the state. However, he was drawn into state institutions when he was
elected to the city council of Tehran, while maintaining his private professional
practice. The final outcome of the cooperation between these three architects
became the centerpiece of the nation until it was outdone by the Shahyad
Aryamehr monument in 1971. The image that the tomb provided of the stability
of the nation and the court was pivotal to its function as symbolic architecture.48
The landmark was deployed as a part of the discourse on the endurance
and merit of the Pahlavi dynasty after Reza Shah’s demise. In his attempt to
regain power and prestige, Mohammad Reza Shah enticed potential suppor-
ters into his sphere of influence by strengthening the state bureaucracy
and court patronage. He appealed to different social strata with the public
image of a benevolent sovereign whose reign, in contrast to his father’s, would
be marked by cooperation rather than coercion. Simultaneously, through state
rituals and modernist taste-making, he appealed to the modern middle class
by establishing forms of continuity between his father’s reign and his own.
Though he never acquired divine status among his subjects during the Pahlavi
reign, an attempt was made to sanctify Reza Shah’s memory through the
architectural language of his mausoleum, in addition to other strategies of
legend-making. His tomb was one of the most symbolic markers of this rupture
and at once a link between the reigns of Reza Shah and that of his son.
Therefore so much of Mohammad Reza Shah’s effort to establish himself as
The king’s white walls 113
the successor to his father symbolically rotated around this monument. The
details of the design were meticulously worked out to serve this purpose of a
difference in continuity.
The site and position of the tomb helped it to gain Shi‘a sanctity, while the
architectural language and material appealed to the universalistic taste of
modernity. The religious associations of the Shah ‘Abd al-‘Azim shine and the
spiritual status of the adjoining cemetery enshrined a religious overtone to
Reza Shah’s modern mausoleum. Locally, it relied on the juxtaposition of the
building with the other Islamic shrines positioned directly behind it – Shah
‘Abd al-‘Azim, Emamzadeh Hamzeh, and Emamzadeh Taher – and in the
vicinity – Emamzadeh ‘Abd al-Hasan and Emamzadeh ‘Abdollah. This
proximity to historically significant Shi’a landmarks endowed Reza Shah’s
tomb with a sanctity that it would otherwise not have had.49 The complex
proper followed dual conceptions of centrality and directionality. It inspired a
central focus and significance – the body of the king – and at once provided
axiality for ceremonial purposes. Connected to the main building were other
smaller rooms, perhaps for administrative or exhibition purposes. The pro-
truded facades gave the impression of depth and three-dimensionality to the
structure, while the use of the chahar-taq prototype appealed to Iranian
architectural history at large.
The basic form of the Zoroastrian fire temple, the chahar-taq, which con-
sists of a dome sitting on a square room, was first used by the Achaemenids,
the Parthians, and the Sasanians for their temples and palaces and later
adopted as funerary monuments by the Samanids, the Seljuks, the Timurids,
and the Mughals. Its modern re-appropriation represented the modern nation
with a long history blind to religion, yet deeply nationalistic. Likewise, the
obvious use of the tenets of the International Style in color and material was
another aspect of its appeal to the rightful place of the nation, and its mod-
ernist king, in the ranks of the “civilized nations.” An aesthetic difference
between the Qajar past and the Pahlavi present was achieved through the
building technology, modern forms, monumental expression, and the use of
white marble and concrete as construction materials. By altering the size,
color, and material, and by keeping the main plan and elevation configuration
of the chahar-taq prototype, a link to antiquity and a break from the
immediate past was projected. In this tomb, architecture also managed to
bridge the historical importance of Reza Shah and his technological and
infrastructural achievements – his relevance for Iran’s modernity and the
modern middle class.
Yet from the outset, the structure generated admiration and criticism, pre-
dominantly of a political rather than an aesthetic nature. Or rather, political
grievances were raised on the grounds of aesthetics. As of its completion, the
communist Tudeh Party condemned the court for spending too much on a
building and a ceremony that could have been omitted, instead of helping the
poor.50 Subsequently, throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the monument served
as a platform to celebrate and commemorate the modernity of the nation.
114 Talinn Grigor
During his imperial tour of the country, the young king honored the memory
of his father and his deeds each year at the tomb. Annually, Reza Shah’s
passing too was commemorated by court ministers and state officials.51
Commitment to the dynasty from all levels of society was declared at the foot
of the monument. In July 1967, Army General Fereydun Jam stressed during
his speech at the tomb of Reza Shah that “here eternally rests a captain who
raised his country from ruins and who erased the mark of shame from his
country.”52 The following March, on the occasion of the Workers Day,
representatives of that social stratum visited the tomb and paid allegiance to
the court.53 Along with Persepolis and other major heritage sites around the
country, the landmark also served as a principal destination for diplomatic
guests. Foreign visitors of all hues, sport groups, and heads of states were
invited here. Among many others, in July 1965, the German football team; in
September 1966, the general secretary of the Inter-Parliamentary Union,
André de Blonay; and in April 1968, the chairman of the Council of Ministers
of the Soviet Union, Alexei Kosygin: all paid an official visit to the tomb
during their tour of Iran.54 Each of these utterances of allegiance to the
Pahlavi state and court were reported in the state-owned mass media.
Unlike any other major upheaval since the French Revolution, cultural
heritage was by and large left alone during the Iranian revolutionary struggle
from 1977 until calm was restored in 1979. Reza Shah’s mausoleum was one
of the few monumental exceptions. The Mojahedin, who had first aimed to
sabotage the 2500-year anniversary celebrations of the Persian Empire in October
1971, eventually during the mid decade bombed the tomb.55 For the opposition,
it symbolized not only the ruling monarchy, but also the very epistemic taste that
it had promoted since 1925. The avant-garde architectural language contributed
squarely to this image of fashion as this architecture defined social status.
After the establishment of the Islamic Republic, the tomb was one of the very few
monuments that were dismantled and demolished. Since then, it has completely
disappeared not only physically and visually, but also in official and popular
narratives. During the Pahlavi era, avant-garde architecture, best represented
by Reza Shah’s tomb, acted as a billboard and projected the legitimacy of the
ruling monarchy in its operational difference. Visible to the public, avant-
garde and historicist structures functioned as binary opposites that served the
same epistemic regime of this shift from an aristocratic monarchy to an
expanding bourgeois middle class. Cultural tropes of civilization, of appearing
progressive, produced and represented that difference, a difference in taste.
Whiteness was not only central to the making of this new image as modern,
but also to the oppositional effect. It indicated the new veneer that enshrined
the new order as such. All the bodies – from clothing, to car, to hairdo, to
furniture, to houses – were enveloped in this austere minimalist whiteness.
Each, in turn, operated as a fragment in a larger system of taste and class
formation. White walls provided “a recognizable ‘look’” to the middle class.56
This was particularity poignant given the Orientalist discourse linking orna-
mentation to crime in modern times within the main architectural discussions
The king’s white walls 115
in mainland Europe during the first two decades of the twentieth century.57
White architecture also provided a marked departure and opposition to the
opulent buildings of Qajar kings and nobilities. For the Pahlavi elite, it further
fed the discourse on racial superiority and modern hygiene and went on to
replicate conceptions of masculinity, intellectualism, permanence, and industry.
Fashion and conceptions of fashionability had much to do with this relation-
ship between the Pahlavi bourgeoisie and architecture. To be fashionable, to be
up-to-date was a trope of the modern middle class that it used to the fullest in
all aspects of its new life(style). As architectural historian Mark Wigley notes,
“Modern architecture did not simply become fashionable. Rather it was, from
the very beginning, organized by the operations of fashion that underpinned
its very attacks on fashion.”58 Reza Shah’s Uniformity of Dress Code of 1928,
revised in 1936, which outlawed the traditional dress of men and made western
clothing and the Pahlavi cap compulsory, and more radically, forbade women
the wearing of the Islamic veil, went hand in hand with his architectural and
urban policies that aimed to create the “Pahlavi man” in its (modernist) totality.
Reza Shah’s tomb, like the villas and cinemas that he had championed,
with their unornamented white walls signaled a difference in taste that
distinguished, and shaped, the differing identity of this rising social strata under
the secular monarchy. In this symbiosis between being fashionable yet still
timeless, Iranian modern architecture divided its modernist production into
several domains, as if to relegate the contradicting responsibility of timeliness
and timelessness to different architectural functions. Iran thus reproduced
both the Saidian self as well as the other by this double invention of the
timely in the avant-garde and the timeless in historicism, thus temporarily
solving the architectural dilemma of how to embody the modern and yet
remain true to one’s conception of the traditional. While invented, both styles
helped the middle class under the Pahlavis to define itself as an independent
social stratum that was fit for the modern age. The structures that produced
and reproduced the image of a difference in taste were the architecture of the
middle class as the ultimate consumers of “good taste.”
Notes
1 For published primary sources, see Center for the Study and Publication of
Political Culture of the Pahlavi Era, Reza Shah-e kabir: Safar-nameh-ye homayuni
[Reza Shah the Great: royal travelogue] (Tehran, 1971); Mahmud Delfani, ed.,
Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah (asnad-e montasher nashodeh-ye
Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar), 1317–1320 hejri shamsi (Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e
Melli, 1375/1997); Sa‘id Nafisi, Tarikh-e shahriyari-ye shahanshah Reza Shah
Pahlavi (Tehran, 1344/1965); Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah-e Kabir
(Tehran, 1950); Eqbal Yaghma’i, Kar-nameh-ye Reza Shah Kabir: bonyangozar-e
Iran-e novin (Tehran, 1971).
2 For an overview of architectural policies and practices under Reza Shah see
Kamran Safamanesh, “Architectural Historiography 1921–42,” Iran in the 20th
Century: Historiography and Political Culture (London: Tauris, 2009), pp. 121–53.
Mostafa Kiyani, Me‘mari-ye dowreh-ye Pahlavi-ye avval (Tehran: Mo’asseseh-ye
116 Talinn Grigor
motale‘at-e tarikh-e mo‘aser, 1384/2005), which includes a CD with image files.
See also Alisa Eimen, “Negotiating Cultural Identity at Tehran’s Al-Ghadir
Mosque,” in Architecture and Identity, ed. Peter Herrle and Erik Wegerhoff
(Berlin: Lit-Verlag, 2008), pp. 435–48.
3 British minister of the Foreign Office 371, 12293/E3909, Robert Clive reporting
on court minister ‘Abd al-Hoseyn Teymurtash, 26 August 1927, Tehran, Iran; see
Robert M. Burrell, ed., Iran Political Diaries 1881–1965 (Oxford: Archive Editions,
1997), vol. 8: 1927–30, p. 55.
4 The urban reforms under Reza Shah have often been compared with Haussmanian
reforms in Paris. Since I have not found any primary sources during my research
that prove that the shah’s reformists were in fact copying the French plans, I
refrain from insisting that there was a direct link between Baron Haussman’s
Paris and Reza Shah’s Tehran. However, there is no doubt about the fact that
most of the political and intellectual elite of the period had visited Paris. For a
concise and comprehensive description of the official urban policies and practices
under Reza Shah, see Donald N. Wilber, “Architecture VII. Pahlavi, Before
World War II,” Encyclopedia Iranica 1, ed. E. Yarshater (London and New York:
Bibliotheca Persica Press,), 350–51. See also Chahryar Adle and Bernard Hour-
cade, ed., Téhéran, capitale bicentenaire, (Paris and Tehran: Peeters Publishers;
Mul edition, 1992).
5 See Mina Marefat, “Building to Power: Architecture of Tehran 1921–41”, Ph.D.
dissertation (Boston: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1988), p. 76.
6 Marefat, “Building to Power”, p. 34.
7 Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian
Monarchy, 1831–1896 (London: Tauris, 1997), p. 435.
8 Eckart Ehlers and Willem Floor, “Urban Change in Iran, 1920–41”, Iranian
Studies 26 (1993), pp. 251–76: 255.
9 British minister of the Foreign Office, E 4225/47/34, 1 August 1933, Tehran, Iran;
see Robert M. Burrell, ed., Iran Political Diaries 1881–1965, (Oxford: Archive
Editions, 1997), vol. 9 (1931–34), p. 504.
10 Dario Gamboni, The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the
French Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 332.
11 US State Department Archives, Hart, dispatch 387, 891.5123/5, 20 February
1931, Tehran, Iran; quoted in Mohammad Gholi Majd, Great Britain and Reza
Shah: The Plunder of Iran, 1921 – 1941 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press,
2001), p. 162.
12 US State Department Archives, Engert, dispatch 1830, “Change in the City of
Tehran”, 891.101/3, 10 May 1940, Tehran, Iran; quoted in Majd, Great Britain
and Reza Shah, pp. 163–64.
13 Rosita Forbes, Conflict: Angora to Afghanistan, with a foreword by Brigadier-General
Sir Percy Sykes (London: Cassell, 1931), p. 105.
14 Homa Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo-
modernism, 1926–1979 (New York: New York University Press, 1981), p. 120.
15 US State Department Archives, Hart, dispatch 1393, 891.00/1562, 25 March
1932, Tehran, Iran; quoted in Majd, Great Britain and Reza Shah, pp. 155–56.
16 Katouzian, Political Economy of Modern Iran, pp. 110–11
17 Amin Banani, Modernization of Iran, 1921–1941 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1961), p. 144.
18 Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University
Press, 1979), p. 30.
19 See Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 144; and Laurence Lockhart, Famous
Cities of Iran (Brentford: W. Pearce, 1939), pp. 11–13.
20 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 144.
21 Katouzian, Political Economy of Modern Iran, pp. 110–11
The king’s white walls 117
22 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 144.
23 US State Department Archives, Engert, dispatch 1830, “Change in the City of
Tehran,” 891.101/3, 10 May 1940, Tehran, Iran; quoted in Majd, Great Britain
and Reza Shah, pp. 163–64.
24 US State Department Archives, Engert, dispatch 1830, “Change in the City of
Tehran,” 891.101/3, 10 May 1940, Tehran, Iran; quoted in Majd, Great Britain
and Reza Shah, pp. 163–64.
25 Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, p. 149.
26 Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, p. 195.
27 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 145.
28 See Talinn Grigor, Building Iran: Modernism, Architecture, and National Heritage
under the Pahlavi Monarchs (New York: Periscope/Prestel, 2009); and Talinn
Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’: The early Pahlavi Modernists and their
Society for National Heritage,” Iranian Studies 37 (2004), pp. 17–45; the journal
neglected to publish the images that accompanied this article.
29 US State Department Archives, Charles Calmer Hart, “Teymourtache Dismissed
and Great Was the Fall Thereof,” dispatch 1310, 891.44 Teymourtache, Abdol
K.K./1, 29 December 1932, Tehran, Iran.
30 Hasan Pirniya, Iran-e Bastan ya tarikh-e mofassal-e Iran-e qadim (Tehran:
Majles, 1317/1938).
31 See Talinn Grigor, Building Iran, chapters 1 and 2.
32 See Talinn Grigor, “(re)Framing Modernit(ies): American Historians of Iranian
Architecture, Phyllis Ackerman and Arthur Pope,” ARRIS 15 (2004), pp. 38–54.
33 Guevrekian was educated in Austria’s Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna; see Mina
Marefat, “Guevrekian, Gabriel,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2002,
available at http://www.iranica.com/articles/guevrekian.
34 On the careers of some of these architects, see Marefat, “Building to Power,”
chapter 2.
35 Nader Ardalan and Mortaza Momayyez provide two different first names for
the dean of the fine arts department and Italian-trained architect Mirfendereski.
See Mortaza Momayyez, “Faculties of the University of Tehran ii. Faculty of Fine
Arts,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 1999, available at http://www.iranica.
com/articles/faculties-ii; N. Ardalan, “Architecture viii. Pahlavi, after World War
II,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 1986, available at http://www.iranica.
com/articles/architecture-viii.
36 Quoted in Different Sames: New Perspectives in Contemporary Iranian Art, ed.
Hossein Amirsadeghi (London: TransGlobe, 2009), p. 113.
37 Iradj Moshiri, Architecte 1 (August/September 1946), p. 1. The first professional
Iranian architectural journal, Architecte, while only seeing six issues between
August 1946 and July 1948, nevertheless raised serious questions on various
architectural topics.
38 Vartan Hovanessian, Architecte 1 (August/September 1946).
39 See Gabriel Guevrekian Papers, University Archives, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
40 Donald N. Wilber, “Architecture vii. Pahlavi, before World War II”, Encyclopaedia
Iranica, Online Edition, 1986, available at http://www.iranica.com/articles/
architecture-vii.
41 Cyrus Kadivar, “The General’s Widow,” The Iranian (21 February 2001), available
at www.iranian.com/history/2001/february/rahimi.
42 Quoted in Hamid Algar, Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of
Imam Khomeini (Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1981), p. 258.
43 See Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1982), p. 243.
44 See Ali Ansari, Modern Iran since 1921 (London: Pearson, 2003), p. 104.
118 Talinn Grigor
45 See Donald N. Wilber, Reza Shah Pahlavi: The Resurrection and Reconstruction
of Iran (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1975), p. 222.
46 The Iranian–Canadian architect Hossein Amanat (1942, architect of the Shahyad
Monument at Tehran’s Azadi square), in a written interview by Talinn Grigor, 2
April 2000, Vancouver, Canada. On Mohsen Forughi, see Ardalan, “Architecture
viii,” and Wilber, “Architecture vii,” as well as Mina Marefat and Richard
N. Frye, “Foru-gı-, Moh.sen,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2000,
available at http://www.iranica.com/articles/forugi-mohsen.
47 See Houshang Seyhoun, interview by Talinn Grigor, 29 June 2000, Vancouver,
Canada.
48 For a comparison with the Imam Khomeini mausoleum, constructed from 1989
onwards as the symbol of the Islamic Republic of Iran, see Kishwar Rizvi,
“Religious Icon and National Symbol: The Tomb of Ayatollah Khomeini in
Iran,” Muqarnas 20 (2003), pp. 209–24: 216–18.
49 “A characteristic peculiar to the architecture of power and wealth in the Muslim
world was that its order and sense appear less in formal compositions than in the
relationship of the monument of power to other monuments.” Oleg Grabar, “The
Architecture of Power: Palaces, Citadels and Fortifications,” in Architecture of the
Islamic World, ed. George Michell (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc.,
1978), pp. 48–79: 79.
50 See Ansari, Modern Iran, p. 104.
51 “Anniversaire des funérailles de Reza Chah le Grand,” Le Journal de Téhéran
6534 (7 May 1957), p. 1; “Commémoration du décès de Reza Chah le Grand,”
Le Journal de Téhéran 8656 (28 July 1964), p. 2; Le Journal de Téhéran 8948
(27 July 1965), p. 2; “Un Glorieux Anniversaire,” Le Journal de Téhéran 9119
(22 Feb 1966), p. 2; “Commémoration du décès de Reza Chah le Grand,” Le Journal
de Téhéran 9544 (27 July 1967), p. 2; Ayandegan (5 Mordad 1347/27 July 1968);
and “La journée historique du ‘3 Esfand’: L’Iran se souvient de Reza Chah le
Grand,” Le Journal de Téhéran 11.840 (23 Feb 1975), p. 1.
52 “Commémoration du décès de Reza Chah le Grand,” Le Journal de Téhéran
9544 (27 July 1967), p. 2.
53 Ayandegan (26 Esfand 1346/16 March 1968).
54 Le Journal de Téhéran 8919 (21 July 1965), p. 1; and Ayandegan (15 Farvardin
1347/4 April 1968).
55 See Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, p. 491.
56 Mark Wigley, White Walls, Designer Dresses: The Fashioning of Modern
Architecture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), p. 302.
57 See, for example, Adolf Loos, “Ornament and Crime,” Programs and Manifestoes
on 20th-century Architecture, ed. Ulrich Conrads (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
2001), pp. 19–24.
58 Wigley, White Walls, p. 180.
Part II
The Shah
State politics and authoritarian
modernization
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
6 Archaeology and the Iranian
National Museum
Qajar and early Pahlavi cultural policies*
Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
On 18 October 1927, just two years after the accession of Reza Shah Pahlavi,
the French archaeological privilege in Iran that had been granted 43 years
earlier by Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, was abolished by a bilateral agreement.
This exclusive privilege, which had become “perpetual” in 1900 with a
renewed agreement signed by his successor Mozaffar al-Din Shah, had
allowed France to establish a beautiful collection of antiquities, exhibited in
the Louvre Museum. Nowadays, when we visit these antiquities, we wonder
in which context such an archaeological monopoly had been granted and
whether the Qajar monarchs, who signed it, had truly ignored the importance
of Iran’s heritage? Or whether by granting such a monopoly to carry out
excavations, maybe they also wanted their kingdom to benefit from its
cultural treasures by exhibiting a part of the discoveries belonging to Iran
in a National Museum of their own? In this regard, we wonder whether
an archaeological museum did exist at all in Iran during the Qajar period or
whether this institution had been created for the first time under Reza
Shah Pahlavi.
The abolition of the French archaeological monopoly is generally con-
sidered as a hallmark of the cultural nationalism of the Iranian government
during the reign of Reza Shah. However, if the purpose of this decision was to
end the grip of France on Iranian heritage, how can we explain the appoint-
ment of a French archaeologist, André Godard (1881–1965), as the head of
the General Antiquities Service of Iran (Edareh-ye Koll-e ‘Atiqat) and other
Iranian archaeological institutions for more than twenty years?
On the other hand, we know that Iran’s international policy under Reza
Shah was to look for a “third power” that could act as a counterweight to
British and Soviet pressure. To this end, Iran developed closer relations with
Germany. So, how did German archaeologists react to Godard’s nomination?
What did this French archaeologist accomplish for Persian heritage in accordance
with Reza Shah’s cultural policy?
These are the guiding questions to which this chapter tries to provide
answers in the binary context of cultural and foreign policy. For this, we will
first present briefly the history of French archaeology in Iran. Then, we will
examine the Iranian archaeological institutions before the rise of Reza Shah.
122 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
Finally, we will discuss the abolition of the French monopoly and its impact
on archaeology and archaeological institutions in Iran under the reign of
Reza Shah, with a particular focus on the cultural policies of the Iranian
government at that time.
In June 1910, the Central Antiquities Service wrote a draft law of six articles
and sent it to the National Consultative Assembly to be adopted as the
Antiquities Law. The Assembly transferred the text to the commission of
public instruction, which after writing several amendments, presented it again
to the Assembly on 5 January 1911, now comprising eleven articles under
the title “bill on antiquities” (qanun-e ‘atiqat). Although this text did not run
counter to the French archaeological monopoly, it was removed by the
Council of Ministers on 13 April 1911 after the Legation of France inter-
vened and asked for the Franco–Persian archaeological convention of 1900 to
be taken into account.14
After two months, while the convention and the proposed bill on antiquities
were reviewed in the Council of Ministers, the National Consultative Assembly
again discussed this project, from 15 June 1911 onwards. The protocols of this
reading, which took place in five sessions, inform us about the views of the
deputies at that time with regard to objects found during excavations in Iran.
We can distinguish three different groups:
On 17 June 1911, after the first reading of the bill on antiquities, the majority
of the deputies voted for this project. However, it was never applied, and was
126 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
de facto forgotten. With no law on excavated objects and with only one non-
ratified law, the administration headed by Iraj Mirza, which since September
1910 was named the General Antiquities Service (Edareh-ye Koll-e ‘Atiqat),
could neither forbid clandestine excavations nor tax antiquities in the art
market. All this led to the dissolution of the General Antiquities Service on
8 October 1911, only eighteen months after its establishment.16
As a consequence, taxation of the antiquities market and the process of
formalizing Iranian commercial excavations were suspended. According to
the administrative law of the Ministry of Education, the Sciences Service
(Edareh-ye Ma‘aref) henceforth looked after the affairs of antiquities in the
country for a period of approximately one year. During that time, the most
important event was the attempt of the Ministry of Education to try to
modify the French Archaeological monopoly.17
This attempt, although it did not succeed, further threatened the
French archaeological interests in Iran and lead Jacques de Morgan in
October 1911 to prepare a text in which he proposed the modifications
relative to the Convention of 1900. He wrote this text entitled “Projet de
Convention et Observation” for possible negotiations with the Iranian gov-
ernment. In this draft, which was never implemented, he both stated and
limited in geographical terms the excavations of the French delegation, while
protecting the absolute archaeological interests of France for a period of
99 years. However, given the circumstances of that time, it became clear that
the Persian authorities would not be satisfied with small changes. This is clear
from the fact that in October 1912 the Iranian Ministry of Education set up
a “Commission of Excavations” in order to reconsider the French archae-
ological monopoly and present modifications on the Franco-Persian conven-
tion of 1900.18 Thus, after long negotiations, on 7 December 1912, the
Commission drew up an amended text consisting of a preamble and twelve
articles. According to this draft, the original of which is kept in the Iranian
National Archives, the right to conduct archaeological excavations through-
out Iran was granted to France for a period of fifty years, subject to the
sharing of discoveries including those of Susa. In return for this privilege,
the French government would undertake to help Iran in the construction of
an archaeological museum in Tehran.19
In December 1912, the Iranian Ministry of Education sent a copy of this
modified project to the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in order to share it
with the French authorities, through the mediation of Samad Khan Momtaz
al-Saltaneh, then Persian plenipotentiary minister in Paris.20 However, no
trace of this document can be found in the French archives. We are therefore
unaware of the ultimate outcome of these efforts from both sides before the
First World War to reconsider and possibly modify the French archaeological
privilege. We only know that in May 1913, the Persian government took up
the idea to modify the French monopoly and hired a Belgian architect to
prepare a proposal for the reorganization of archaeological excavations
in Iran. However, following protests from the French Legation in Tehran, this
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 127
decision was cancelled and the idea of modifications of the archaeological
monopoly again came to naught.21
On 23 April 1914, Hakim al-Molk,22 then minister of education, sent a
request to the Council of Ministers asking to re-establish the Antiquities Service.
He briefly mentioned the history of the creation of the Antiquities Service
four years earlier, the success of this organization during its 18 months in
operation, and finally its discontinuation because of a lack of an antiquities
law. Hakim al-Molk concluded his letter by wishing that this Service would
be restored and that the draft Antiquities Law, suspended for several years in
the National Consultative Assembly, would be adopted.23
Hakim al-Molk’s request was welcomed by the Council of Ministers and
the Antiquities Service was re-established during the summer of 1914 under
the direction of Hoseyn Khan Amini, who replaced Iraj Mirza.24 Despite the
re-establishment of the Antiquities Service, the bill remained un-ratified and
the Service was forced to make do with its internal regulation to manage the
affairs of the country’s antiquities.
[The] new Museum, a great hall or gallery, … to contain not only the
Royal Regalia, but also the vast collection of “objets d’art” and curios-
ities, which the generosity of foreign crowned heads, or his own whims,
have enabled him to amass during a reign of over forty years. This
extraordinary chamber, which with its contents alternately resembles an
Aladdin’s palace, an old curiosity shop, a prince’s wardrobe, and a
municipal museum … in which are displayed, side by side, treasures of
priceless value and the most unutterable rubbish.31
Under Mozaffar al-Din Shah’s reign the Royal Museum also contained
objects, often of poor quality, bought by the Shah during his travels in
Europe. In other words, the Royal Museum played the role of an exhibition
gallery of Western objects, as Claude Anet wrote in 1905 in his travel
account.32 Although Mozaffar al-Din Shah was less interested in archaeology
than his father, the first talks concerning the creation of a national archae-
ological museum in Tehran date back to the beginning of his reign. In
October 1897, when Jacques de Morgan was received in audience, he pro-
posed to the Shah the creation of a National Archaeological Museum in
Tehran. In fact, he very much feared “to see the Persians sell their share of
the antiquities” and wanted to preserve these objects and prevent them from
being removed; especially, because he considered the idea that France could
easily preserve its archaeological interests in Persia in the future by nominating
a Frenchman as a director of such a new museum.33 However, after a
short period, when the first three excavation seasons had led to remarkable
results, he no longer supported the creation of an archaeological museum
in Tehran and instead sought to safeguard all his discoveries for France.
Therefore, despite the Shah’s persistence in building this museum, French
diplomacy took advantage of the pro-French disposition of the Persian prime
minister Amin al-Soltan, who succeeded in making the Shah abandon his
project.34
As the diplomatic archives of the Quai d’Orsay reveal, the minister of
France in Tehran, disturbed by the surge of national pride in Iran in the
wake of the Constitutional Revolution of 1906, believed that the creation of a
small museum in Tehran that might keep and display those parts of the
excavations that could not be stored in the Louvre would be an excellent way
to ensure the French archaeological privilege.35 But Jacques de Morgan, who
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 129
considered this revolution “on the whole, only a farce,”36 was not at all
favourable to this idea:
Those who consider preserving national remains should also take into
account the question of excavations and discovery of antiquities, because
important historical documents and fine treasures of antiquities are buried
beneath the Iranian soil. Arrangements for excavations should therefore
complement the preservation of national heritage, and the ensuing results
should be exhibited in a National Museum to encourage public interest,
so that Iranians can take advantage of them in their present technological
development in order to revive and appreciate their civilization.43
As for Arthur Upham Pope, on 22 April 1925 he gave a lecture on “The Past
and Future of Persian Art.” The lecture was in English, translated into Persian
for a large audience, including Reza Khan and some members of the
government, the Parliament and the Society for National Heritage. Pope pre-
sented a survey of Iranian art from the Achaemenid to Sasanian and Islamic
times, and stressed the cultural, artistic, and spiritual contribution of Iran to
world civilization.44 During this lengthy speech, Pope conveyed several poli-
tically current themes and concluded his speech with this phrase: “Art is a
vital necessity of life for the Nation. … The government and the people
together must do everything possible to bring art again to life in Persia.”45
Thus, the speeches given by Herzfeld and Pope, who were both against the
French monopoly and actively present in Iran, more and more promoted the
idea among the Persian elites that the monopoly should be abolished. Under
these circumstances, the monopoly issue came up for discussion in the Iranian
Parliament (Majles), where Hoseyn ‘Ala’ and Mohammad ‘Ali Forughi
argued that the Majles had every right to withdraw concessionary privileges if
they had not been fully exploited.46 A few months after this parliamentary
debate, the formal end of the Qajar dynasty in December 1925 and the
accession of the nationalist Reza Shah, who tried to abolish all concessions
granted under the Qajars, threatened the French monopoly even further. How
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 131
did the French diplomacy respond to this situation? Official records in French
Archives reveal that the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Public
Instruction were prepared to make some sort of compromise that would
salvage at least parts of their archaeological privilege.47
By the end of 1926, Ernst Herzfeld was acting as archaeological adviser to
the Iranian government. The government officially employed him to work as
“a specialist in Oriental Studies” for three years with an annual income of
72.000 rials (then approximately £1500). As archaeological adviser, Herzfeld
requested strict controls over all antiquities to be sent abroad, including
objects discovered by the French mission at Susa. Roland de Mecquenem,
director of this mission, complained about these measures.48
Early in 1927, the Iranians appeared on the verge of appointing Herzfeld as
Director of the Antiquities Service. The French minister in Tehran, Gaston
Maugras, intervened at the last moment to thwart Herzfeld’s appointment.
He told the court minister ‘Abdolhoseyn Teymurtash that the nomination of a
German in this position could well end all hope of revising the archaeological
monopoly. Teymurtash, who valued Herzfeld’s presence in Iran as a very
strong weapon to get rid of the French monopoly, offered Maugras a way
out of the impasse: Iran would be prepared to accept a French national as
Director of the Antiquities Service in return for ending the monopoly.
Maugras strongly advised his government to accept the proposal.49
Finally, after long negotiations between the French and Iranian authorities,
Mohammad Tadayyon,50 Iranian minister of education, and Paul Ballereau,51
the French chargé d’affaires, in Tehran, signed an agreement on 18 October
1927. The French government gave up the monopoly over all excavations in
Iran which had been granted to them through the convention of 1900,
restricting it to the region of Susa where it would also be subject to the sharing of
discoveries. In return, the Persian government agreed to hire a specialist, to be
proposed by the French government, to act as Director of the Antiquities
Service, as well as of the library and the museum, which would be established
under his responsibility. This expert should carry out his duties for a period of
at least twenty years under the authority of the responsible Iranian minister.52
Shortly after the abolition of the monopoly, Herzfeld, who had not been
able to obtain the position as Director of the Persian Antiquities Service,
made plans to excavate at Pasargadae in April 1928. Accompanied by Friedrich
Krefter, a young architect from Berlin, he set out for Fars. The exploration
lasted 28 days, after which they went to Persepolis. But in the absence of any
concrete regulations, excavations at Persepolis could not be carried out. Thus,
in his capacity as archaeological adviser, Herzfeld’s first task was to convince
the Iranian government to accept and approve a general law regulating exca-
vation procedures, and then to apply such a law to the site of Persepolis. Soon
he prepared a draft law and passed it on to the court minister Teymurtash.
The latter ordered the minister of education, at that time Yahya Qaragozlu
(E’temad al-Dowleh), to prepare a text based on this draft and to present it
to the Parliament. Qaragozlu formed a committee with several high-ranking
132 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
Persian officials and European scholars, including Herzfeld, Pope, and André
Godard, a French expert who had just arrived in Iran in order to serve as General
Director of Antiquities.53 This committee prepared a draft law consisting of
twenty articles, which was ratified on 3 November 1930 by the National Con-
sultative Assembly. According to this law, which in parts was a translation of the
respective Austrian law, the Iranian government became for the first time
responsible for the conservation and preservation of all antique objects up to
the end of the Zand dynasty (1750–94). With regard to the importance of this
first law on antiquities, which is still valid in Iran, its complete translation is
given in the appendix.
The enthusiasm of members of the Persian elite for the conservation of
their cultural heritage certainly played a considerable role in its protection.
However, to protect and, more particularly, to repair the ancient monuments,
first funds and second capable artisans and adequate building materials were
needed. Mere expression of anguish and care did not protect these monu-
ments against wind, rain, and sunlight. In the budget of the Ministry of
Education, no provision at all had been made for the restoration of historical
monuments. Only in Article 9 of the Law of Foundations (owqaf), which had
been ratified in 1925, the amount of one twentieth of the revenue had been
allocated as supervision right (haqq al-nezareh) to repair historical monu-
ments and to renovate madrasas and shrines. This meagre sum could not
meet the needs for conservation and restoration.54
The abolition of the monopoly and the ratification of the first Antiquities
Law opened the doors of ancient Persian sites to all foreign archaeologists,
who for years had tried to obtain official permissions to carry out excavations.
Thus, throughout the reign of Reza Shah, in addition to France, which continued
its archaeological mission at Susa under Roland Mecquenem,55 other countries,
especially the United States, launched archaeological excavations all over
Iran. Among these missions, the Oriental Institute excavations at Persepolis
led by Ernst Herzfeld from 1931 to 1934 and by Erich Friedrich Schmidt
from 1935 to 1939 proved to be of particular significance in promoting nation-
alist feelings in Iran. Reza Shah was a strong supporter of these excavations.
He visited Persepolis for the first time as minister of war in 1922 – when he
escorted Ahmad Shah into exile to his ship at Bushehr – and he was shocked
by the deplorable state of the Achaemenid palaces. During his second visit in
1928, when he saw the Persepolis buildings, he was moved by “the glory of
ancient Iranian monarchs” with their “colossal monuments” and delighted to
learn that “such great kings have ruled Iran and left these magnificent
remains.” After the beginning of the excavations at Persepolis, Reza Shah,
who had already made the acquaintance of Herzfeld, ardently supported his
work at the site and personally ensured that the project would run smoothly.
In his third visit to the site in 1932, he told Herzfeld: “You are doing a work
of civilization here, and I thank you.” In his fourth and last visit to Persepolis
in March 1937, Reza Shah praised the work already accomplished and
encouraged Erich Schmidt to work faster to clear the entire platform.56
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 133
Other excavations carried out by foreign missions in Iran during Reza
Shah’s reign can be presented briefly in this way:
All these missions were carried out in cooperation with the Iranian Antiquities
Service, which had been under the direction of a French expert since 1928.
Let us explore who this expert was, how he had been chosen, and what he did
as director of the Service.
Conclusion
During the second half of the nineteenth century, in an atmosphere of intense
rivalry between the great Western museums who were obsessively concerned
with access to and control over Oriental antiques, France prevailed over its
competitors by obtaining an archaeological monopoly in Persia. The two Qajar
Shahs who had granted this privilege hoped this would benefit their kingdom
with half of all archaeological discoveries being exhibited in a national
museum. Contrary to accepted wisdom, they received no money and they
did not grant this privilege as a concession; they signed the archaeological
conventions based on the allocation of equal shares of discoveries. Never-
theless, as we saw in this chapter, the mission led by Marcel Dieulafoy and the
delegation led by Jacques de Morgan, each in its own way, violated the terms
of this sharing agreement and brought all the discoveries to France. It is true
that the excavations carried out by the French missions and the studies later
accomplished on these discoveries significantly clarified the past of both historic
and prehistoric Persia and brought about a growing interest in this country.
However, as the price for this knowledge, Iran was deprived of a part of its
heritage for the benefit of the Louvre and other great French national museums.
In other words, a historical and national identity was revealed, but it was
removed, housed, and exhibited far away from its original place.
138 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
Administratively, the French monopoly delayed the creation of archaeological
organizations such as the National Museum and the Antiquities Service in Iran.
However, again, contrary to accepted wisdom, the creation of these organi-
zations does not date from the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, because as we saw
in this chapter, they were established for the first time in Iran shortly after the
Constitutional Revolution of 1906 to protect the country’s heritage. Never-
theless, these efforts were of a fleeting nature for several reasons, including the
lack of a legal basis and funding, which prevented them from reaching their
goal. It was necessary to wait until 1925 and the rise of Reza Shah who two years
after his accession, in October 1927, abolished the French monopoly. Thus, the
new monarch plucked the fruit of a process that had already begun with the
end of the reign of the last Qajars. But this reality was never mentioned, or
even taken into consideration, in almost all of the studies concerning the
history of archaeology in Iran. Actually, because it was official Pahlavi policy
to downplay and besmirch the image of Qajar rule, the history of archaeology
and archaeological institutions in Iran were also targeted by this policy.
The abolition of the French monopoly, the ratification of the Antiquities
Law in 1930, and the measures taken thereafter opened up new horizons for
Persian antiquities, the art market, and the foreign archaeological missions
in Persia. However, we should remember that Reza Shah, who consolidated
his power by drawing on rising nationalist feelings in Iran, sparked already by
the Constitutional Revolution, was also surrounded by several patriotic intel-
lectuals who initiated the protection of Iran’s heritage with and through the
creation of the Society for National Heritage. Some of these intellectuals,
such as Hasan Pirniya Moshir al-Dowleh or Mohammad-‘Ali Forughi Zoka’
al-Molk, actually profiting from the archaeological studies conducted by the
French missions, have written substantial and memorable books on the history
of Iran and clarified considerably the ancient period of Persian culture. These
history books served as textbooks at high school level and in universities for
the next decades.
The French archaeological works in Iran enabled the Iranians to rediscover
their history, which up to that point had been interspersed with myths and
legends, in a scientific manner. This discovery reinforced nationalist sentiments
in Iran during Reza Shah’s reign, in particular among the intellectuals who
criticized more and more the invasion of the Arabs and the arrival of Islam in
Iran. In this atmosphere, it is not astonishing to realize that the governmental
archaeological institutions paid much more attention to Achaemenid and
Sasanian monuments, in comparison with Iranian heritage from Islamic times.
Moreover, since Iran did not materially benefit from the French archae-
ological monopoly, Iranian nationalist feelings were raised once more. The
Iranian intellectuals, generally educated in Europe, held the Qajars respon-
sible for yielding these cultural treasures to France for ridiculous prices, once
they saw their national antiquities displayed in the Louvre. This contempt for the
Qajars prevented them, at least during the reign of the Pahlavis, from reaching
an objective assessment of the history of archaeology in Iran. Therefore, it
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 139
was said and repeated that the Qajars gave the “concession of archaeological
excavations (emtiyaz-e hafriyat-e bastanshenasi)” to France; however, there
were no concessions, but only bilateral conventions, based on the equal division
of discoveries. Did not the agreement over the abolition of the monopoly in
October 1927, approved by Reza Shah, allow France to maintain the exclusive
privilege of the excavations at Susa, based on the equitable sharing of
discoveries? The answer to this question allows us to better understand the
cultural policies and diplomacy during Reza Shah’s reign and to erase from
our minds the clichés and ideas that do not correspond to the truth.
It is true that the abolition of the French monopoly by Reza Shah opened
up a new page in the history of archaeology in Iran. But we must also admit
that during the reign of this monarch no coherent and serious program for the
protection of Iranian heritage was ever developed, although he was such a
fierce nationalist. Witness the fate of the Society for National Heritage: in
1934, following the celebrations of the Ferdowsi’s millennium and the unveiling
of his mausoleum at Tus, the Society was suspended by Reza Shah, to resume
work only in 1943.
As a final remark, one can state that during the reign of Reza Shah the
archaeological sites, including the ruins of Persepolis and the buildings of
the Sasanian era which recalled the greatness of Iran in ancient times, were
protected and studied by foreign missions, with the cost of abandoning the
Islamic antiquities. Three factors contributed to this predicament: Reza Shah,
who regarded himself as a monarch at the head of a kingdom once ruled by
Cyrus and Darius; the Iranian intellectuals, who nostalgically looked for the
historical greatness of Iran in the archaeological sites and encouraged vigorously
the “de-Arabization” of the Persian language and Iranian culture; and finally,
the foreign archaeological missions, who, trained in the classicist tradition,
were primarily interested in ancient Persia and thus indirectly led the Iranians
to discard their Islamic heritage in favour of discovering their history before
the arrival of Islam. These three factors together strongly influenced the
cultural policy of the Iranian government during the reign of Reza Shah.
Appendix
List of abbreviations
ADMAE: Archives Diplomatiques du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères
(Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Paris)
AN: Archives Nationales (French National Archives, Paris)
BAVOKI: Baygani-ye Vezarat-e omur-e kharejeh-ye Iran (Archives of the
Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tehran)
BRMFOT: Baygani-ye raked-e Miras-e Farhangi-ye Ostan-e Tehran
(Archives of the Organization for Cultural Heritage, Tehran
Province)
IME: Iranian Ministry of Education (Vezarat-e ma‘aref va owqaf
va sanaye‘-e mostazrafeh)
IMFA: Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vezarat-e omur-e kharejeh)
MAE: Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (French Ministry of Foreign
Affairs)
Notes
* This article is based, inter alia, on the documents of archives housed in several
locations. I thank the directors of these archives who gave me access to their
invaluable documents concerning the history of Iranian archaeology. I am grateful
to Dr. Ali Mousavi, who gave me his article about Ernst Herzfeld and provided
some references. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Willem Floor, who read an
early draft of this paper and kindly advised me on some details.
1 Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste, Voyage en Perse, pendant les années 1840 et
1841, 8 vols. (Paris: Baudry, 1843–54).
144 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
2 William Kennett Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldæa and Susiana, with an
Account of Excavations at Warka, the “Erech” of Nimrod, and Shúsh, “Shushan
the Palace” of Esther in 1849–52 (London: James Nisbet, 1857). Idem., “On the
Excavations undertaken at the Ruins of Susa in 1851–52,” Transactions of the
Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, second series, vol. V (London:
John Murray,1856), pp. 422–53.
3 Jane Dieulafoy, A Suse; journal des fouilles 1884–1886 (Paris: Hachette, 1888).
4 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam, L’archéologie française en Perse et les antiquités
nationales (1884–1914) (Paris: Connaissances et Savoirs, 2004), pp. 45–57.
5 Ibid., pp. 91–122.
6 Ibid., pp. 135–46.
7 Ibid., pp. 169–95.
8 Mozakerat-e majles, dowreh-ye avval-e taqniniyeh (Tehran, n.d.), pp. 113–14.
9 Nasiri-Moghaddam, L’archéologie française, pp. 289–90.
10 This inaccuracy first occurred in the article by Mohammad-Taqi Mostafavi (1955),
who relied on the incorrect memories of a former employee of the Antiquities
Service. This mistake was repeated in almost all subsequent works concerned with
the history of archaeological institutions in Iran. Only Mehdi Hodjat, the former
director of the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran, in his doctoral thesis,
written in English, did not fall into this trap and correctly stated that the Anti-
quities Service was founded in 1910. However, despite his access to the Archives
of the Cultural Heritage Organization, Hodjat neither mentioned the exact date
of the creation of this Service, nor reviewed its functions or the process of its
dissolution. See Mohammad-Taqi Mostafavi, “Talash dar rah-e khedmat be asar-e
melli va omid be ayandeh,” Gozaresh-ha-ye bastanshenasi 3 (1334/1955), pp. 367–
513: 387; Mehdi Hodjat, Cultural Heritage in Iran: Policies for an Islamic Coun-
try, Ph.D. dissertation (York: University of York, 1995), pp. 164–65; Gholamreza
Ma‘sumi, “Shamma’i az pishineh-ye bastanshenasi-ye Iran va eqdamat-e anjam
shodeh dar panjah sal-e shahanshahi-ye Pahlavi,” Barrasi-ha-ye tarikhi no. 64,
11,4 (1355/1976), pp. 53–106: 84; Sadeq Malek Shahmirzadi, “Barrasi-ye tahav-
volat-e motale‘at-e bastanshenasi dar Iran,” in Majmu‘eh-ye maqalat-e anjo-
manvareh-ye barrasi-ye masa’el-e iranshenasi, ed. ‘Ali Musavi Garmarudi
(Tehran: Daftar-e motale‘at-e siyasi va beyn al-melali,1371/1992), pp. 373–447:
408; Mahmud Musavi, “Bastanshenasi dar panjahsali ke gozasht,” Miras-e far-
hangi 2 (1369/1990), pp. 6–17: 9; Idem., “Bastanshenasi dar jahan-e eslam,” in
Danesh-nameh-ye jahan-e eslam, ed. Mostafa Mirsalim, 2nd edition (Tehran:
Bonyad-e da‘erat al-ma‘aref-e eslami, 1375/1996), pp. 493–511: 495–96; ‘Ezza-
tollah Negahban, Moruri bar panjah sal-e bastanshenasi-ye Iran (Tehran:
Sazman-e Miras-e Farhangi-ye Keshvar, 1376/1997), p. 56.
11 BRMFOT, 1289 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [ministerial decree, 1st Jomadi al-avval 1328
(11 May 1910)]. Iraj Mirza Jalal al-Mamalek (1874–1925), the famous poet in the
history of Persian contemporary literature, was the son of Gholam-Hoseyn Mirza
Sadr al-Sho‘ara, himself a Qajar court poet and descended from Fath-‘Ali Shah
Qajar, Mahdi Bamdad, Sharh-e hal-e rejal-e Iran: dar qarn-e 12 va 13 va 14 hejri,
4th edition (Tehran: Zavvar, 1371/1992), vol. 1, pp. 174–75.
12 Morteza-Qoli Khan Hedayat (1856–1911), who held the title of Sani‘ al-Dowleh,
son-in-law of Mozaffar al-Din Shah, studied in Germany from 1876 to 1891.
After the victory of the constitutionalists in Iran, he chaired the first National
Consultative Assembly until 31 August 1907. Then he assumed repeatedly the
positions of minister of education and minister of finance before being assassinated
on 6 February 1911, Bamdad, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 4, pp. 63–69.
13 Nasiri-Moghaddam, L’archéologie française, pp. 290–93.
14 Mozakerat-e Majles, dowreh-ye dovvom-e taqniniyeh, pp. 790–93, 1107. ADMAE,
Nouvelle Série/Perse/43, f 245 [Poulpiquet du Halgouet to MAE, 11/2/1911].
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 145
15 Mozakerat-e Majles, dowreh-ye dovvom-e taqniniyeh, pp. 790–93, 844–48, 859–64,
1392–1410.
16 “E‘lan-e vezarat-e ma‘aref va owqaf,” announcement by the Iranian Ministry of
Education, dated 23 Shavval 1329/17 October 1911, published in Ruz-nameh-ye
rasmi-ye dowlat-e Iran, 25 Shavval 1329 (19 October 1911), no. 65, p. 1.
17 Nasiri-Moghaddam, L’archéologie française, pp. 296–99.
18 BRMFOT, 1291 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [IME to IMFA, 26 Shavval 1330 (8 October 1912)];
BRMFOT, 1291 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [IMFA to IME, 3 Ziqa‘deh 1330 (15 October
1912)]; BRMFOT, 1291 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [IME to IMFA, 14 Ziqa‘da 1330 (26
October 1912)].
19 BRMFOT, 1291 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [project presented on 27 Zihajjeh 1330 (7 December
1912)].
20 BAVOKI, 1330 qamari/karton-e 44/parvandeh-ye 7 [IME to IMFA, 27 Zihijja
1330 (7 December 1912)].
21 ADMAE, Nouvelle Série/Perse/44, f 160–61 [R. Lecomte to MAE, 3/5/1913].
22 Ebrahim Hakimi (1871–1959), titled Hakim al-Molk, after having studied medi-
cine in Paris (1895), became the most influential doctor at Mozaffar al-Din
Shah’s court. However, after a dosage error in medication administered to the
Shah, Hakim al-Molk did not practice medicine any longer and became inter-
ested in administrative affairs. Member of the first two National Assemblies
(Majles) of 1907 and of 1909, Hakim al-Molk was four times minister of the
public instruction between August 1915 and January 1918. He also assumed the
functions of the minister of finance, justice, foreign affairs, and court and finally
became prime minister: Bamdad, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 1, pp. 8–10.
23 BRMFOT, 1293 shamsi/fayl-e 1 [IME to the Council of Ministers, 26 Jumadi al-avval
1332 (23 April 1914)].
24 Dr. Hoseyn Khan Amini, a former Chaldean priest who had converted to Islam,
knew many languages (Latin, Syrian, French, English, and Arabic) and was also
an expert in deciphering ancient inscriptions. After the arrival of André Godard
in 1928, Hoseyn Khan continued his activities in the Persian Antiquities Service,
while working with the French archaeologist. See Sadeq Malek Shahmirzadi,
“Eshareh’i mokhtasar bar tashkilat-e bastanshenasi dar Iran,” Asar, nos. 12–14
(1365/1986), pp. 133–60:159.
25 Grand Larousse universel (Paris, 1995), vol. 10, p. 7199.
26 Ruz-nameh-ye Iran, announcement no. 290, published 9 Rabi‘ al-sani 1294
(16 July 1876). Sani‘ al-Dowleh was the title of Mohammad-Hasan Khan, who
later obtained the title of E‘temad al-Saltaneh.
27 Yahya Zoka’, Tarikhcheh-ye sakhteman-ha-ye Arg-e Saltanati-ye Tehran va rah-
nama-ye Kakh-e Golestan (Tehran: Anjoman-e asar-e melli, 1349/1970), p. 123.
28 Ibid., p. 126.
29 Ibid., p. 122–43.
30 S. G. W. Benjamin, Persia and the Persians (Boston: Ticknor, 1887), p. 73.
31 George N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, 2nd edition (London: Routledge,
1966), vol. 1, p. 314.
32 Claude Anet, Les roses d’Ispahan: La Perse en automobile à travers la Russie et le
Caucase (Paris: F. Juven, 1906), p. 173.
33 AN, F/17/17245, dossier II [J. de Morgan to MIP, 29/10/1897].
34 ADMAE, Nouvelle Série/Perse/42, f 104 [Souhart to MAE, 19/1/1900].
35 ADMAE, Nouvelle Série/Perse/43, f 100–102 [Maximilien de La Martinière,
French minister in Tehran to MAE, 22/7/1907].
36 AN, F/17/2993/C, dossier IV [J. de Morgan to MIP, 28/1/1910].
37 AN, F/17/2993/C, dossier III [J. de Morgan to Maximilien de La Martinière, 17/8/
1907]: “To create a museum in Tehran and put some of our findings there would
be to renounce our exclusive monopoly. This would open the door to requests
146 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
coming from the Shah and the Persians, and thus give rise to difficulties which
inevitably sooner or later would lessen our rights.”
38 Morteza Khan Momtaz al-Molk (1865–1925), pageboy in Naser al-Din Shah’s
court, became an official in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and obtained the post
of plenipotentiary minister in the United States (1906–8). From 4 March 1916 till
29 May 1917, he was minister of education. During this period Momtaz al-Molk
created the first national museum in Iran. He was nominated for the second time
as minister of education from 18 June till 7 August 1918. Then, Momtaz al-Molk
assumed the post of minister of justice (14 February – 14 June 1923) and that of
Director of the Russian Discount Bank (esteqrazi) in Teheran (1924). See Zahra
Shaji’i, Nokhbegan-e siyasi-ye Iran: az enqelab-e mashrutiyat ta enqelab-e eslami
(Tehran: Sokhan, 1372/1993), vol. 3, pp. 104–8, 115–17, 143–45; Bamdad, Sharh-e
hal-e rejal, vol. 4, pp. 61–62.
39 Hodjat, Cultural Heritage in Iran, p. 174. It should be observed that on the
binding of the museum catalogue, the date of creation is mentioned as Jomadi al-avval
1335/March 1917, while some studies indicate the year 1916. See Nezam-nameh
va katalog-e muzeh-ye melli-ye Iran (Tehran, 1295/1917); Sadeq Malek Shahmirzadi,
“Naqsh-e muzeh-ha dar ta‘lim va tarbiyat,” Miras-e farhangi, II, 3–4 (1370/
1992), pp. 45–48.
40 Nezam-nameh va katalog, pp. 5–6.
41 Asas-nameh-ye Anjoman-e asar-e melli (Tehran, 1301/1922). For more information
about this Society, see Talinn Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’: The Early
Pahlavi Modernists and Their Society for National Heritage,” Iranian Studies, 37/1
(2004), pp. 17–45.
42 Kamyar Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in
Iran,” American Journal of Archaeology, 105/1 (2001), pp. 51–76: 56.
43 Ernst Herzfeld, “Asar-e melli-ye Iran,” in Majmu‘eh-ye entesharat-e qadim-e
Anjoman-e asar-e melli (Tehran: Anjoman-ye asar-e melli, 1351/1973), pp. 29–44: 44.
See also Ali Mousavi, “Ernst Herzfeld, Politics, and Antiquities Legislation in
Iran,” in Ernst Herzfeld and the Development of Near Eastern Studies, 1900–1950,
ed. Ann C. Gunter and Stefan Hauser (Leiden: Brill, 2005), pp. 445–75: 450–51.
44 Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran,” p. 60.
45 Arthur U. Pope, “The Past and Future of Persian Art,” delivered 22 April 1925 in
Tehran. For the complete English text of the speech, see Jay Gluck and Noël
Siver, ed., Surveyors of Persian Art: A Documentary Biography of Arthur Upham
Pope and Phyllis Ackerman (Ashiya: SoPA, 1996), pp. 93–110: 110; also Grigor,
“Recultivating ‘Good Taste’”, pp. 31–32.
46 James F. Goode, Negotiating for the Past: Archaeology, Nationalism, and Diplomacy
in the Middle East, 1919–1941 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), p. 135.
47 AN, F/17/17245, dossier IV & mip to MAE, 30/7/1925].
48 Mousavi, “Ernst Herzfeld, Politics, and Antiquities Legislation in Iran,” pp. 454–55.
49 AN, F/17/17245, dossier IV [MAE to MIP, 10/1/1927]; Goode, Negotiating for the
Past, p. 138.
50 Mohammad Tadayyon (1881–1951) occupied the post of the minister of educa-
tion from 8 February 1927 to 8 January 1928, see Shaji’i, Nokhbegan-e siyasi-ye
Iran, vol. 3, pp. 162–63.
51 Paul Arthur Ballereau, born on 12 June 1880, student of the École des Langues
orientales, assumed from 25 October 1926 until 1 August 1928 the post of “chargé
d’affaires” at the French Legation in Tehran. See Annuaire diplomatique … pour
1929 et 1930, nouvelle série, t. XXXIX, (Paris, 1930), p. 204.
52 ADMAE, Ancienne Série/18–40/Perse-Iran/66, f 77–78 [Agreement between Iran
and France, 18/10/1927].
53 For more information about Godard and his activities in Iran, see below.
54 Hodjat, Cultural Heritage in Iran, p. 183.
Archaeology and the Iranian National Museum 147
55 Roland de Mecquenem and Father Jean Vincent Scheil jointly directed the French
archaeological mission at Susa until World War II, which interrupted this mission for
a few years. On 22 September 1940, Father Scheil died and was succeeded by Geor-
ges Contenau as director of publications. In 1946, Roman Ghirshman took over
the place of Roland de Mecquenem as director of the French archaeological
mission at Susa. Ghirshman was replaced in 1968 by Jean Perrot, who led the
French excavations at Susa until 1979, when they were stopped by the new gov-
ernment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Thus, only the two world wars and the
Islamic Revolution in 1979 interrupted about a century of French archaeological
works in Susa.
56 Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran,” p. 60.
57 Ibid., p. 59. Cf. Louis Vanden Berghe, Archéologie de l’Iran ancien (Leiden: Brill,
1966), pp. 199–201. For more information about these archaeological missions in the
Iranian archives, see Ruhollah Bahrami and ‘Isa ‘Abdi, ed., Asnadi az bastanshenasi
dar Iran: hafriyat, ‘atiqat va bana-ha-ye tarikhi (Tehran: Vezarat-e farhang va
ershad-e eslami, Sazman-e chap va entesharat, 1380/2001); also Davud Karimlu,
ed., Taraj-e miras-e melli, vol. 2 (Tehran: Daftar-e motale‘at-e siyasi va beyn
al-melali 1381/2002); also Marziyeh Yazdani, ed., Asnad-e hey’at-ha-ye bastan-
shenasi dar Iran (Tehran: Sazman-e asnad-e melli-ye Iran, 1380/2001). Moham-
mad Gholi Majd in his book entitled The Great American Plunder of Persia’s
Antiquities 1925–1941 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2003)
explores the history of American involvement in Iranian archaeology during Reza
Shah’s reign, based on the US State Department archives. See the review of this
book in Iranian Studies 37 (2004), pp. 737–42.
58 AN, F/17/17245, dossier IV [MAE to MIP, 10/1/1927]: “I agree with Mr. Gaston
Maugras that the only option for us to keep some of our archaeological privileges
in Iran is to claim the directorship of the Antiquities Service and the archae-
ological excavations for one of our compatriots, allowing other nations to carry
out excavation and research under his authority and control.”
59 ADMAE, Ancienne Série/18–40/Perse-Iran/66, f 95 [Telegram of the French
Legation to MAE, 30/4/1928].
60 Raymond Lebègue, “Éloge funèbre de M. André Godard, correspondant de
l’Académie,” Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, comptes rendus des
séances de l’année 1965, pp. 453–54.
61 Herzfeld, being of Jewish descent, chose not to return to Germany in 1934
and went from Iran to London for a year, before in 1935 he was formally expelled
from his chair at the University at Berlin. He joined the Institute for Advanced
Studies at Princeton in 1936, from which he retired in 1944 at the age of 65. After
World War II, he left the US and went to Egypt where he fell ill in 1947. He was
moved to Basel, Switzerland, for medical care, where he died on 20 January 1948.
See Richard Ettinghausen, “Ernest Herzfeld,” Ars Islamica XV-XVI (1951): 261–66.
Stefan Hauser, “Herzfeld, Ernst i. Life and Work,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, online
edition, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herzfeld-ernst-i-1.
62 Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran,” p. 61.
63 Noël Siver, “Pope, Arthur Upham,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition, July
20, 2005, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/pope-arthur-upham.
64 Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran,”
pp. 61–62.
65 AN, F/17/17245, dossier II [J. de Morgan to MIP, 29/10/1897].
66 Sadeq Malek Shahmirzadi, “Barrasi-ye tahavvolat-e motale‘at-e bastanshenasi
dar Iran,” pp. 373–447.
67 Pierre Amiet, “A propos du centenaire des Antiquités iraniennes au Louvre,” in
Hommage à Hubert Landais: Art, objets d’art, collections – études sur l’art du Moyen
âge et de la Renaissance, sur l’histoire du goût et des collections (Paris: Blanchard,
148 Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam
1987), pp. 227–31: 229. For more information about David David-Weill see Les
donateurs du Louvre (Paris: Ministère de la culture, 1989), p. 183.
68 Amiet, “A propos du centenaire des Antiquités iraniennes au Louvre,” p. 229.
69 Mousavi, “Ernst Herzfeld, Politics, and Antiquities Legislation in Iran,” p. 471.
70 Ahmad Tehrani Moqaddam, “Negahi be Muzeh-ye melli-ye Iran,” Muzeh-ha 9–10
(1369/1990), pp. 2–13: 3.
71 For more information about Siroux, see Chahriyar Adle, “Maxime Siroux,”
Le monde iranien et l’islam III (1975), pp. 127–29.
72 For more on the architecture of the Pahlavi period, see Talinn Grigor’s
contribution to the present volume, Chapter 5; see also Kamran Safamanesh,
“Architectural Historiography, 1921–42,” in Touraj Atabaki, ed., Iran in the 20th
Century (London: Tauris, 2009), pp. 121–53.
73 Ma‘sumi, “Shamma’i az pishineh-ye bastanshenasi-ye Iran,” pp. 155–65.
74 Donald N. Wilber, Riza Shah Pahlavi: The Resurrection and Reconstruction
of Iran (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1975), p. 179, quoted in Goode,
Negotiating for the Past, p. 174.
75 Mariam Habibi, L’interface France–Iran 1907–1938: une diplomatie voilée (Paris:
L’Harmattan, 2004), p. 353.
76 “This sovereign who claims to be modern, does not want it said that if you
scratch the Shah you find the Cossack,” see Yann Richard, L’Iran: naissance
d’une république islamique (Paris: La Martinière, 2006), pp. 240–41.
77 Abdi, “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran,” p. 62.
78 Ibid., p. 59. For more information about the “Ziviyeh Affair” see Rashid
Keykhosravi, Dowran-e bi-khabari ya gharat-e asar-e farhangi-ye Iraniyan
(Tehran: published by author, 1363/1984).
79 Mousavi, “Ernst Herzfeld, Politics, and Antiquities Legislation in Iran,” p. 471.
80 Qanun raje‘ be hefz-e asar-e ‘atiqeh [Law concerning the preservation of national
antiquities] (Tehran: Vezarat-e farhang, 1309/1930), pp. 1–7.
81 For the application of this law, the Iranian Ministry of Education adopted on 25
Bahman 1309 (14 February 1931) the respective nezam-nameh, which consisted of
36 articles. These rules were modified by the ministry and turned into 52 articles
altogether, which were again approved by the Council of Ministers on 28 Aban
1311 (19 November 1932): 1st art. (explanation, ta‘rif); 2–11 arts. (immovable
antiquities, ‘atiqat-e gheyr-e manqul); 12–17 arts. (movable antiquities, ‘atiqat-e
manqul); 18–37 arts. (excavations, hafriyat); 38–52 arts. (trade of antiquities,
tejarat-e ‘atiqat).
7 Depicting power
Reza Shah’s rule, cabinet politics and the
commemorative stamp set of 1935
Roman Siebertz
Introduction
Like all authoritarian regimes, the state of Reza Shah Pahlavi was based on
an extensive propaganda, either to convince the public of its legitimacy or to
enforce a particular way of behaviour on its subjects. In a society which still
remained to a large extent illiterate, images played an important role in dis-
seminating the official ideology. Postage stamps, whose significance and value
as a historical source have been underrated for a long period, are in this
respect one of the most illuminative class of documents that can help us to
understand how the early Pahlavi state perceived itself. Perhaps the best
example of this self-representation can be found in the motifs of a stamp set
issued in 1314/1935 in celebration of the tenth anniversary of Reza Shah’s
rule. These stamps are especially interesting because not only can they be
regarded as a representative example of official iconography, but also because
their iconography itself provides a telling story of the self-image of Iran’s
political elite during this time.
The reign of Reza Shah (1300–20/1921–41) is generally remembered both
as a period of seminal reforms, in which all fields of political, social and cul-
tural life underwent a fundamental change, and as an age of tyranny, during
which the Shah’s absolute, arbitrary, and at most times dictatorial style of
government reduced constitution and parliament to mere rubber stamps.
While the major decisions on Iran’s future development were taken by Reza
Shah and the circle of politicians in his retinue, this policy, which was going
to affect every region of the country and all strata of society, was accom-
panied by an intensive public propaganda campaign that employed all avail-
able means, i.e. new ones (like cinema and radio) as well as traditional media
such as the press and postage stamps.
In this respect, politics under Reza Shah followed a pattern that had been
established in Iran since the rule of Naser al-Din Shah (1210–75q/1848–96),1
i.e. at the same time as postage stamps were for the first time employed as
an instrument of political propaganda. The beginnings of visual political
propaganda might be traced back to the early stage of Qajar rule. Just like
Reza Shah more than a hundred years later, the new dynasty had been facing
150 Roman Siebertz
the problem to consolidate and to legitimate a still shaky rule in a pre-modern
society, a rule that moreover had been acquired not by ancestry, charisma and
the conservation of sacred traditions, but by mere violence.
One attempt to consolidate the new state was the effort to establish the
symbolic presence of the monarch in all parts of the country, for instance in
the shape of representative buildings in the bigger cities,2 or in the rock reliefs
that were carved on stone surfaces around Tehran in imitation of the style of
Sassanid inscriptions and reliefs.3 The increasingly close contacts with Europe
not only confronted the Iranian state with a new challenge of military
aggression and imperialist penetration, but also introduced the court to
modern forms of representation and interaction with the public. An early
example of this policy was the exchange of royal portraits with Western
negotiators during the days of Fath ‘Ali Shah (1183–1250q/1769–1834).4
Under Naser al-Din Shah, the incipient modernization of state and adminis-
tration, which was linked to personalities such as Mirza Taqi Khan Amir
Kabir (1222–68q/1807–52) or Mirza ‘Ali Khan Amin al-Dowleh (1260–
1322q/1844–1904), was accompanied by the introduction of new instruments
of representation and control.5 Two of the seminal reforms of Mirza Taqi
Khan were the foundation of an official newspaper6 and the establishment of
a regular mail service.7 The newspaper, a mouthpiece of the central govern-
ment, formed an effective means of communication between the court and the
educated strata of the society in the provinces.8 Its efficiency as an instrument
of propaganda was even enhanced when from 1860 onwards the official
papers also began to include illustrations of royal palaces, court festivities and
portraits of prominent Iranian and foreign statesmen.9
Figure 7.1 1882 definitive set, 5000 Dinar, portrait of Naser al-Din Shah.
Source: Author’s collection.
Figure 7.3 1933 definitive set, 1 Rial, Reza Shah with kolah-e Pahlavi.
Source: Author’s collection.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 157
The role that was assigned to these stamps – to signify to the outside world
Iran’s aspiration to be regarded and treated as a self-conscious and rejuvenated
sovereign nation – could be seen from the fact that at an international postal
congress in Cairo in 1313/1934, the Iranian delegate was instructed by the min-
istry to hand out samples of stamps to the other delegates.66 In 1316/1937
another delegation was sent to an international postal exhibition in the United
States to represent Pahlavi Iran in shape of her stamp emissions.67 Obviously,
postage stamps were considered as an effective instrument for influencing
public opinion in favour of Reza Shah’s rule within Iran and abroad.
Figure 7.9 1935 commemoration set, 1.50 Rial, post and customs office in Tehran.
Source: Author’s collection.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 163
of Iran under Reza Shah was to a great extent bankrolled by a road tax levied
on all imported goods.115 Against this background, the image of the general
headquarters of the post and customs service not only depicted a symbol of
the strong centralized government, but also of Iran’s newly won sovereignty
over her financial and economical affairs.
The railroad bridge over Karun River (Figure 7.10) played a similar role in
the official iconography of the early Pahlavi state.
The construction of the Trans-Iranian Railroad in the first place constituted
the most spectacular part of the ongoing program of road building that was
initiated in the 1930s116 and had been an important part of the modernization
process insofar as it had made possible the industrialization of Iran.117 Even
though the extent of the constructed motor roads exceeded that of the rail-
road by its expansiveness and economic importance,118 the railway played a
special role in the public consciousness of the Pahlavi state. As an epitome of
modern technology, illustrations of railroads and railroad installations had
been a staple in the iconography of the constitutionalists and nationalists with
their admiration for science and technology. This symbolic significance was
still augmented by the fact that in the period before World War I the rivalry
between Britain and Russia in Iran had prevented any attempt to build a
railway in Iran (which may have given an advantage to the competitor),
making railroads one of the symbols of the aspired economic and political
independence. Furthermore, the fact that Iran had been able to venture the
construction of the Trans-Iranian Railroad without taking up a foreign loan,
but entirely with her own funds, made the railroad an example of autonomy
and independence119 – even though, compared to motor roads, it proved to
be a costly investment without much economical benefit.120 Having the
construction of the first nationwide railway connection realized under his
reign, and under the circumstances just mentioned, Reza Shah could claim
to have finally realized the demand for modern technology as well as for
political freedom of action.
The gunboat depicted on the 90-Dinar denomination (Figure 7.11) in much
the same way constituted an emblem of the resurgent nation.
Originally established for the prevention of smuggling tea and sugar (by
whose taxation the construction of the railroad had been mainly financed),121
the navy had, from the outset, been much more than just a branch of the
armed forces. Together with the necessity to defend the country’s territorial
integrity, the control over the Persian Gulf became another issue of the
nationalist discourse, not least due to the strong British presence in the Gulf
and the imposed ban on Iran from maintaining her own naval forces in this
area during the Qajar period.122 In the Caspian Sea Russia had enjoyed a
similar position before and in fact also after World War I.123 Even though
insignificant in strength (consisting of only half a dozen small vessels),124
the new navy had proven to be an effective instrument not only to police
maritime trade and trafficking in Iranian waters, but also in order to exert an
effective control over the local rulers in the coastal areas.125 For this reason,
the navy had become an institution whose significance as a symbol of
national sovereignty was not lesser than that of the Trans-Iranian Railroad.
An early political triumph of Reza Shah had been the crushing of Sheykh
Khaz’al’s rebellion in Khuzestan, which was celebrated as a successful effort
of the central government to regain her complete control over the territory of
Iran.126 The fact that Sheykh Khaz’al (1239–1315/1860–1936) had enjoyed
British backing also gave the Shah the credit for having both successfully
restored Iran’s territorial integrity and challenged British hegemony in the
Persian Gulf.127 Already at that time, a caricature of Reza Shah entering
Mohammareh aboard a warship128 emphasized not only the Shah’s efforts
and achievements as the defender of national integrity who had restored the
nation’s pride and dignity, but also the importance of the armed forces for the
independence of Iran.129
This close relation of nationalism, modernization and a strong military, as
emblematized in the motif of the gunboat, was also inherent in the motifs of
other stamps of the set. At a closer look, the airplanes in the picture of the
Tehran aerodrome could be easily identified as military aircraft. Thus, the
image not only symbolizes the introduction of an up-to-date traffic system,
or the integration of Iran into the worldwide system of air transport (which at
that time still had been very rudimentary).130 It also gave a hint of the
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 165
importance of the newly created air force as an instrument of efficient dom-
ination especially over those areas that had not been accessible, and therefore
impossible to control, by regular military forces. In a similar way, the Trans-
Iranian Railroad, apart from its role as a national object of prestige, had been
planned and built not so much under economical as under military aspects.
Especially with its routing through the unruly tribal areas in the southwest of
Iran, it enabled the government in Tehran quickly to employ a great number
of troops from the capital to the rebellious provinces131 – one has to bear in
mind that the Bakhtiyari uprising, a trial of strength between the Shah and
the traditional elites, which had lasted several years and had led to the dis-
missal and arrest of Ja‘far Qoli Khan, was only subdued at the time when the
issue of the jubilee stamp set was decided.132
This linkage between technology, modernization, administrative reform and
Westernization was less apparent but nonetheless evident in the stamps in
praise of education, legal reform or communication. The post and customs
head office in Tehran for instance did exemplify the state’s claim for absolute
control over its citizens by supervising the distribution of information and the
traffic of goods, while the judicial reform and the new system of education in
the last analysis would secure for the state the control over their bodies and
minds. Apart from glorifying the progress Iran had made under the rule of
Reza Shah, the stamp set also displayed the instruments of power of the new
state, and gave a clear allusion to the true character of the Pahlavi state,
which was in essence not more than a royal dictatorship that rested on the
army’s bayonets, aided by “a state machine to destroy adversaries and establish
despotic rule”.133
Thus, while praising the efforts of modernization, and the apparent
achievements in this regard, the stamp set also constituted an unintended
manifestation of the actual political situation in Iran under Reza Shah, which
Mehrzad Boroujerdi has aptly defined as “Bonapartist etatism”.134 This raises
the question of the cabinet’s motivation in issuing this set, and the political
convictions and political backgrounds of those who had been involved in this
decision.
In this respect, Davar could be quite content with what he and his associates
had achieved in the previous years. With the clearly visible results of their
efforts, like the development of a national industry and a network of
roads and railways that had not existed ten years ago,164 a foundation had
been created for the new educational system that he had envisaged, which, its
shortcomings notwithstanding,165 was regarded to be the basis for the
renaissance of Iran with her six-thousand-year-old culture and tradition (as
exemplified by the monuments of Persepolis depicted on the 10-Dinar
denomination). With his impeccable record as a patriot and reformer, Davar
was also able to personify the emerging modern state in a much more credible
way than other cabinet members, like Mahmud Sadr, who after the
crackdown of the first Majles had actively participated in the persecution of
arrested constitutionalists,166 or Mahmud Jam, who at the beginning of his poli-
tical life had been a loyal supporter of Vosuq al-Dowleh and the British–Iranian
agreement of 1298/1919.167
For all of them, the release of the jubilee set may have been an opportunity
to demonstrate, notwithstanding their backgrounds, their commitment to the
Iranian nation and their loyalty to Pahlavi rule. Furthermore, the references
to their efforts to build a modern nation and society also may have been
intended as a justification for their active participation in Reza Shah’s politics,
whose dictatorial and arbitrary character had been demonstrated at the same
time by the arrest of Ja‘far Qoli Khan. Therefore, this decision could also be
regarded as a vindication by public opinion and, possibly, posterity. This may
also explain the choice of the subject of the 45-Dinar denomination, the
sanatorium of Sakhtsar (Figure 7.12); this image introduced to the program
Figure 7.13 1964 stamp in celebration of the opening of the Shahnaz barrage dam
(Hamadan).
Source: Author’s collection.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 171
Conclusion
Among the stamps of the Pahlavi era, the jubilee set of 1314/1935 remains
remarkable not only as one of the most ambitious official propagandistic
efforts, but also as an inestimable document of the political zeitgeist of the
Reza Shah period. Its significance could be measured both by the meticulous
quality of paper and printing and the remarkable artistic level of its design,
and by the fact that some of the most prominent politicians and policymakers
at that time had been involved in its emission. First of all, the illustrations on
the stamps reflected the dominant political discourse of the early Pahlavi
period, and the worldview and self-perception of the men who created a
modern state and society, and had taken advantage of this opportunity to
visualize their concept of statehood and national identity to a broader
audience. The issues that were treated on the stamps, such as the reform of
education and legislation, industrialization and transport, and the defence of
the realm as a precondition for national resurrection, were at that time neither
new nor inventive.
Moreover, the politics of modernization under Reza Shah were in essence
the continuation of intellectual and political trends that could be traced back
to the nineteenth century. The establishment of a strong centralized govern-
ment, able to exert control over the country’s natural and financial resources
in order to defend Iran effectively against foreign powers, had already been an
essential part of the reform projects during the Qajar period. In the emerging
nationalist discourse the imperative of a general transformation of state and
society according to Western paradigms did coincide with the rediscovery of
ancient Iran as the basis for a collective identity. The Constitutional Revolu-
tion of 1906–10 not only marked the transformation of Iran from a feudal
172 Roman Siebertz
state into a modern nation, but it also initiated the emergence of a new poli-
tical iconography, which combined emblems of Iranian monarchy, such as the
Kayani crown and the ruins of Persepolis, with allegorical depictions of pro-
gress and liberty, and images of modern Western technology. Since this new
symbolism had already been incorporated into the motif of Iranian stamps
just before World War I, the iconography of the jubilee set distinguished itself
less by its originality, than by effectively combining well-known political
symbols into a new and comprehensive sign system.
The selection of the illustrations from this iconographical code, such as
allegories of education and justice, a view of the ruins of Persepolis, warships
and military airplanes, and depictions of factories and railways, also gave a
direct hint to the propagandistic message of this stamp set. By depicting the
most notable achievements of the first decade of Reza Shah’s rule, the stamps
referred to the key issues of Iranian politics in the years before: the recovery
of national sovereignty and of government authority in all parts of the coun-
try, based on a modern armed force and government control of the financial
and custom affairs; the creation of an effective system of communication; and
the reform of education and jurisdiction as essential to a general reshaping of
state and society, with the immediate objective of making Iran competitive
with the modern industrialized nations, and the ultimate aim of restoring the
country’s former grandeur.
The politicians involved in the emission of this set, like Mohammad ‘Ali
Forughi, ‘Ali Akbar Davar, Mahmud Jam and Mohsen Sadr, had some good
reasons for pointing out these accomplishments, since the implemented
reforms and newly created institutions of the past years were in fact the rea-
lization of their own designs for a modern and independent Iran, which they
had formulated during the Constitutional Revolution. In doing so, they made
Reza Shah’s rule appear not as a royal dictatorship, but as the consequent
realization of the nation’s aspirations.186 This also provided an opportunity to
justify their participation in Iranian politics and enabled them to appear in
public not as lackeys of a ruthless and at times even despotic system, which
did not hesitate to employ these postage stamps in order to present its various
instruments of power.
The efforts made in various fields such as education, industrialization, the
creation of a transport network and an effective administrative system are still
undeniable. By depicting these successes, the motifs of the stamps, for better
or worse, reflected the political and social reality of Iran in the 1930s, which
was indeed characterized by a rapid and noticeable modernization of many
areas of life, and at the same time, by a growing monopolization of the Iranian
public and private life by the government. Therefore, these stamps are also a
document of the new relation between state and society, which found a
continuation not only in the reform programs of the ‘White Revolution’, but
also, and even more intensively, under the Islamic Republic. In this regard,
the jubilee stamp set set a trend for the iconography of power in Iran for
decades to come.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 173
Notes
1 Nikki Keddie, Qajar Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah 1796–1925 (Costa Mesa,
CA: Mazda, 1999), pp. 89–93.
2 Layla S. Diba, “Images of Power and the Power of Images: Intention and
Response in Early Qajar Painting (1785–1834),” in Royal Persian Paintings: The
Qajar Epoch 1785–1925, ed. Layla S. Diba and Maryam Ekhtiar (London and
New York: I.B. Tauris, 1998), pp. 30–49: 31.
3 Paul Luft: “The Qajar Rock Reliefs,” Iranian Studies 34:1/4 (2001), pp. 31–49: 43.
4 John H. Lorentz: “Iran’s Great Reformer of the Nineteenth Century: An Analysis
of Amir Kabir’s Reforms,” Iranian Studies 4:2/3 (1971), pp. 85–103: 95.
5 On reform politics under the rule of Naser al-Din Shah, see Shaul Bakhash, Iran:
Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858–1896 (London:
Ithaca Press, 1978), pp. 83–186; on the reforms during Amin al-Dowleh’s
premiership, see ibid., pp. 214–44.
6 Ibid., pp. 306–44; Peter Avery, “Printing, Press and Literature in Modern Iran,”
in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7, ed. Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly and
Charles Melville (London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 7,
815–69, 815–17.
7 Feridun ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post dar Iran az sedarat-e Amir Kabir ta vezarat-e
Amin al-Dowleh, 1264–1297 h.q. (Tehran: Hermand, 1996), pp. 17–20. Iraj Kiya,
Moruri bar tarikh-e post-e Iran (Tehran: Negin, 1997), pp. 100–101.
8 Mansoureh Ettehadieh, “The Early Press and the Introduction of Modern
Science in Iran,” in Amtsblatt, vilayet gazetisi und unabhängiges Journal: Die
Anfänge der Presse im Nahen Osten, ed. Anja Pistor-Hatam (Frankfurt am Main:
Peter Lang, 2001), pp. 15–28, 26–27.
9 On the official newspapers of that time, Sharaf and Sharafat, see E.G. Browne,
The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia: Partly Based on the Manuscript Work of
Mírzá Muhammad Àlí Khán ‘Tarbiyat’ of Tabríz (London: Cambridge University
Press, 1914), pp. 92–93, 109; and Mohammad Sadr Hashemi, Tarikh-e jarayed va
majallat-e Iran (Esfahan: Kamal, 1364/1985), pp. 3, 59–61.
10 ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post, pp. 60–78 and Kiya, Moruri bar tarikh-e post,
pp. 122–26.
11 Postage stamps were for the first time issued in India in 1852, in Russia in 1858
and in the Ottoman Empire in 1863. Roman Siebertz, Die Briefmarken Irans als
Mittel der politischen Bildpropaganda (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2005), p. 22.
12 ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post, pp. 39–43; and Mehrdad Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic
Philatelic Reference, vol. 1: Qajar Dynasty (Glendora, CA: Persiphila, 2007), p. 6.
13 Mi = Michel Übersee-Katalog, vol. 9: Mittel-und Ostasien (Munich: Schwa-
nenberger, 2007), No. 1–4; SC = Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue
(Sidney, OH: Scott Publishing House, 2010), No. 1–4. For a detailed description
of these stamps see ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post, pp. 16–34; and Sadri, Persiphila
Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, pp. 7–8.
14 ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post, p. 45; and Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic Philatelic
Reference, p. 7.
15 David Scott, European Stamp Design: A Semiotic Approach to Designing
Messages (London: Academy Editions, 1995), pp. 17, 25–26.
16 Siebertz, Die Briefmarken Irans, pp. 25–27. Another indication of the quick
acceptance of stamps as an expression of a claim to sovereignty can be seen in the
fact that revolutionary and autonomist movements during the Constitutional
Revolution and the following period, such as the revolutions in Tabriz under
Sattar Khan, the Azadestan Movement under Sheykh Mohammad Khiyabani
and the Jangali Movement under Kuchek Khan, all had challenged the authority
174 Roman Siebertz
of the central government by issuing their own stamps. For these issues, see
Feridun Novin Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran: Qajar-Pahlavi-
Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Iran. The Stamps of Iran: Qajar, Pahlavi, Islamic Republic
of Iran (Tehran: Nashr-e Farahbakhsh, 2009), pp. 83–86 and Sadri, Persiphila
Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, pp. 164–69, 173–76.
17 Mi 19–22/SC 27–30.
18 Mi 191–97/SC 357–63.
19 Mi 94I-109I/SC 104–19.
20 Mi 239–49/SC 434–45.
21 Peter Calmeyer, Elsie H. Peck, A. Shapur Shahbazi and Yahya D . oka, “Crown,”
in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 6, 1993, pp. 407–26: 424.
22 Mi 250/SC 445.
23 Abbas Amanat, “The Kayanid Crown and Qajar Reclaiming of Royal Author-
ity,” Iranian Studies 34:1/4 (2001), pp. 17–30, 31; and Calmeyer et al., “Crown,”
pp. 425–26.
24 Siebertz, Die Briefmarken Irans, p. 37.
25 Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–
1946 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 41–45. Mohammad
Tavakoli-Targhi, “Refashioning Iran: Language and Culture during the
Constitutional Revolution,” Iranian Studies 32:1/4 (1990), pp. 77–101, 82–85.
26 Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1982), pp. 73–80; and Keddie, Qajar Iran, pp. 44–50.
27 Tavakoli-Targhi, “Refashioning Iran,” pp. 88–90. Keyvandokht Ghahari, Natio-
nalismus und Modernismus in Iran in der Periode zwischen dem Zerfall der Qa-ǧa--
.
ren-Dynastie und der Machtfestigung Reza- Schahs. Eine Untersuchung über die
- -
intellektuellen Kreise um die Zeitschriften Ka-weh, Ira-nšahr und Ayandeh (Berlin:
Klaus Schwarz, 2001), pp. 131–32. Anja Pistor-Hatam, Iran und die Reformbewegung
im Osmanischen Reich (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 1992), pp. 198–208.
-
28 On this subject, see Mangol Bayat, “Mı-rza- Aqa- Kha-n Kirma-nı-: A Nineteenth
Century Persian Nationalist,” Middle Eastern Studies 10 (1974), pp. 36–59, 36–38.
Tavakoli-Targhi, “Refashioning Iran,” pp. 100–101; and Mostafa Vaziri: Iran as
an Imagined Nation: The Construction of National Identity (New York: Paragon
House, 1993), pp. 155–60.
-
29 Bayat, “Mı-rza- Aqa- Kha-n Kirma-nı-”, pp. 47–49; and Tavakoli-Targhi, “Refashioning
Iran,” pp. 100–101.
30 Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, p. 48.
31 Mi 363–79/SC 560–77.
32 Amanat, “The Kayanid Crown,” p. 19.
33 Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, pp. 81–82; Sadri, Persiphila Iran
Classic Philatelic Reference, pp. 160–61.
34 Siebertz, Die Briefmarken Irans, pp. 40–41.
35 Cf. an article in Iranshahr, Aban 1292/18 October 1923, p. 104.
36 For a biography and ‘Abbas Mirza’s reform projects, see Heribert Busse, “‘Abba-s
Mı-rza- Qajar,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 1, 1982/83, pp. 79–84, passim.
37 For instance, depictions of the royal palace at Anzali, the Golestan Palace in
Tehran and the marble throne Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, pp.
81–82; and Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, p. 160.
38 Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions, p. 102–33.
39 Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, pp. 81–82; and Sadri, Persiphila
Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, p. 160.
40 Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, p. 8; Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic
Philatelic Reference, p. 161.
41 For the stamp emissions of this period, see Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye
Iran, pp. 55–75; and Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic Philatelic Reference, pp. 131–47.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 175
42 Ervand Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008), pp. 63–65; and Keddie, Qajar Iran, pp. 78–81.
43 For these events, see Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, pp. 118–35.
Mohammad Reza Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century: A Political History
(Boulder, CO and London: L. Rienner, 1989), pp. 93–100. Cyrus Ghani, Iran and
the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power (London and New
York: I.B. Tauris, 1998), pp. 161–372.
44 Hasan Morsalvand, “Sheybani, ‘Abd al-Hoseyn (Vahid al-Molk),” Zendegi-
nameh-ye rejal va mashahir-e Iran, vol. 4 (Tehran: Entesharat-e Elham, 1369–75/
1990–96), pp. 143–44.
45 Baqer ‘Aqeli, “Taqizadeh, Sayyed Hasan,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal-e siyasi va nezami-
ye mo‘aser-e Iran, vol. 1 (Tehran: Nashr-e Goftar/Nashr-e ‘Elmi, 1380/2001),
pp. 505–10.
46 Morsalvand, “Sur, Qasem (Sur-e Esrafil-Tabrizi),” Zendegi-nameh-ye rejal, vol. 4,
pp. 214–16. Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah, p. 291.
47 ‘Aqeli, “Hejazi, Mohammad,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 1, pp. 572–73.
Morsalvand, “Hejazi, Mohammad,” Zendegi-nameh-ye rejal, vol. 3, pp. 78–80.
M. Ghanoonparvar, “H - - -
. ejazı, Moh.ammad Mot.ı’-al-Dawla,” in Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 12, 2004, pp. 141–43.
48 Sadr Hashemi, Tarikh-e jarayed, vol. 2, pp. 69–71.
49 “Iran-e-Emruz,” Sadr Hashemi, Tarikh-e jarayed, vol. 1, pp. 325–30.
50 Illustrations in Farangestan 1:2 (February 1924), p. 95; and Farangestan 1:5
(September 1924), p. 228; and Farangestan 1:6 (October 1924), p. 281; and
Farangestan 1:11/12 (March/April 1925), p. 553. On Farangestan, see Sadr
Hashemi, “Farangestan,” Tarikh-e jarayed, vol. 4, pp. 66–68; and Věra Kubíčková,
“Persian Literature of the 20th Century,” in History of Iranian Literature, ed. Jan
Rypka (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1968), pp. 353–418: 383.
51 As examples of these caricatures, see Nahid 7:18 (11 Shahrivar 1306/3 September
1927); Nahid 7:68 (22 Ordibehesht 1307/12 May 1928); and Nahid 7:30 (25 Mehr
1306/18 October 1927).
52 Mi 449–59/SC 635–45. See also Sadri, Persiphila Iran Classic Philatelic Reference,
pp. 140–41.
53 Mi 483–96/SC 667–80.
54 Mi 514–17/SC 703–6. The first stamps issued were surcharged taxation stamps
(Mi 508–13/SC 697–702).
55 Mi 518–33/SC 707–22.
56 On the stamps that were still in circulation the portrait of Ahmad Shah had to be
obliterated (Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, pp. 67–68).
57 Mi 534–43/SC 723–34.
58 Mi 560–63/SC 740–43.
59 Mi581–95/SC 744–58, 760–70.
60 Mi 595/SC 759.
61 Mi 625–39, 687–700/SC 771–85, 827–40. The issue of this set had become
necessary because of the replacement of Kran and Shahi by the Rial as the new
currency. Handbuch der Briefmarkenkunde, vol. 2 (Berlin: Verein Handbuch der
Briefmarkenkunde, 1943), p. 637.
62 Patricia L. Baker, “Politics of Dress: The Dress Reform Laws of 1920–30s Iran,”
in Language of Dress in the Middle East, ed. Nancy Lindisfarne-Tapper and
Bruce Ingram (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1997), pp. 178–90: 181–84. Houchang E.
Chehabi, “Staging the Emperor’s New Clothes: Dress Codes and Nation-Building
Under Reza Shah,” Iranian Studies 26:3/4 (1993), pp. 209–33: 224–25. Bianca
Devos, Kleidungspolitik in Iran. Die Durchsetzung der Kleidungsvorschriften für
.
Männer unter Riza- Ša-h (Würzburg: Ergon, 2006), pp. 9–11.
63 Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, p. 66.
176 Roman Siebertz
..
64 Bernard Hourcade and Ah.mad Tafazzolı-: “Dama-vand,” in Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 6, 1993, pp. 627–31: 630–31.
65 Mi 597–613/SC 634–50. For a description of this motif, see Handbuch der
Briefmarkenkunde, vol. 2, p. 635.
66 Directive by minister of post and telegraph Mohammad ‘Ali Dowlatshahi, NA
240/212/21/15, 28 Dey 1312/9 January 1934 and 15 Esfand 1312/6 March 1934.
Marziyeh Yazdani, ed., Asnad-e post va telegraf va telefon dar dowreh-ye Reza
Shah (Tehran: Entesharat-e Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli-ye Iran, 1999), pp. 64–65.
67 Instruction by the acting minister of post and telegraph, Mohammad Hakimi,
NA 1210001/121, 8 Esfand 1315/27 February 1937, published in Yazdani, Asnad-e
post, pp. 69–70.
68 “Tasvib-nameh-ye enteshar-e tambr-ha-ye makhsus-e taraqqiyat-e mamlekat
tavassot-e hey’at-e vaziran” (Resolution on the issue of Commemorative Stamps on
the Country’s Progress by the Cabinet), NA 113012/9402, published in Yazdani,
Asnad-e post, pp. 65–66.
69 Yazdani, Asnad-e post, p. 65.
70 Yazdani, Asnad-e post, p. 65.
71 Farahbakhsh, Rahnema-ye tambr-ha-ye Iran, p. 97. Handbuch der Briefmarkenkunde,
vol. 2, pp. 639–40.
72 Decree issued by minister of post and telegraph Nezam al-Din Hekmat, NA
121004/656, 22 Esfand 1313/13 March 1935, in Yazdani, Asnad-e post, pp. 66–67.
73 Handbuch der Briefmarkenkunde, vol. 2, p. 641. In 1937, the postal rates for
internal mail were 10 Dinars for local letters, postcards and printed matters up to
50 grams, 30 Dinars for letters up to 10 grams (plus 15 Dinars for each additional
5 grams) and 60 Dinars for registered mail. Giorgio Migliavacca, A Concise
Postal History of Persia (n. p.: Laurel Publications, 1986), pp. 36–37.
74 Yazdani, Asnad-e post, p. 65.
75 Mi 640/SC 786.
76 Mi 642/SC 788.
77 Mi 641/SC 787.
78 Mi 643/SC 789.
79 Mi 644/SC 790.
80 Mi 645/SC 791.
81 Mi 646/SC 792.
82 Mi 648/SC 793.
83 Mi 649/SC 794. For a detailed description of the respective stamp designs, see
Handbuch der Briefmarkenkunde, vol. 2, pp. 641–43.
84 Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, p. 71.
85 David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca, NY and
London: Cornell University Press 1992), p. 90.
86 Ghahari, Nationalismus und Modernismus, pp. 174–227.
87 On the aims of the judicial reform see Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran:
1921–1941 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), pp. 73–78. Ghods,
Iran in the Twentieth Century, pp. 105–6. For the education system see Matthee,
“Transforming Dangerous Nomads into Useful Artisans,” pp. 313–36: 322–30.
88 Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, p. 85. Menashri, Education, pp. 93–96.
89 Ibid., 70.
90 For specific examples from the early Reza Shah period see Kashani-Sabet, Frontier
Fictions, pp. 136, 138, 162.
91 On Nahid see Sadr Hashemi, Tarikh-e jarayed, vol. 4, pp. 455–59; and Kubíčková,
“Persian Literature of the 20th Century,” p. 383.
92 Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions, pp. 62–74.
93 On the publication history and the ideological orientation of Iranshahr cf. Ghahari,
Nationalismus und Modernismus, pp. 63–77.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 177
94 Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions, p. 157.
95 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 99.
96 Ghahari, Nationalismus und Modernismus, p. 132.
97 Walter Hinz, Iranische Reise: Eine Forschungsreise durch das heutige Iran (Berlin:
Hugo Bermühler, 1938), p. 94.
98 An illustration of this building and further information about its architecture and
its designer Gabriel Guevrekin, one of Iran’s most prominent modernist architects
of that period, can be found in Mina Marefat, “The Protagonists who Shaped
Modern Tehran,” in Téhéran: capitale bicentenaire, ed. Chahryar Adle and Ber-
nard Hourcade (Paris and Tehran: Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, 1992),
pp. 95–126: 118–19.
99 Illustrations in the header of pro-constitutional periodicals like Rahnema and
Tashviq. On Rahnema and Tashviq, see Sadr Hashemi, Tarikh-e jarayed, vol. 2,
pp. 334–37, vol. 2, pp. 127–28. On urban planning and the significance of modern
architecture during the Reza Shah period, see Eckart Ehlers and Willem Floor,
“Urban Change in Iran: 1920–41,” Iranian Studies 26:3/4 (1993), pp. 251–75,
254–70.
100 Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, p. 90.
101 Ghahari, Nationalismus und Modernismus, pp. 59–60.
102 Willem Floor, The Industrialization of Iran: 1900–1941 (Durham: University of
Durham, 1984), p. 36. Ghahari, Nationalismus und Modernismus, pp. 181–84.
103 Illustrations in Farangestan 1:2 (February 1924), p. 95; Farangestan 1:5 (Septem-
ber 1924), p. 228; Farangestan 1:6 (October 1924), p. 281; and Farangestan 1:11/
12 (March/April 1925), p. 553.
104 Parvin Alizadeh, “Industrialization,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 13, 2006,
pp. 105–25: 106–9.
105 Mohammad Reza Ghods, “Government and Society in Iran: 1921–41,” Middle
Eastern Studies 26 (1991), pp. 219–39: 222.
106 For a more detailed description of the industrialization politics during the 1930s,
see Yair P. Hirschfeld, Deutschland und Iran im Spielfeld der Mächte: Inter-
nationale Beziehungen unter Reza Schah (Düsseldorf: Droste 1980), pp. 145–46;
and Banani, Modernization of Iran, pp. 139–41.
107 Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars,
1858–1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978), p. 350. Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions,
p. 75. The same idea had been expressed by Jamalzadeh during World War I.
Mohammad ‘Ali Jamalzadeh, Der unermessliche Schatz oder Die wirtschaftliche
Lage Irans: Ǧama-lza-des Studie zur iranischen Volkswirtschaft am Vorabend des
Ersten Weltkriegs, ed. Leila Nabieva (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 2006), p. 72.
108 ‘Abdalifard, Tarikh-e post, p. 60–77. Kiya, Moruri bar tarikh-e post, pp. 124–26.
109 Mehrzad Boroujerdi, “Triumphs and Travails of Authoritarian Modernization in
Iran,” in The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921–
1941, ed. Stephanie Cronin (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 146–54:
150–51.
110 Kiya, Moruri bar tarikh-e post, pp. 220–33.
111 Ibid., pp. 238–39.
112 Ibid., pp. 288–93.
113 Michael P. Zirinski, “Riza Shah’s Abrogation of Capitulations: 1927–28,” in
Making of Modern Iran, ed. Cronin, pp. 81–98: esp. 81–82 and 89–94.
114 Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century, p. 102.
115 Patrick Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together: The Land Transport Revolution,
1920–41”, Iranian Studies 26:3 (1993), pp. 235–50: 244.
116 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 133. Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together,”
pp. 241–43. Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century, pp. 102–3.
117 Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together,” pp. 249–50.
178 Roman Siebertz
118 Homa Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo-
Modernism, 1926–1979 (London and New York: New York University Press,
1981), p. 116.
119 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 134. Keddie, Roots of Revolution, p. 99.
120 For a critique of the railway project see Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together”,
pp. 241–42, Katouzian, Political Economy, pp. 115–16 and Keddie, Roots of
Revolution, pp. 100–101.
121 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 134.
122 Firuz Kazemzadeh, Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864–1914: A Study in Imperi-
alism, (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 151–52.
123 Guive Mirfendereski, A Diplomatic History of the Caspian Sea: Treaties, Diaries
and Other Stories (London and New York: Palgrave, 2000), pp. 136–38.
124 For a complete list of the vessels of the Iranian navy see Weyers Taschenbuch der
Kriegsflotten vol. 29 (Munich: F. J. Lehmann, 1935), pp. 128–29.
125 Rudi Matthee, “Transforming Dangerous Nomads into Useful Artisans, Techni-
cians, Agriculturalists: Education in the Reza Shah Period,” in Making of
Modern Iran, ed. Cronin, pp. 136–37. Hirschfeld, Deutschland und Iran, p. 161.
126 Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions, pp. 164–67.
127 Keddie, Qajar Iran, pp. 81–82. Michael P. Zirinski, “Imperial Power and Dicta-
torship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah,” International Journal of Middle East
Studies 24:4 (1992), pp. 639–63: 653–55.
128 Nahid 8:31 (15 Aban 1307/6 November 1928). In 1924 a newspaper article had
celebrated the acquisition of a small, old ex-German minesweeper, which was
supposed to be a patrol vessel on the Caspian Sea, with a full-page photograph.
Farangestan 1:3 (3 April 1924), following p. 115.
129 In an article in the illustrated periodical Iran-e Bastan a photograph of the gunboat,
which was almost identical with the stamp motif, was published on one page
together with images of the celebration of the northern track of the Trans-Iranian
Railway and an article titled “An Example of the Achievements of New Iran
Shahanshah Pahlavi” (Nemuneh-ye taraqqiyat-e Iran-e now dar partu-ye tavajjo-
hat-e Shahanshah Pahlavi), which summed up the ideology of Reza Shah’s rule,
with its mixture of nationalism, monarchism and militarism, declaring that ‘now,
under the protection of the Imperial government, the flag of Iran is flying every-
where as long as a single Iranian soldier is alive, and while he is bravely fighting
the enemy, by his deeds he demonstrates, [that] our name is glorious, and [that]
we must maintain our glorious name, and our way to demonstrate this is by deed
and devotion to the king’: see Iran-e Bastan 3:2 (25 Khordad 1314/16 June 1935),
p. 3. In other issues of the same volume, Iran-e Bastan published other views of
the Trans-Iranian Railway [Iran-e Bastan 3:4 (14 Tir 1314/9 January 1935), p. 10],
an illustrated coverage of the centennial of German railroads [Iran-e Bastan 3:8
(25 Mordad 1314/17 August 1935), p. 16], and a cover story entitled “What Is the
Importance and Avail of a Railroad for a Living Nation and an Independent
State?” (Ahamiyat va sud-e rah-e ahan bara-ye yek mellat-e zendeh va mamlekat-e
mostaqell chist?), Iran-e Bastan 3:11 (15 Shahrivar 1314/7 September 1935), p. 1.
130 Banani, Modernization of Iran, p. 136. On the strategic and political factors that
influenced and obstructed civil aviation in the 1930s, see Hirschfeld, Deutschland
und Iran, pp. 107, 129, 137, 170–72.
131 Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together,” p. 246. Ghods, “Government and Society,”
pp. 219–30, 221.
132 Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, p. 93. Kaveh Bayat, “Riza Shah and the
Tribes: An Overview,” in The Making of Modern Iran, ed. Cronin, pp. 213–19.
Stephanie Cronin, “Reza Shah, the Fall of Sardar Asad, and the ‘Bakhtiyari
Plot’,” Iranian Studies 38:2 (2005), pp. 211–46: 216–42.
133 Katouzian, Political Economy, pp. 109–10.
Depicting power: the commemorative stamp set of 1935 179
134 Boroujerdi, “Triumphs and Travails,” p. 147.
135 For the composition of Forughi’s cabinet, see Dowlat-ha-ye Iran: az Mirza
Nasrallah Khan Moshir al-Dowleh ta Mir Hoseyn Musavi (Tehran: Sazman-e Chap
va Entesharat-e Vezarat-e Farhang va Ershad-e Eslami, 1378/1999), pp. 158–59.
136 ‘Aqeli, “Forughi, Mohammad ‘Ali,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, pp. 1107–20.
Morsalvand, “Forughi-Zoka, Mohammad ‘Ali (Zoka al-Molk)”, Zendegi-nameh-ye
rejal, vol. 5, pp. 96–108.
137 ‘Aqeli, “Davar, ‘Ali Akbar,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, pp. 654–64. Morsalvand,
“Davar, ‘Ali Akbar,” Zendegi-nameh-ye rejal, vol. 3, 182–96.
138 ‘Aqeli, “Jam, Mahmud,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 1, pp. 547–51. ‘Aqeli, “Jam,
Mahmud” (Modir al-Molk), Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 3, pp. 20–25.
139 “Sadr, Mohsen,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, pp. 918–24.
140 “Bayat, Mostafa Qoli,” ibid., vol. 1, p. 352.
141 “Bahman, ‘Ali Akbar,” ibid., vol. 1, pp. 325–26.
142 “Kazemi, Baqer”, ibid., vol. 3, pp. 1280–82.
143 “‘Alamir, ‘Abbas,” ibid., vol. 2, pp. 1018–19.
144 “Hekmat, ‘Ali Asghar”, ibid., vol. 1, pp. 586–88. On the significance of the
Ferdowsi millennium as part of the efforts to create a new, common cultural
identity, see Menashri, Education, p. 97.
145 Stephanie Cronin, “Riza Shah and Disintegration of Bakhtiyari Power in Iran:
1921–34,” in The Making of Modern Iran, ed. Cronin, pp. 241–68, 261–65 and
idem, “Fall of Sardar Asad,” p. 242. Sardar Asad was succeeded as minister of
war by Amir-e Lashkar Monteq Nahchevand (1261–1970/1882–1970), previously
leader of the Tehran military academy and chief of staff in the Iranian army. ‘Aqeli,
“Nahchevand, Sepahbod Mohammad”, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 3, pp. 1614–15; and
Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah, p. 156. See also Morsalvand, “As’ad
Bakhtiyari, Ja‘far Qoli Khan (Sardar Bahador)”, Zendegi-nameh-ye rejal, vol. 1,
pp. 152–57.
146 On the cooperation of Davar and Forughi as members of the hezb-e tajaddod cf.
Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century, pp. 95–96.
147 ‘Aqeli, “Dowlatshahi, Mohammad ‘Ali,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, p. 684.
148 ‘Aqeli, “Jam, Mahmud,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 1, pp. 547–51.
149 “Sadr, Mohsen,” ibid., vol. 2, pp. 920–22.
150 “Bayat, Mostafa Qoli,” ibid., vol. 1, p. 352.
151 Ibid., vol. 1, p. 352.
152 “Forughi, Mohammad ‘Ali,” ibid., vol. 3, pp. 1107–20: 1116.
153 “Kazemi, Baqer”, ibid., vol. 3, pp. 1280–82. The same could be said about ‘Ali
Akbar Bahman (1262–1346/1883–1967), who, as an employee of the Foreign Min-
istry, had spent most of his time as ambassador in Turkey, Belgium and Egypt. Ibid.,
vol. 1, pp. 325–26. Some years later, his most significant assignment would be, as
ambassador in Cairo, to arrange the marriage between Crown Prince Moham-
mad Reza and Princess Fowziyeh of Egypt in 1939, an event that was also to be
celebrated with a set of postage stamps (Mi 741–45/SC 871–75).
154 ‘Aqeli, “Forughi, Mohammad ‘Ali,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 3, pp. 1107–20.
Morsalvand, “Forughi-Zoka”, Zendegi-nameh-ye rejal, vol. 5, pp. 96–108.
155 Katouzian, Political Economy, p. 109.
156 ‘Aqeli, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 3, pp. 1118–20.
157 Ibid., vol. 3, p. 1114. On the foundation of Tehran University as the core of the
attempts to create a new elite see Menashri, Education, pp. 143–54.
158 “Davar, ‘Ali Akbar,” ibid., vol. 2, pp. 663–64.
159 Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 656–57. Banani, Modernization of Iran, pp. 70–80. For the role
of Davar, see ibid., pp. 71–72.
160 Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah, p. 294.
161 Ghods, “Government and Society,” p. 225.
180 Roman Siebertz
162 ‘Aqeli, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, p. 663.
163 Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah, p. 296.
164 Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together,” p. 238.
165 For a critique of the pre-war education system, which only embraced a mere ten
percent of the population, and which was still characterized by a high degree of
improvisation and experimentation on the academic level, see Banani, Modernization
of Iran, pp. 92–94; and Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century, p. 103.
166 ‘Aqeli, “Sadr, Mohsen,” Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, pp. 919–20.
167 “Jam, Mahmud,” ibid., vol. 1, p. 548.
168 For the efforts in this field, see Banani, Modernization of Iran, pp. 64–66; and
Mahmood Meskoub, “Social Policy in Iran in the Twentieth Century,” Iranian
Studies 39:2 (2006), pp. 227–52, who points out that expenditures for the health
system during the 1920s and 1930s were considerably lower than those for education
or the military: p. 228.
169 Hinz, Iranische Reise, pp. 98–99.
.
170 Abbas Milani, “Hekmat, Reza- Sarda-r Fa-er,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 12,
pp. 150–52.
171 Ghods, “Government and Society,” pp. 219–20, 227.
172 Mi 687–700, 701–15/SC 827–40, 841–70.
173 Mi 716–25/SC 870A-H.
174 Scott, European Stamp Design, p. 17.
175 “Pishnahad va erayeh-ye ‘aks-ha-ye mokhtalef jehat-e ‘aksbardari dar vasat va
hashiyeh-ye tambr-ha” (Proposals and Demonstration of Various Illustrations,
Based on Photographs, in the Centre and Frame of Stamps), Ministry of Finance,
NA 240/52/20/1, 7 Bahman 1319/27 January 1941, published in Yazdani, Asnad-i
post, pp. 75–76.
176 Mi 746–59/SC 876–909.
177 Mi 795–810/SC 915–30.
178 Mi 1026–27, 1073–74/SC 1102–3, 1152–53.
179 Mi 1109–10/SC 1196–97.
180 Mi 1111–12, 1113–14, 1147–48, 160–61/SC 1198–99, 1200–201, 1236–37, 1249–50.
181 Mi 1738–48, 1783–93, 1890–1901/SC 1820–41, 1961–72
182 Mi 1505–8/SC 1593–96.
183 Mi 1521–24/SC 1605–8.
184 Mi 1144–45/SC 1234–1335.
185 Hilary Lewis, The Stamps of Iran (Tehran: Namazi Press, 1979), p. 95.
186 Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century, pp. 97–98.
8 Press censorship in the Reza Shah era,
1925–411
Karim Soleimani
Introduction
The reign of Reza Shah was the result of a military coup d’état. Following the
successful coup of 3 Esfand 1299 (21 February 1921) Reza Khan gradually
extended and enforced his power. Simultaneously, he distributed many of the
important posts in the country among his colleagues in the military. In military
regimes the press has no place but to praise the dictator. Perhaps this attitude
actually contributed to the fact that during all his years in power Reza Shah
never bothered to alter or replace the press law (qanun-e matbu‘at) from the
constitutional period, issued 5 Moharram 1326 (8 February 1908). Two sup-
plementary articles, from 10 Aban 1301 (2 November 1922), which were the
result of much hard work by the members of the fourth Majles (1 Tir 1300 to
Khordad 130 /June 1921 to 30 June 1923) equally failed to attract the attention
of Reza Shah, since he, and the censoring system he had created, did not feel
the slightest need to refer to the law. During this period censorship was one of
the most important tools with which the government imagined it could
maintain order and stability. The press-censoring apparatus in the Reza Shah
era operated according to the personal taste of the person or organization at
its head during that particular period of time.
The documents available at the Iranian National Archives (Sazman-e
Asnad-e Melli-ye Iran) are the most important sources used in writing this
article. In addition, documents kept in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs (Markaz-e Asnad-o Tarikh-e Diplomasi-ye Vezarat-e Omur-e Khareji) and
at the Center for Research and Presidency Documents (Markaz-e Pazhuhesh va
Asnad-e Riyasat-i Jomhuri) have contributed to this article. Most of the
documents related to this field have been studied carefully and the most
important among them have been quoted. Thus, we can show clearly how the
censorship of the press worked during the first Pahlavi era, especially in relation
to its changing aims and intentions.
Among the first measures of the coup d’état from 1921 was a publication
stop for a large part of the press. The military government announced on 17
Esfand 1300 (8 March 1922): “In the future I will break the pens of the
opposition, cut their tongues and … ”2 Although, after a while, these
182 Karim Soleimani
newspapers were allowed to begin publishing again, Reza Shah, as minister of
war, could not show restraint in face of critical papers. He ordered the editor
of the newspaper Setareh-ye Iran, Hoseyn Saba, to be tied up and whipped on
the parade ground for minor criticism. He is also said to have knocked out
the teeth of Hoseyn Falsafi, the head of the newspaper Hayat-e Javid, with
his fist and locked both him and the paper’s editor up in the garrison police
department.3
The newspaper Haqiqat had accused Sardar E‘temad, head of the arsenal,
and a number of other officers of embezzlement. In consequence, Reza Khan,
then minister of war, asked Mirza Hasan Khan Pirniya (Moshir al-Dowleh),
who was the prime minister at that time, to ban Haqiqat, but he refused.4
Consequently, the minister of war threatened the prime minister that if he
would not ban the newspaper, he would not be allowed to enter the royal
court any more. Eventually Reza Khan’s threats caused Pirniya to resign.5
The Za‘faranlu tribe had assisted the government forces in the suppression
of Colonel Mohammad Taqi Khan. When the newspaper Setareh-ye Iran
mocked and ridiculed the tribe with satirical comments, the chief editor of the
newspaper, Hoseyn Saba, was again arrested and whipped on Reza Khan’s
orders. According to ‘Ali Dashti, he “was freed after forty days or more and
began to show the whip marks which were visible on his waist and back to
visitors at his home.”6 The pressure imposed by the minister of war and his
military organization resulted in the outcry of writers: for example, Mohammad
Farrokhi Yazdi, editor of the journal Tufan, named the government of Reza
Khan “the government of camel-cow-leopard” (hokumat-e shotor, gav-palang)
and then sought refuge in the Russian embassy.7
By passing certain bills, the members of the fourth Majles (legislative
period from 1 Tir 1300 to 30 Khordad 1302; 22 June 1921 to 20 June 1923) tried
to restrict Reza Khan and the military’s obstinacy in relation to the press. On 10
Aban 1301 (2 November 1922) the Majles voted for a supplementary act con-
sisting of two articles that were added to the original press law, which had
been passed on 5 Moharram 1326 (18 Bahman 1286/8 February 1908) by the
first parliament of the constitutional era.8 In the same year, the High Council
of Education (Shura-ye ‘Ali-ye Ma‘aref) was established based on this press
law. Thus, from then on all affairs concerning the press were transferred to the
High Council of Education. From the month of Dey 1301 until the end of
1304 (December 1922 – February 1926), the High Council of Education
issued authorizations for the publication of 267 papers and 77 magazines.
From this year onwards the press was also bound to abide by the regulations
passed by the council.9
On 11 Aban 1302 (4 November 1923) Reza Khan was appointed prime min-
ister and on the same day Ahmad Shah left Iran for Europe.10 Consequently
more than ever the political and military power was centralized in the hands
of Reza Khan. The new government passed a decree that any state employee
using “the printed press to complain will be tried and punished”.11 As a result
of this order, the press was now more isolated than ever. Also in this Iranian
Press censorship in the Reza Shah era 183
year (January 1924), the first head of the Central Police Office (Edareh-ye
Koll-e Tashkilat-e Nazmiyeh), Mohammad Dargahi, was appointed to replace
the Swedish officer Carl Gustav Westdahl.12 Until 1308 (1929), when he
was replaced by General Sadeq Khan Kupal, he was in possession of an
immense amount of power, so much so that he “had gained more power than
the prime minister”.13 From then on the military played an important role
in the censorship of the press and in putting pressure on its chief editors.
The assassination of Mirzadeh ‘Eshqi is one of the most significant events
that took place before Reza Shah came to the throne. ‘Eshqi, the editor of the
newspaper Qarn-e Bistom (20th century), was a poet with socialist leanings.
He had seriously opposed the republican slogans that Reza Khan and his
supporters had begun to publicize towards the end of 1302 (March 1924) and
the beginning of 1303 (April 1924). He was fearless and inspiring in his writ-
ings. For this reason government agents “shot him on Thursday, 12 Tir 1303
(3 July 1924) at his house that was located in the Dowlat quarter, Qotb al-Din
Alley, and he died hours later”.14
The murder of ‘Eshqi caused terror among the community of intellectuals
in Iran, and since the political and security structures needed by the new
regime were not yet fully developed, cries of protest could be heard in the
press. Thus the editors of the printed press in opposition to the government
reacted and took refuge in the National Consultative Assembly in order
to put pressure on the government to find out the identity of ‘Eshqi’s
killers.15 Therefore, Mirzadeh ‘Eshqi’s murder marks the beginning of
Reza Shah’s 16-year-long reign and of his policies regarding culture and
the press.
Although the Pahlavi regime was of a military nature from the beginning,
the political, military and security structures necessary for developing a com-
plete military government only took shape gradually. For this reason the
censorship of the press in the Reza Shah era extended only step by step until
it reached a point where – in the documents available today from that
period – the discourse of sceptics of censorship turned into a discourse of
servility. The censorship of the press during this era consists of at least three
periods. The first period begins with Reza Shah ascending the throne in 1304/
1925 and ‘Abdolhoseyn Teymurtash becoming the court minister (28 Azar
1304/19 December 1925).16 During this period the Court Ministry (Vezarat-e
Darbar) was the basic foundation of press censorship. In the second period,
from the removal of Teymurtash from office (3 Dey 1311/24 December 1932)
until the establishment of the Office of Guidance in Writing (Edareh-ye
Rahnama-ye Nameh-negari), the Central Police Office was responsible for the
censorship of the press.17 During the third period, the mutual collaboration
between the Office of Guidance in Writing, with ‘Ali Dashti as its director,
and the Central Police Office helped to move press censorship along. In Dey 1317
(December to January 1938–39) the Organization for Public Enlightenment
(Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar) was established in order to extend censorship
and assist the Office of Guidance in Writing.18
184 Karim Soleimani
The first period: Censorship in the era of ‘Abdolhoseyn Teymurtash
During the first period, the censorship of the press gradually intensified and
slowly forced the media into submission. Consequently, at the beginning of
this period, elements of protest were still evident in the tone of the chief
editors. In his letters to Prime Minister Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek,
written in the months of Shahrivar and Mehr 1305 (September and October
1926), the editor of the newspaper Mihan, Ahmad Kasma’i, vividly expresses
his thoughts on the daily and ever growing pressures of the military, which
involved the observation of his home, and he describes the military officials’
behaviour by using the harsh expression “murderous” (jenayat-kari).19 He
accused the head of the Central Police Office of sending a policeman to
Dushan Tapeh Street to prepare a dossier of false written testimonies from the
shopkeepers and residents of this area in order to present a case against
him.20 In his third letter to the prime minister, Ahmad Kasma’i requests to
emigrate abroad, since despite firm promises to him, the inspectors of the
police have not stopped their aggression against him.21
In the first years of this period, the Ministry of the Interior, with the Central
Police Office and the bureaus under its control, and the Ministry of Education,
Charity and Fine Arts (Vizarat-e Ma‘aref va Owqaf va Sanaye’-e Mostazrafeh)
were both responsible for press censorship, but the Ministry of the Interior
actually dominated the Ministry of Education. In spite of this, the local
newspaper Alborz from Rasht was banned in early spring 1307/1928 by the
“Shari‘a supervisor” of the local office of the Ministry of Education in this
province (the nazer-e shar‘iyat of the Edareh-ye Ma‘aref of Gilan).22 How-
ever, the “Government of Gilan” in its report to the Ministry of the Interior
regarded this ban as a personal decision and one that was unacceptable due
to “public opinion” in Gilan. Regardless of this, the Gilan Office of Education
insisted on banning the Alborz newspaper.23 It can be seen in the documents
belonging to this era that even the National Consultative Assembly, the
Majles, was called in to litigate over the prohibition of newspapers. In relation
to the banning of two publications called Takht-e Jamshid and Daneshpaz-
huhan, the people of Estahbanat in Fars issued a petition protesting this ban
to the National Consulatative Assembly. Hoseyn Pirniya, the head of the
sixth Majles (legislation period from 19 Tir 1305 to 22 Mordad 1307; 10 July
1926 to 13 August 1928), followed their request through both the Ministry of
Education and the Ministry of the Interior.24
From this year on the Court Ministry directed by ‘Abd al-Hoseyn Teymurtash
became the fundamental institution of press censorship, and consequently the
sole reference point for the ban of newspapers was the minister of court
himself. However, prior to this, in addition to the Court Ministry, the Ministry
of the Interior and the Ministry of Education were also involved in censorship
and the prohibition of printed media. Before the year 1308/1929 the editors of
banned publications turned more often to the office of the prime minister
than to the Court Ministry. In one example of open disagreement between the
Press censorship in the Reza Shah era 185
Central Police Office and the Ministry of Education regarding the censorship
of the press in Azerbaijan in the summer of 1307/1928, the problem ends in a
way that confirms the above hypothesis. The Central Police Office pressured
the Ministry of Education “to refrain from granting publication permits to
unsuitable people with regard to the printed press in Azerbaijan.” By referring
the subject matter to the prime minister for a final decision, the Ministry of
Education showed resistance towards the request of the nazmiyeh (the police)
and reminded it of its restricted area of authority, as defined by the press law.
According to the press law, the Ministry of Education was permitted to
examine only two characteristics of an applicant who applied for an authoriza-
tion to publish a newspaper: one was the applicant’s age; and the second was a
report from the Ministry of Justice, stating that “the applicant has not com-
mitted a misdemeanour or a crime.” Consequently, the Ministry of Education
insisted that it “cannot go beyond the limited power it has been given by the
law and if the Ministry of Education should have more to say on this matter,
then the press laws would need to be revised and new regulations would have
to be passed.”25 It is interesting to note that in this process of mediation
between the ministries, the prime minister took the side of the nazmiyeh and
added a note in the margin of the letter to the Ministry of Education that
“It should be written in reply to the Nazmiyeh … if the need arises news-
papers are to be censored.”26 In a separate letter, the prime minister
announces his opinion on the matter to the police: “With regard to the
printed press of Azerbaijan, it is advised that when the need arises you ban or
censor the press.”27
From 1308/1929 onwards, the Court Ministry’s dominance over the existing
system of censorship became complete. In previous years, the normal routine
had been that when a newspaper was banned by the governor of a province,
he would correspond with the Ministry of the Interior in the capital for the
decision to be finalized.28 However, during this period, when a provincial
governor had a problem with one or several publications in the area under his
control, the editor of the publication that was on the verge of being banned
would directly communicate with the minister of the court to prevent a pro-
hibition. Mahmud Jam, the governor of the province of Khorasan and Sistan,
had banned the newspaper Aftab-e Sharq (“Sun of the East”) for publishing
an article under the headline “The Eighth Round of Legislation”. The gov-
ernor of Khorasan, who was also the representative of the Ministry of the
Interior in this province, in theory would have needed to prepare a proper
report on the prohibition of Aftab-e Sharq and to present it to the Ministry of
the Interior. However, he refused to do so, and instead he conferred directly
with the court minister Teymurtash, presenting his report to him.29
An incident similar to what had happened in Khorasan also took place in
Mazandaran. In direct correspondence with the court minister Teymurtash,
the governor of Mazandaran asked for permission to take action against the
newspaper Tabarestan.30 Here, as well, it is interesting to note that the editor
of Tabarestan, called Sadr Ara, turned directly to the Court Ministry in order
186 Karim Soleimani
to clear up any misunderstandings and, of course, to avoid the imminent ban
of his paper.31
The influence of the Court Ministry had been extended enormously and it
was now involved in so many aspects of press censorship that most people
active in the media quite naturally held the belief that everything ultimately
depended on the exclusive opinion and decision of the court minister. Thus,
Amir Jalil Mozhdehi, the editor of the newspaper Ayineh-ye Iran, as a last
resort directly asked Teymurtash for help in order to find a solution and have
the ban on his newspaper lifted. In a pleading tone and testifying to his own
impotence his petition is a testimony to the terror and fear that existed among
the press and was created by the censorship system with the court minister as
its leader: “The best and most appropriate source for complaint is indeed the
highest rank at the Royal Court and this most noble personality [‘Abdolhoseyn
Teymurtash] as today he is the sole supporter of the press and it would be an
honour to call him the father of the press”.32
Another banned newspaper was the Ruznameh-ye Eqdam, in 1927. Once its
chief editor, the famous journalist and author ‘Abbas Khalili (1895–1971),
had received permission from Teymurtash to return from his exile in Iraq, he
praised him in a way imaginable only by those kept in captivity: “From now
on I will strive to nurture my spirit so that when I come to thank this great
being for his kindness, my thanksgiving would have arisen from a pure
soul.”33 ‘Abbas Khalili is an example of those who during that era had been
debased as human beings and whose identity was formed by absolutist political
power.
In the period when the Court Ministry ruled supreme over all other insti-
tutions in the realm of press censorship, editors of newspapers were also made
to sign a “letter of commitment” (ta‘ahhod-nameh) prepared by Teymurtash,
which made them directly responsible and accountable to him for all the
material printed in their respective papers. Abolqasem E‘tesamzadeh, the editor
of the newspaper Setareh-ye Jahan, who was unhappy with the constant inter-
ference of the police with regard to press censorship, sent a letter of complaint
to the court minister in which he asked which manner of censorship the press
was supposed to follow: should they proceed according to the “letter of
commitment” they had signed with the Court Ministry or according to the
daily expectations of the police?34
The minute regulations for the censorship of the press as defined by the
Court Ministry and as implemented by the Central Police Office were so strict
and frustrating that they left little room for journalistic activity, as can be
easily seen in the following examples:
Archival Sources
Files and documents from the National Archives of Iran (Sazman-e Asnad-e
Melli-ye Iran)
National Archives of Iran 310000205/715 F1AD1, document 1683/27 Shahrivar
1305.
194 Karim Soleimani
National Archives of Iran 310000205/715 F1AD1, document 1694/7 Mehr
1305.
National Archives of Iran 310000205715 F1AD1, document 8073–23/7/1305.
National Archives of Iran 297017039/259 S1AP1, document 10956/48276–22
Farvardin 1307.
National Archives of Iran 297017008/228 S1AP1, document 18215–1
Ordibehesht 1307.
National Archives of Iran 297017008/228 S1AP1, document 942–22/2/1307.
National Archives of Iran 297017039/259 S1AP1, document 912–25 Ordibehesht
1307.
National Archives of Iran 297017023/243 S1AP1, document 48379–15/9/1312.
National Archives of Iran 297016998/218 S1AP1, document 24704–8/6/1314.
National Archives of Iran 297017212/802 S1AP1, document 3942–22/6/1314.
National Archives of Iran 297017224/104 S2AP1, document 4000/31099–24/6/
1314.
National Archives of Iran 297016997/217 S1AP1, document 6627–28/7/1319.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Iran): The Center for Documents and the
History of Diplomacy (Vezarat-e Omur-e Kharejeh: Markaz-e Asnad-o
Tarikh-e Diplomasi)
The Center for Documents at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asnad-e qadimeh
sh1313-25-90, document 3599–7/6/1313.
Press censorship in the Reza Shah era 195
The Center for Documents at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asnad-e qadimeh
sh1313-25-90, document 1561.
The Center for Documents at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asnad-e qadimeh
sh1315-25-76, document 32202–19/7/1315.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic
(Markaz-e Pazhuhesh va Asnad-e Riyasat-e Jomhuri)
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 4532,
document 5374/6 Mehr 1308.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 4532,
document 1005/64–69 Mehr 1308.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 8071,
document 10141–22 Bahman 1308.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 11408,
document 712/25 Mordad 1309.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 7674,
document 7343–2 Azar 1309.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 7674,
document 5991–23/9/1309.
The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e Vezarat-e Darbar) 7059,
document 2/538–19 Farvardin 1310.
Notes
1 Primary sources are quoted with their archival call numbers; a considerable
number of the documents mentioned have already been published, see Kaveh
Bayat, Mas‘ud Kuhestani Nezhad, ed., Asnad-e matbu‘at, 1286–1320 h.sh.
(Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli-ye Iran, 1372/1993), for example.
2 ‘Abd al-Rahim Zaker Hoseyn, Matbu‘at-e siyasi-ye Iran dar ‘asr-e mashrutiyat
(Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran, 1368/1989), pp. 86–87.
3 Mohammad Taqi Bahar, Tarikh-e mokhtasar-e ahzab-e siyasi-ye Iran (Tehran:
Amir Kabir, 1371/1992), vol. 1, p. 225.
4 Prime minister from 29.10.1300 to 27.02.1301 (17 May to 20 January 1922),
Cyrus Ghani, Bar-amadan-e Reza Khan, bar-oftadan-e Qajar va naqsh-e Englisi-
ha, transl. Hassan Kamshad (Tehran: Nilufar, 1377/1998), pp. 226–27. Also
published as Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi
Rule (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998).
5 Zaker Hoseyn, Matbu‘at-e siyasi-ye Iran, p. 88.
6 ‘Ali Dashti, Panjah-o panj (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 2535/1976), pp. 95–97.
7 Ibid. p. 97.
196 Karim Soleimani
8 Hoseyn Abu Torabian, ed., Matbu‘at-e Iran: az Shahrivar-e 1320 ta 1326. Be
enzemam-e ahzab-e siyasi-ye Iran ba‘d az Shahrivar-e 1320 [a translation of L. P.
Elwell-Sutton’s article entitled “Political Parties in Iran, 1941–48”, first published
in the Middle East Journal no. 1 (1949), pp. 45–62] va seyri dar qavanin-e mat-
bu‘at-e Iran az sadr-e mashruteh ta zaman-e hal (Tehran: Ettela‘at, 1366/1987),
pp. 221–22.
9 Farid Qasemi, Rahnama-ye matbu‘at-e Iran, ‘asr-e Qajar, (1253q/1215sh-1304sh)
(Tehran: Markaz-e Motale‘at va tahqiqat-e rasaneh-ha, 1372/1993), p. 42.
10 Ghani, Bar-amadan-e Reza Khan, p. 303.
11 Zaker Hoseyn, Matbu‘at-e siyasi-ye Iran, p. 96.
12 Stephanie Cronin, The Army and the Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran, 1910–1926
(London and New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997), p. 139.
13 Mehdi Bamdad, Sharh-e hal-e rejal-e Iran dar qarn-e 12 va 13 va 14 hejri (Tehran:
Zavvar, 1378/1999), vol. 3, pp. 242–43.
14 Morteza Seyfi Fami Tafreshi, Polis-e khofyeh-ye Iran: moruri bar rokhdadha-ye siyasi
va tarikhcheh-ye shahrbani 1299–1320 (Tehran: Qoqnus, 1368/1989), pp. 77–78.
15 Ibid. pp. 78–79.
16 Javad Sheykholeslami, So‘ud va soqut-e Teymurtash: be hekayat-e asnad-e mah-
ramaneh-ye Vezarat-e Kharejeh-ye Englis (Tehran: Tus, 1379/2000), p. 36.
17 Bamdad, Sharh-e hal-e rejal, vol. 2, p. 240. ‘Ali Karimiyan, “Edareh-ye rahnama-
ye nameh-negari ya nezarat bar sansur-e matbu‘at dar ‘asr-e Reza Shah,” Ganji-
neh-ye Asnad no. 55 (1383/2004), pp. 62–93: 70.
18 Mahmud Delfani, ed., Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah: asnad-e mon-
tasher nashodeh-ye Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar, 1317–1320 hejri-ye shamsi
(Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli-ye Iran, 1375/1996), p. 36.
19 National Archives of Iran 310000205/715 F1AD1, document 1683/27 Shahrivar 1305.
20 National Archives of Iran 310000205/715 F1AD1, document 1694/7 Mehr 1305.
21 National Archives of Iran 310000205715 F1AD1, document 8073–23/7/1305.
22 National Archives of Iran 297017039/259 S1AP1, document 10956/48276–22
Farvardin 1307. See also Bayat, Asnad-e matbu‘at, vol. 1, p. 159.
23 National Archives of Iran 297017008/228 S1AP1, document 18215–1 Ordibe-
hesht 1307.
24 Ibid.; National Archives of Iran 297017008/228 S1AP1, document 942–22/2/1307.
See also Bayat, Asnad-e matbu‘at, vol. 1, pp. 517–19.
25 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 108002/
36164, document 9819/333–23 Mordad 1307.
26 Ibid.
27 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 108002/
36164, document 3781–12 Shahrivar 1307.
28 For the confiscation of Rasht’s Alborz newspaper see the correspondence between
the government of Gilan and the Ministry of the Interior: National Archives of
Iran 297017039/259 S1AP1, document 10956/48276–22 Farvardin 1307; and also
National Archives of Iran 297017039/259 S1AP1, document 912–25 Ordibehesht
1307. For the ban on the papers Takht-e Jamshid and Daneshpazhuhan, see the
report of the government of Fars to the Ministry of the Interior: National
Archives of Iran 297017008/228 S1AP1, document 942–22/2/1307
29 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 8071, document
10141–22 Bahman 1308.
30 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 7674, document
7343–2 Azar 1309.
Press censorship in the Reza Shah era 197
31 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 7674, document
5991–23/9/1309.
32 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 7059, document
2/538–19 Farvardin 1310.
33 ‘Alireza Esma‘ili, ed., Asnadi az matbu‘at va ahzab-e dowreh-ye Reza Shah
(Tehran: Vezarat-e farhang va ershad-e eslami, 1380/2001), document no. 76/1, p. 163.
34 Esma‘ili, Asnadi az matbu‘at, document no. 43, pp. 88–89.
35 Ibid., document no. 67, p. 141.
36 Ibid., document no. 70/3, pp. 147–48.
37 Ibid., document no. 78, pp. 165–66.
38 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 11408, document
712/25 Mordad 1309.
39 Esma‘ili, Asnadi az matbu‘at, document no. 72, pp. 156–57.
40 Ibid., document no. 85, 11 Farvardin 1310, pp. 186–87.
41 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 4532, document
5374/6 Mehr 1308. See also Esma‘ili, Asnadi az matbu‘at, document no. 36, p. 75.
42 The Center for Research and Documents of the President of the Republic:
Documents from the Court Ministry (Asnad-e vezarat-e darbar) 4532, document
1005/64–69 Mehr 1308. See also Esma‘ili, Asnadi az matbu‘at, document
no. 36/2, p. 77.
43 Sheykholeslami, So‘ud va soqut-e Teymurtash, p. 51.
44 National Archives of Iran 297017023/243 S1AP1, document 48379–15/12/1312.
45 National Archives of Iran 297017212/802 S1AP1, document 3942–22/6/1314; and
297017224/104 S2AP1, document 4000/31099–24/6/1314.
46 The Center for Documents at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asnad-e qadimeh
sh1313-25-90, document 1561; document 3599–7/6/1313; and 802/297017212
S1AP1, document 3942–22/6/1314; and 104/297017224/104S2AP1, document no.
31099–4000–24/6/1314.
47 Bayat, Asnad-e matbu‘at, vol. 1, pp. 113–20.
48 Ibid., p. 120.
49 Ibid., vol. 2, p. 382. This letter is dated 19 Bahman 1314 (9 February 1936).
50 ‘Ali Dashti, Ayyam-e mahbas (Tehran: Keyhan, 1327/1948), p. 186.
51 Ibid., p. 187.
52 Mehdiqoli Hedayat (Mokhber al-Saltanah), Khaterat va Khatarat (Tehran:
Zavvar, 1385/2006), p. 412.
53 Karimiyan, “Edareh-ye rahnama-ye nameh-negari,” p. 70.
54 ‘Abdollah Shahbazi, Zendegi va zamaneh-ye ‘Ali Dashti, online edition (verified
13.02.2012): http://www.shahbazi.org/Articles/Dashti.pdf, p. 43.
55 The Center for Documents at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asnad-e qadimeh
sh1315–25–76, document 32202–19/7/1315.
56 Ibid.
57 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 103015/
24816, document 18–1/7/1316. See also Karimiyan, “Edareh-ye rahnama-ye
nameh-negari,” pp. 73–74.
58 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 103015/
24816, document 20961/T(ta)/2255–2/8/1316; document 551/6–14 Mehr 1316;
document 9029/3832–18/7/1316.; document 11–29/6/1316. See also Karimiyan,
“Edareh-ye rahnama-ye nameh-negari,” pp. 72–74.
59 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 103015/
24816, document 7797/30591–21/7/1316.
198 Karim Soleimani
60 Bayat, Asnad-e matbu‘at, vol. 1, p. 14.
61 Ibid., pp. 83–86.
62 Delfani, Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah, p. 2.
63 Ibid., p. 36.
64 Ibid., p. 1.
65 Ibid., pp. 1–2, 5.
66 Ibid., pp. 2–3.
67 Baqer ‘Aqeli, Nakhost-vaziran-e Iran az enqelab-e mashruteh ta enqelab-e eslami
(Tehran: Javidan, 1374/1995), pp. 474–84.
68 National Archives of Iran: Documents from the prime minister’s office 108002/
36251, document 16319–26/5/1319.
69 Karimiyan, “Edareh-ye rahnama-ye nameh-negari,” p. 70.
70 National Archives of Iran 297016998/218 S1AP1, document 24704–8/6/1314.
71 National Archives of Iran 297016997/217 S1AP1, document 6627–28/7/1319.
Part III
Life under Reza Shah
New bourgeois culture and other forms of
practiced modernity
Thispageintentionallyleftblank
9 Drama and operetta at the Red Lion
and Sun
Theatre in Tabriz 1927–41
Christoph Werner
In the end, everything culminates at one point, the encounter with the
civilization of the West. Starting one or two centuries ago, in the form of
aggressors, colonialists and exporters of goods the West turned against
the East. In this encounter it was astounded by the enormous sources
of the East’s traditions, mysticism and culture, and for its part it astonished
the East with the firepower of its forces, its propaganda and its industrial
civilization. … Iran, for example, developed a sense of inferiority vis-à-vis
the political, military and industrial superiority of the West, and this
feeling infected the realm of culture, the result is well known. In the case
of culture, instead of gaining something new, it swiftly gave away what it
had. … In the case of theatre, for example, at a time when the West with
its turn towards scenic liberties and innovations in performance opened
the East a way out of its own impasse, here the new generation of theatre
enthusiasts began to narrow things down, to make them complicated and
insert limitations in their imitation of the old western styles. … On such
ground, popular types of performance, just at the moment when they
wanted and could have undergone a fundamental development, were
extinguished, and if nowadays something is still left, it is in its last throes.
And what came in its place was a theatre that was not related to us any-
more … , it brought forth a theatre which neither belonged to western
theatre, nor was it an example for Iranian theatre … .9
Involuntarily, our nation was separated from its own old national theatre
and the requirements of modernization led it to follow the master-road of
European-style theatre. It is unfortunate that its first advances on this
path were not only brought to an early halt by the Reza Khan coup
d’état, but even suffered a falloff for a period of twenty years.16
Reza Shah aimed at creating a modern and westernized Iran and consequently
tried to eliminate traditional performances that he considered vulgar, folkloristic
and backward. Instead he propagated western theatre, which he regarded as
an important tool and as a sign of an advanced civilization. Herein lies his
personal commitment to the Red Lion and Sun in Tabriz.
Theatre in Tabriz and the building of the Red Lion and Sun
As in other areas of modernization and spread of western culture, Tabriz had
taken a pioneering role in the introduction of theatre in Iran. The presence of
religious and linguistic minorities created a multicultural atmosphere that
proved to be particularly stimulating. A cosmopolitan audience that was able
to move between Armenian, Azeri-Turkish and Persian early on produced
multiple translations and adaptations. Among the first to arrange performances
of western-style theatre in Azerbaijan were Assyrians and Armenians who,
because of the missionary schools established in the nineteenth century and
their trans-national networks, were exposed to western culture much earlier
than the Muslim majority. In Tabriz it was the Armenian community
who arranged regular performances already in the 1890s with their own
theatre, the Sahneh-ye Arameneh, built in 1895. At the beginning, plays and
206 Christoph Werner
announcements were only in Armenian, but they soon targeted a wider
public.17 The closeness of Azerbaijan to the Caucasus also played a major role.
Many of the directors and actors at the beginning of the twentieth century were
trained in Baku or Tiflis and the early history of Persian drama in Tabriz is
closely connected with Azerbaijan through the work of the reformist Fath‘ali
Akhundzadeh and the first plays written in Persian by Mirza Aqa Tabrizi.18
My personal interest in theatre in Tabriz goes back to 1996 when I had the
great pleasure to make the acquaintance of the late Jamil Roshdi (1932–98)
and admire his wonderful collection of theatre advertisements and posters
from Tabriz.19 He had donated this collection to the local branch of the
National Archives and worked on it as an associated researcher. Only recently
parts of this collection were published by Mohammad Ranjbar-Fakhri,
drawing heavily on Roshdi’s previous work.20 Roshdi’s private collection grew
out of the memorabilia inherited from his father Mohammad ‘Ali Roshdi, the
dominant figure of theatre in Tabriz from 1919, when he first performed on
stage, up to the year 1969. Through most of this time he led his own troupe
and worked as an actor and rezhisor (director). Most of the information in
this chapter is based on this collection, which includes theatre announcements
and archival material from the Pahlavi period. Like most editions of primary
documents on the Reza Shah period, published recently in Iran, there is little
interpretation, commentary or any wider context. Quite a lot needs to be
added to earlier characterizations of the situation in Tabriz for the years
1925–41, as this overall sketch by Willem Floor demonstrates:
According to Shafi‘ Javadi, there was very little theatre activity in Tabriz
until 1941. … The problem was the actors were not fluent in Persian and
therefore they mostly played comedy pieces. Also, because most of the
people did not yet appreciate the value of theatre and many considered it
a joke.21
What was exceptional for the theatre scene in Tabriz? Or why should Tabriz
serve as a showcase for the close interaction between politics and theatre in
the Pahlavi period? In addition to the above because the cultural life in pro-
vincial cities has been overshadowed by Tehran, in particular through the
ample use made of memoirs and later developments in the capital. However,
in contrast to Tehran, the history of theatre in Tabriz from 1927 onwards can
be tied to one specific place and venue. It can be written as the history of one
particular building and only Tabriz is able to boast such a location and such a
long continuity.
With the rise of theatre in Tabriz, its growing popularity and the increasing
number of active ensembles, the need for appropriate venues became more
and more pressing. Smaller stages existed in Tabriz, such as the Armenian
theatre, the Cinema Suli, which was also used as a theatre stage, and a hall
built by Monsieur Armaniyan in 1915. But none of these was large enough
for a big audience, nor were they equipped with advanced stage technology.
Drama and operetta at the Red Lion and Sun 207
The initiative to build a modern theatre in Tabriz, actually the first of its
kind in Iran, came from local notables under the leadership of the local gar-
rison’s commander. Already in 1925 the chief commander of the north-east-
ern army, the Amir Lashkar, had invited officials, merchants, notables and
guild representatives to a reception, celebrating the inauguration of the new
officers’ casino in Tabriz with a play.22 The new officer corps around Reza
Shah obviously had a liking for theatre, one of them was even active as a
playwright. Mohammad Hoseyn Khan, the head of the north-western divi-
sion, wrote the play The Conquest of Khuzestan, a pièce to celebrate the vic-
tory over Sheykh Khaz’al that had taken place a year earlier and has been
considered as a major step in the career of Reza Khan. This play, announced
as a “historical play, most exciting and based on official documents and
records”, was also performed in Tabriz in February 1926 after its initial
showing in Rasht. It shows how much theatre very early on was used as a
propaganda tool of the Pahlavi state.23
A year later, the building of the Sahneh-ye Shir-o Khorshid-e Sorkh,
the stage of the Red Lion and Sun was begun. The name might be irritating
at first, since it suggests to the outsider a British country pub rather than an
Iranian theatre.24 But the name is not as exotic as it might seem. It refers
to the Iranian “Red Cross” society that since its inception and in opposition to
the Ottoman “Red Crescent” carried the Iranian insignia of “Lion and
Sun” – at least in theory it remains a valid logo of the International Red
Cross Society up to the present day. The Iranian “Red Lion and Sun” saw its
task in these early years much more broadly defined than it is today, covering
cultural and educational activities, in addition to healthcare and hospitals.
Not only in Tabriz, but also in other cities, for example in Mashhad, the “Red
Lion and Sun” constructed conference halls that were also used as theatres.25
The Amir Lashkar of Tabriz, Amir Ahmadi, was also the head of the local
section of the “Red Lion and Sun” that as an organization of general welfare
had also arranged the creation of a large park around the Ark of Tabriz, the
ruins of the Masjed-e ‘Ali Shah. This Bagh-e Melli was very popular among
the general public of Tabriz as a place of leisure and for taking strolls, despite
the entrance fee of one qeran. This was also the location for the new theatre.
Based on architectural plans from St Petersburg, it included an audience hall,
30 meters long and 10 meters wide, with a stage of 12 meters that could
be extended if necessary to allow even the entry of a horse-drawn coach. Col-
umns placed at an interval of five metres carried a ceiling of wooden beams that
guaranteed excellent acoustics. On both sides two floors of balconies were
placed with a total of sixteen loges, every box designed for six spectators. The
walls were covered with mauve pastel wallpaper and the seats were covered
with red velvet. The spacious entrance was decorated with a huge crystal
chandelier. Altogether the theatre could accommodate an audience of up to
800 persons.
The Red Lion and Sun must have been a very impressive place that was
unique in Iran at that time. It was double the size of the Talar-e Zartoshtiyan-e
208 Christoph Werner
Sirus, with about 400 places, re-built in Tehran around the same time, and
easily surpassed all other venues of that time in the capital.26 Erected almost
forty years before the Rudaki Hall (or Talar-e Vahdat) in Tehran it was the
pride of the city of Tabriz and an expression of its aspirations. It continued to
be the most attractive venue in Tabriz until the building was torn down in
1980 – to make place ultimately for the large mosallah in the city centre, what
bitter irony of history.27
A very important aspect of going to the theatre must have been also the buffet
and the orchestral music during the breaks. A “full buffet” (bufet-e mokammal)
was regularly on offer, in the 1940s the catering came straight from the Grand
Hotel in Tabriz.71 In the winters heating was important, and in the summers,
open-air performances were frequent and often combined with the newly
discovered pleasure of a gardan parti.72 The Red Lion and Sun moved to
its summer stage in the Bagh-e Melli and the actors of Aryan offered
sketches (mozheke) and in addition, free “curtains” (pardeh) of cinema.73 All
this proves that theatre in Tabriz was not considered elite culture, but was
part of bourgeois entertainment. It occupied the place that cinema would
dominate some years later on and shares many common features with it:
entrance fees, topics and themes, posters and advertisements, training of
actors, and the role of music. This becomes most obvious in the adaptation of
plays to the screen and vice versa.74 The closeness of cinema and theatre can
also be seen in scripts for film and dramas for the stage written by the same
person: a prime example is Shah-e Iran va banu-ye Arman by Zabih Behruz.
A printed edition from 1306/1937 mentions that the first version had been
written for the cinematograph in Cambridge, but without funding he had
turned it into a Persian screenplay and later on also into a theatre version in
five acts.75 We already saw that the Pahlavi administration treated all kinds of
public entertainment on a similar level. This also extended both to the prac-
tical and to the statistical level: in 1938 the Yearbook of the Ministry of
Culture counts only four pure cinemas and three pure theatres, 131 establish-
ments or buildings fall into both categories and thus come much closer to
modern-day multi-purpose halls.76
Appendix
Notes
1 There is some confusion concerning the exact date of the inauguration of the
Sahneh-ye Shir-o Khorshid. The 18 Shahrivar 1306 (10 September 1927) appears
to be the most precise and reliable date: Newspaper Iran, no. 2495, 7 Mehr 1306,
p. 1; Ettela‘at, no. 307, 23 Shahrivar 1306 (albeit with an alternative date), as
quoted in Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh dar Iran, ed. Mas‘ud Kuhestani-nezhad,
‘Ali Mir Ansari and Seyyed Mehrdad Ziya’i (Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli-ye
Iran, 1381/2002), vol. 2, pp. 15–17. Mohammad Javad Mashkur, Tarikh-e Tabriz
ta payan-e qarn-e nohom-e hejri (Tehran: Anjoman-e asar-e melli, 1352/1973),
p. 375 confirms the month Shahrivar, the year 1300 is obviously a mistake. For
the program of the evening Mahmud Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz: az
enqelab-e mashruteh ta nahzat-e melli-ye naft (Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad va
Drama and operetta at the Red Lion and Sun 227
Ketabkhaneh-ye Melli-ye Iran, 1383/2004), pp. 109–11. An opera under the title
Madar-e vatan is listed by Jannati ‘Ata’i as the work of Qodrat Mansur. Alter-
natively, under the same title, we find a drama in three acts written by Shahrokh
Arbab Aflatun (23p.; Tehran, published Jam‘iyat-e Nakisa, printed Parvin, n.d.),
see Abu al-Qasem Jannati ‘Ata’i, Bonyad-e namayesh dar Iran (Tehran: Ebn-e
Sina, 1333/1955), pp. 72, 116.
2 Peter Chelkowski, “Popular Entertainment, Media and Social Change in Twentieth-
Century Iran,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 7: From Nadir Shah to the
Islamic Republic, ed. Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly and Charles Melville (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 765–813: 785–86. M. R. Ghanoonparvar
and John Green, ed., Iranian Drama: An Anthology (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda,
1989), pp. xviii–xix. M.R. Ghanoonparvar, “Persian Plays and the Iranian
Theater,” in Colors of Enchantment, ed. Sherifa Zuhur (Cairo: AUC Press, 2001),
pp. 87–106: 93. Andrea Ritzel-Moosavi Male, Komödiantische Volkstheater-
traditionen in Iran und die Entstehung des iranischen Berufstheaters nach europäischem
Vorbild von der Jahrhundertwende bis 1978 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1993), pp. 89–90:
“Doch in der Regierungszeit von Reza Shah geht das Theater einem Tiefpunkt
entgegen, denn die fast 20-jährige Herrschaft Reza Shahs war im kulturellen
Bereich von einer starken und willkürlichen Zensur gekennzeichnet.” With reference
to Jannati ‘Ata’i, Bonyad-e namayesh dar Iran, p. 76. Jamshid Malekpur, Ada-
biyat-e namayeshi dar Iran (Tehran: Tus, 1363/1984) does not cover the Pahlavi
period and ends with the Mashrutiyat. Willem Floor, The History of Theater in
Iran (Washington D.C.: Mage, 2005), pp. 254–77, is the first to give a coherent
summary of theatre in the Reza Shah period.
3 Mahmud Delfani, ed., Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah (asnad-e mon-
tasher nashodeh-ye Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar), 1317–1320 hejri shamsi
(Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli, 1375/1997), p. xxxvii.
4 Most impressive is the two-volume edition Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh dar Iran,
mentioned above. A detailed study on theatre in Gilan is Fereydun Nowzad,
Tarikh-e namayesh dar Gilan: az aghaz ta 1332 (Rasht: Nashr-e Gilakan, 1368/
1989). Until now, only Willem Floor has made ample use of these recent editions,
in his History of Theater in Iran. The local perspective is particularly strong in the
case of Azerbaijan, see also Hoseyn Yusofi and Javid Sabur, Namayeshgaran:
barrasi-ye seyr-e namayesh va mo‘arrefi-ye chehreh-ha-ye bartar-e te’atr-e Ardabil
(Ardabil: Alefba 1382/2003).
5 These discourses, nativist v. modernist, are in no way an exclusively Iranian phe-
nomenon. They exist in a surprisingly similar way in the Arab world as well as in
the Ottoman Empire and in modern Turkey. The history of theatre and modern
drama in the Middle East follows comparable stages, although the time frames
are not always identical and the sources of inspiration differ. Examples are the
strong preference for localized adaptations of the plays of Molière in the early
stages of European-style theatre in the Middle East, discussions on the use of
colloquial language and the appearance of female actors on stage. To my knowledge
there is no large-scale comparative study of Middle Eastern theatre. See the clas-
sics by Jacob M. Landau, Studies in the Arab Theater and Cinema, with a preface
by H. A. R. Gibb (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1958) and
Christa-Ursula Spuler, Das türkische Drama der Gegenwart: Eine literarhistor-
ische Studie (Leiden: Brill, 1968). More recent are the survey by Don Rubin, ed.,
The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre, Volume 4: The Arab World
(London and New York: Routledge, 1999) and Friederike Pannewick, Das
Wagnis Tradition: Arabische Wege der Theatralität (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2000)
on the debate over an “authentic” Arab theatre, pp. 84–88.
6 Medjid Rezvani, Le théâtre et la danse en Iran (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1962).
228 Christoph Werner
7 Bahram Beyza’i, Yek motale‘eh: namayesh dar Iran ba shast tasvir va tarh va yek
vazheh-nameh (repr. Tehran: Rowshangaran, 1387/2008). M. R. Ghanoonparvar,
“Drama,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition, 1996, at http://www.irani-
caonline.org/articles/drama.
8 Floor, History of Theater, p. 258. For an early usage see Rezvani, Le théâtre et la
danse, p. 76, who calls ‘le spectacle populaire’ « Noumaich » and ‘le théâtre
moderne’ « Theatre ». On the other hand, we find the terms used interchangeably
in modern works such as Behruz Gharibpur, Te’atr dar Iran (Tehran: Daftar-e
pazhuhesh-ha-ye farhangi, 1384/2005), which offers a survey from pre-Islamic
times up to the Islamic Revolution.
9 Beyza’i, Namayesh dar Iran, pp. 207–9.
10 Gharibpur, Te’atr dar Iran, p. 11.
11 Aleksander B. Chodzko, Théatre persan: choix de téaziés ou drames, traduits pour
la première fois du persan (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1878). Also Farrokh Gaffary,
“Evolution of Rituals and Theater in Iran,” Iranian Studies 17 (2004), pp. 361–89.
12 For the return to “indigenous” theatre traditions under the Islamic Republic see
Saeed Talajooy, “Indigenous Performing Traditions in Post-Revolutionary Iranian
Theater,” Iranian Studies 44 (2011), pp. 497–519.
13 See also the introduction in ‘Abbas Javanmard, Te’atr, hovviyat va namayesh-e
melli (Tehran: Nashr-e Qatreh, 1383/2004), which deals with the question of a
“national theatre” as part of the wider quest for an Iranian identity.
14 Gaffary, “Evolution of Rituals,” p. 362. Gharibpur, Te’atr dar Iran, pp. 11–13.
Also extensively discussed in Jalal Sattari, Zamineh-ye ejtema‘i-ye ta‘ziyeh va
te’atr dar Iran (Tehran: Markaz, 1386/2008).
15 Bozorg ‘Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung der modernen persischen Literatur
(Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1964), pp. 91, 191.
16 Mostafa Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr-e Iran (Tehran: Anahita Oskuyi, 1378/
1999), p. 339.
17 Eden Naby, “Theater, Language and Inter-Ethnic Exchange: Assyrian Performance
before World War I,” Iranian Studies 40 (2007), pp. 501–10. The important role of
Assyrian Christians in the development of modern theatre in Iranian Azerbaijan,
especially their translations into Assyrian, has been overshadowed by the longer-
lasting Armenian tradition. For Armenian theatre in Tabriz see Floor, History of
Theater, pp. 241–42. On the Sahneh-ye Arameneh and the Talar-e Aramiyan (built
1915 by M. Aramiyan), Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, pp. 22, 54 n. 3.
18 Yahya Aryanpur, Az Saba ta Nima: tarikh-e 150 sal-e adab-e farsi, 2 vols (Tehran:
Sherkat-e sehami-ye ketabha-ye jibi, 1350/1971), vol. 2., p. 295 on the Qafqazi tra-
dition; Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, pp. 13–22; Floor, History of Theater,
pp. 239–43.
19 Elham Mahootchi, “Theatre Announcements in Tabriz,” Neshan Magazine 9
(2006), online edition: http://www.neshanmagazine.com/articles.asp?id=195
(verified 27.05.2009). Based on these collections she stresses the importance of
theatre announcements for the development of Iranian graphic design.
20 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz.
21 Floor, History of Theater, p. 269.
22 Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 1, part 2, p. 291.
23 Ibid., p. 311.
24 There actually is a pub in Highgate under this name: http://theredlionandsun.com.
25 G. Stratil-Sauer, Meschhed: Eine Stadt baut am Vaterland Iran (Leipzig: Ernst
Staneck Verlag, 1937), pp. 12, 84. The theatre, located on the (then called)
Khiyaban-e Pahlavi was first planned as an all-purpose hall (talar), before it was
also officially recognized as theatre. It was built by the German-trained architect
Karim Taherzadeh Behzad, who also designed the Ferdowsi Memorial at Tus.
See the contribution by Talinn Grigor in the present volume, Chapter 5.
Drama and operetta at the Red Lion and Sun 229
26 Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr, pp. 275–76, gives the year 1295 (1916) for a first
theatre in Tehran and the year 1308 (1929) for the completion of major renovations.
Rezvani, Le théâtre, pp. 139–40.
27 On the role of Amir Lashkar and his predecessor, Mashkur, Tarikh-e Tabriz, p.
374. The only available description of the architecture, layout and decoration with
historical photos is Parviz Khanlu, “Tarikh unutmaz – Tabrizin Shir Khurshid
ti’atri,” Azerbaijan International, issue 6.4, Winter 1998, online edition at http://
www.azeri.org/Azeri/az_arabic/arabic_ai_articles.html, pp. 4–5. On the Bagh-e
Melli and the role of the “Red Lion and Sun” organization, Gozideh-ye asnad-e
namayesh, vol. 2, pp. 16–17. An eyewitness account from 1938 by Walther Hinz
mentions the pleasant “Parkrestaurant mit Orchestermusik” managed by the
Iranian Red Cross, Iranische Reise: Eine Forschungsfahrt durch das heutige
Persien (Berlin-Lichterfelde: Bermühler, 1938), p. 47.
28 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, pp. 111–16. The text of the Nezam-nameh
is included in Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 2, pp. 124–29 (quoting the
Fasl-nameh-ye Te’atr, no. 2–3, 1367 (1988), pp. 196–200). For a full translation of
this Nezam-nameh, see the appendix to the present article.
29 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 70, document from 1308/1929.
30 Ibid., 259, in the announcement of a play by the Goruh-e Azarbayjan.
31 Ibid., p. 149, for the play Damad-e farari, performed in 1931.
32 Ibid., p. 139, facsimile p. 207.
33 These regulations were already in place before Reza Shah came to power: for an
early announcement from the Edareh-ye enteba‘at, the press or censorship office
in the Ministry of Culture, from 19 Rabi‘ al-sani 1339 (31 December 1920) see
Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 1, part 2, p. 224. Also Floor, History of Theater,
p. 258. For an overview of the complicated procedure a play had to undergo prior to
being performed on stage, Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 2, p. xv.
34 Ibid., pp. 198–99, for evaluations of plays from 1316/1937. Floor, History of
Theater, p. 258.
35 Ibid., p. 179, on the play Woman’s Misfortune (Badbakhti-ye zan).
36 Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 2, pp. 322–27.
37 Vezarat-e Farhang/Dowlat-e Shahanshahi-ye Iran, Sal-nameh va amar 1315–1316
va 1316–1317 (Tehran, 1938), p. 286.
38 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 440; facsimile, p. 464.
39 Ibid., pp. 53–62.
40 Ibid., pp. 65–67.
41 Ibid., pp. 85–89.
42 Ibid., pp. 99–101.
43 Ibid., p. 122, document 31.
44 Ibid., pp. 102–3.
45 Ibid., pp. 103, 125.
46 Ibid., pp. 105–8.
47 Ibid., p. 305.
48 Ibid., p. 251.
49 Ibid., pp. 252–53. He was arrested after the fall of the Republic of Azerbaijan, had to
earn his living as a factory worker and was never able to work on stage again.
50 Ibid., p. 353, based on the available advertisements and memoirs from the period.
For the composition of the troupes after 1941, pp. 301–7 (Honarpishegan-e
Deram-o Operet-e Tabriz); 353–59 (Deram-o Operet-e Ferdowsi); 413–20 (Goruh-e
namayesh-e Iran).
51 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, pp. 489, 523.
52 Lists of authors and titles – albeit without any biographical details or synopses – are
provided by Jannati ‘Ata’i, Bonyad-e namayesh, pp. 69–72, 79–81, and 84–86. He
also has a valuable bibliography of published theatre plays, sorted by title, pp. 89–123.
230 Christoph Werner
A comprehensive list can also be found in Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr,
pp. 281–83. A collection of plays from the Pahlavi period in a modern edition can be
found in the second part of the second volume of Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, with
the following plays either as full texts or in summary: Zabih Behruz, Jijak ‘Alishah;
Fazlollah Baygan, Va‘deh-ye pa’iz (synopsis); ‘Abbas Aryanpur Kashani, Dust-e
khod-ra beshenas; Sediqeh Dowlatabadi, Hess-e madari ya zendegi-ye tarik;
‘Ata’ollah Deyhimi, Adam-o Hava; Shams al-Din Behbahani, Amuzeshgah-e
akaber; Anon., Hasan-e Sabbah va Khayyam va Nezam al-Molk; Sediqeh Dow-
latabadi, Shifteh-ye Hafez; Hur-’ur-Rezazadeh Shafaq, Bonyan; Hoseyn
Kheyrkhvah, Seh ‘asheq-e por-ru; Mohammad Nowruzi, Sar-e bazangah; Yahya
Aryanpur, Dar rah-e ‘eshq-e namus; Hayk Karakash, Lebas-e qazi; Leon Shanet
(?), Eugene Payel (?) (translated from the Armenian); Malek al-Sho‘ara Bahar,
Tarbiyat-e na-ahl; Nima Yushij, Kafsh-e Hazrat-e Ghelman; ‘Abd al-Hoseyn
Nushin, Ta’sir-e zan-e vazifeh-shenas. The collection is not representative; it is
based on texts found in the relevant files of the National Archives (Sazman-e
Asnad), also vol. 2, pp. xx-xxiii.
53 ‘Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 191. He emphasizes in particular the pure
language that eliminated almost all Arabic words, p. 183.
54 Aryanpur, Az Saba ta Nima, vol. 2, p. 311.
55 Chelkowski, “Popular Entertainment, Media and Social Change,” pp. 785–86.
56 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, pp. 155, 189, 215, 222.
57 Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr, pp. 281–83. Also Floor, History of Theater, p. 261.
58 Cf. Ali Gheissari, Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th Century (Austin: University of
Texas Press, 1998), p. 54 on the historical play by Khalkhali using the Barmakids
as a typical example. There were similar developments and tendencies also in the
Turkish theatre of the time to disseminate pan-Turkish ideologies and constructions
of national history, Spuler, Das türkische Drama, p. 17.
59 Sa‘id Nafisi, Akharin yadgar-e Nader Shah (Tehran: Majalleh-ye Sharq, 1305/
1926).
60 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz; Anon., Fotuhat-e Kurosh-e Kabir, p. 179;
Anon., Amir Kabir, p. 177–78; Mohammad Safa’i, Soltan Mahmud Ghaznavi:
Fath-e bottkhaneh-ye Sumanat, p. 190. All these plays were performed by the
troupe Aryan in the 1930s.
61 “Monsieur de Pourceaugnac”: I am not certain about the original title, ibid.,
pp. 149–50.
62 More on translations of Molière in Gharibpur, Te’atr dar Iran, pp. 69–70; Malekpur,
Adabiyat-e namayeshi, vol. 1, pp. 303–80 (under the heading Nahzat-e tarjomeh
va eqtebas-e namayesh-nameh). Maryam B. Sanjabi, “Mardum-Gurı-z: An Early
Persian Translation of Moliere’s Le Misanthrope,” International Journal of
Middle East Studies 30 (1998), pp. 251–70.
63 Nishan Parlakian and S. Peter Cowe, ed., Modern Armenian Drama: An Anthology
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), pp. xvii, 129; and the full translation
in English of the Armenian text, pp. 132–84.
64 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 70: “‘For the Sake of Honour’ is
among the masterpieces of the famous Armenian writer Shirvanzadeh and Mr
Qolizadeh has prepared a translation of it with the utmost efforts” states the
announcement from 17 Aban 1308.
65 Thus a performance by the troupe Deram-o Operet-e Ferdowsi from 1942, ibid.,
p. 391. A comparison of different translations and their variants would be among
the most urgent tasks for anyone dealing with the literary history of drama at that
time.
66 For a full biography, see ibid., pp. 107–8. For the announcement from Bahman
1310 (January 1932), p. 158.
67 Ibid., p. 159.
Drama and operetta at the Red Lion and Sun 231
68 A detailed discussion of these works and their contents is beyond the scope of the
present study. Again, a more detailed examination of the variant scripts and trans-
lations of Hajibeyov’s operettas in Iran could be rewarding. More on Hajibeyov
from an Iranian perspective in Malekpur, Adabiyat-e namayeshi, vol. 2, pp. 83–119.
The musical aspects of Hajibeyov’s compositions and the Azeri maqam have been
discussed by Inna Naroditskaya, Song from the Land of Fire: Continuity and Change
in Azerbaijanian Mugham (London: Routledge, 2002). A very good collection of
librettos, images and music clips can be found on http://www.hajibeyov.com.
69 Ibid., p. 186, performed by the troupe Aryan on 29 Aban 1315 (20 November
1936): “In namayesh sar ta sar khandeh ast, dar ‘eyn-e hal dar qesmat tajaddod-e
nesvan va vaz‘-e zanashu’i-ye tabi‘i va eslah-e mafased-e akhlaqi va mazarrat-e
alkol ebrat-avar ast.”
70 Ibid., p. 180. The author of this particular play is not given; it was performed by
Aryan on 4 Dey 1314 (26 December 1935).
71 Ibid., i.e. p. 254.
72 Ibid., p. 232, shows a ticket for the Gardan parti, in the “National Park of the
Red Lion and Sun” from 1931.
73 Ibid., p. 198. The evening program in the “National Park” would begin at 7:30.
Strangely, foreign visitors would complain about the inappropriate cinema screen
erected in that place. See the contribution by Bianca Devos in the present volume,
Chapter 12.
74 The “first” Iranian film, Sepanta’s Dokhtar-e Lor (1933), also appeared on stage
in Tabriz in 1944, ibid., p. 474.
75 Zabih Behruz, Shah-e Iran va banu-ye Arman: bozorgtarin sinamaha-ye tarikhi va
akhlaqi va adabi-ye Irani (Tehran: Farus, ca. 1306/1937).
76 Vezarat-e Farhang, Sal-nameh va amar, p. 286; listed are the categories sinamatografi,
tamashakhaneh and sinama va tamashakhaneh.
77 One very emotional response to the article by Parviz Khanlou in the “Readers’
corner” is instructive, cf. Parviz Khanlu, “Tarikh unutmaz – Tabrizin Shir Khurshid
ti’atri,” in Azerbaijan International, issue 6.4, Winter 1998, online edition at
http://www.azeri.org/Azeri/az_arabic/arabic_ai_articles.html, pp. 4–5.
78 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 168, poster on p. 224.
79 Compare for example the price range in 2010 at the Royal Opera House in
London, 7 pounds (no seat, no view) to 500 pounds (box/loge), http://www.roh.
org.uk.
80 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 168, 189, 399. The Jashn-e Hazareh-ye
Ferdowsi of 1934 was dedicated to the flood victims; proceeds of a performance
of Hedayat’s Parvin, dokhtar-e Sasan in 1937 were destined for the newspaper
vendors of Tabriz (“instrumental in serving the world of the press”); a “Children’s
Day” charity event by the Honarpishegan-e Deram-o Operet-e Ferdowsi in 1948
was organized for orphans.
81 Hinz, Iranische Reise, p. 22.
82 Ibid., p. 143.
83 Robert Byron, The Road to Oxiana, with an intro. by Bruce Chatwin (London:
Picador, 1981), p. 187f.
84 Advertisement of the Grand Cinema for the film Rasputin, in the newspaper
Ettela‘at, no. 59 (30 Mehr 1305), p. 2.
85 Vezarat-e Farhang, Sal-nameh va amar, p. 288; salaries listed according to ranks
and echelons.
86 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 254, in the announcement for an opera
by Hajibeyov.
87 Ettela‘at, no. 661, 1 Dey 1307 (22 December 1928), p. 2; as quoted in Gozideh-ye
asnad-e namayesh, vol. 2, p. 29.
88 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 257.
232 Christoph Werner
89 Azarbayjan dar avayel-e dowreh-ye Pahlavi: bar asas-e gozaresh-e mahramaneh-ye
sal-e 1927 beh artesh-e Turkiyeh, ed. and transl. by Towhid Malekzadeh Delmaqani
(Tabriz: Akhtar, 1387/2008), p. 92.
90 Rubin, The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre, p. 19 (and throughout).
91 Gozideh-ye asnad-e namayesh, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 222–23, quoting the journal
Rahnama no. 219, 10 Rabi’ II 1339 (22 December 1920), p. 4.
92 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 280.
93 Ibid., p. 91.
94 Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr, p. 314–17. Osku’i presents in detail the memories
of ‘Ali Asghar Garmsiri, ‘Abd al-Hoseyn Nushin and Gholam‘ali Fekri on this
event and the roles played by Mohammad ‘Ali Forughi and Mojtaba Minovi. The
first play, performed for foreign and Iranian dignitaries on the occasion of the
official celebration, is not identical with the performance in Tabriz.
95 Talinn Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’: The Early Pahlavi Modernists and
Their Society for National Heritage,” Iranian Studies 37 (2004), pp. 17–45. Afshin
Marashi, “The Nation’s Poet: Ferdowsi and the Iranian National Imagination,” in
Iran in the 20th Century, ed. Touraj Atabaki (London: Tauris, 2009), pp. 93–111.
96 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 168, poster p. 224.
97 Delfani, Farhang-setizi, p. 166.
98 Ranjbar-Fakhri, Namayesh dar Tabriz, p. 441.
99 Highly informative and inspiring the article by Kathryn Hansen, “Languages on
Stage: Linguistic Pluralism and Community Formation in the Nineteenth-Century
Parsi Theatre,” Modern Asian Studies 37 (2003), pp. 381–405.
100 Nilla Cram Cook, “The Theater and Ballet Arts of Iran,” Middle East Journal
3 (1949), pp. 406–20. Her evaluation – that unfortunately is still frequently
quoted – echoes the disappointment of many westerners who wanted to maintain
Iran as the romantic, oriental country of their dreams. Originally from Iowa, Cook
spent some time in India as a self-appointed devotee of Gandhi, until she was
deported. Overall, she must have been a rather bizarre figure, “India: Runaway
Disciple,” Time Magazine, 11 December 1933.
10 “Newly hatched chickens”
Bozorg ‘Alavi on the young literary scene of
the 1930s
Roja Dehdarian
In 1973 the literary scholar Don Shojai (Donné Raffat, pseud.) travelled from
the United States to the German Democratic Republic to meet the Iranian writer
and, in the meantime, scholar of Iranian studies, Bozorg ‘Alavi. Aiming to write a
“portrait of the writer in his twentieth year in exile” he held a series of inter-
views with ‘Alavi.1 In reply to Shojai’s question about which period he regarded as
the most important, the most memorable of his life, ‘Alavi answered:
I think it must have been those years with Hedayat, Farzad, and Minovi.
Those years were very rich – for all of us. That stretch of time before
Hedayat went to India, Minovi went to London … and I went to
prison. … Yes, that was the best period, I think. Every day we would get
together for several hours, from about four-thirty or five in the afternoon
till about nine or ten in the evening.2
But it is not only with regard to his personal life that ‘Alavi highlights the
years between 1930 and 1936 as one of the richest periods; he also emphasizes
these years as highly fruitful, even revolutionary, for the development of modern
Persian literature.3 The writer Sadeq Hedayat, for example, later considered as
“the best and most celebrated Iranian writer of the twentieth century,”4 wrote
and published some of his best-known works during this time.5
This chapter will attempt to paint a picture of the cultural life of this period
from the young literati’s point of view, that is the circle6 around Sadeq
Hedayat and Bozorg ‘Alavi, later known as Rab‘eh or “group of four.”
Analyzing the memoirs, interviews and scholarly writings of Bozorg ‘Alavi, I
shall ask how this group of modern-minded young intellectuals conceived
themselves within the Iranian cultural sphere of the 1930s. Their relationship
to Iranian society, the governmental and state-controlled cultural policy and
their positions in the predominant cultural discourse of Iranian nationalism
and modernity of the time will be taken into consideration. I will argue that
the young writers – like the majority of the Iranian intelligentsia of the time –
contributed actively to this cultural discourse. Despite their highly critical
attitude towards the policy of the Reza Shah government they were amongst
the main actors promoting a new Iranian national identity.
234 Roja Dehdarian
Formation of the literary circle
In 1931 some young Iranian intellectuals, recently returned from their stay in
Europe, began to meet in Tehran’s coffeehouses, from early on united by their
common interest: literature. Later they came to be known as the literary circle
Rab‘eh. The nucleus of these meetings was Sadeq Hedayat, who had lived and
studied in Belgium and France from 1926 to 1930. Back in Iran, he had
published his first play, the historical drama Parvin, dokhtar-e Sasan (Parvin,
the Sassanian Girl) (Tehran 1930) and with it had drawn the attention of the
young Bozorg ‘Alavi.7 ‘Alavi himself had returned from Germany in 1928,
where he had completed his school education. Highly interested in literature
and affected by writers important in Europe, like Stefan Zweig, Arthur
Schnitzler, Anatol France, Maxim Gorki and Edgar Alan Poe, he met
Hedayat in 1930. In his memoirs he recounts their first meeting in the vicinity
of a bookshop in Nasiriyeh Street:
This event marks the beginning of a close friendship. Hedayat told the young
‘Alavi that he could find him every afternoon either in Café Vaka or in Café
Lalehzar.9 As ‘Alavi acknowledged himself, from early on they shared an
enthusiasm for modern European writing, as well as an interest in Iranian
history. They started to meet nearly every afternoon to read and discuss the
latest published European literary works of the French periodical Nouvelles
littéraires, to exchange books and ideas, encouraging one another to read and
write.10 Two other young writers also participated regularly in these meetings:
Mojtaba Minovi, who had lived in Paris in the 1920s, and Mas‘ud Farzad,
who had lived in London. There were also other young men linked with
them, like the writer Shirazpur (“Sheen”) Partow, the actor ‘Abd al-Hoseyn
Nushin, the director of the Conservatory of National Music (Honarestan-e
Musiqi) Gholam Hoseyn Minbashiyan and the young Parviz Natel Khanlari,
who later became publisher of the literary journal Sokhan and professor at
Tehran University.
‘Alavi describes the activities of the group in his interview with Shojai as
follows:
Then there was something else, too! Back in those days in Tehran, there
were not that many people who were interested in Western music. And I
genuinely disliked Iranian music! Hedayat disliked it as well. Whereas
now I do like it … , I truly appreciate it. But back then, Hedayat had
records! Minovi had a magnificent record collection! On Fridays, for
example, we would go to Minovi’s house and listen to music from morning
till night.15
In some respects the members of this group were trying to continue the life-
style of their formative years in Europe. Vis-à-vis the cultural establishment of
their time they considered themselves “social and intellectual rebels,”16 in the
words of ‘Alavi they “were different” in comparison with other people.
Every week these scholars and men of letters would gather there. Farzad
took us with him. We were the newly hatched chickens of literature.
We wanted to work our way up. We were four persons and they were
seven. – They were called the seven men of letters.21
The literary establishment of the time hardly noticed them in the beginning.
They considered them, in ‘Alavi’s words, as “ignorant insolent small fry” and
dismissed their literary works, such as Maziyar and Hedayat’s short stories, for
lacking any literary value.22 In response to this attitude the younger generation
developed their own strategies, one of which was mockery: they modelled
their name Rab‘eh on the term Sabeh, the Arabic word for “seven.” ‘Alavi
recounts that it was Mas‘ud Farzad who introduced the name to the group:
One day Mas‘ud Farzad said for fun: If they are the seven men of letters
(Odaba’-e Sab’eh), we are the four men of letters (Odaba’-e Rab‘eh).
I said: But Rab‘eh, that doesn’t mean anything. He said: Yes, but it
rhymes; meaning is no longer as important.23
What began as a joke later became the well-known name of the group. The
young writers were aware that they did not share the “experience and
knowledge of the older generation, hadn’t read as many books and couldn’t
measure up to their academic achievements in the field of Iranian literature.”24
Hedayat in particular suffered from the pretension of the leading intelligentsia
of his country, as his works of the time reflect. In the satirical verses Vagh
Bozorg ‘Alavi on the young literary scene 237
vagh Sahab (Mr. Bow-Wow) (Tehran 1933), for example, the writers Hedayat
and Farzad criticize the academic class for their opportunist attitude towards
the ruling elite and their plagiarism. To become a successful and famous
scholar, according to them
You first of all have to look carefully around to see if one of the famous
scholars lives in your town, and then whether he is well-respected by the
people there, or, like me, has been cheated by fate. If the former is the
case and life is on his side, then work for him for a while. This means that
you should sit quietly in on his sessions, ingratiate yourself with him and
pay court to him. Join the ranks of his entourage in order that your work
brings in money and your name starts to take root. Then commit the
titles of some thick Arabic books to memory and write an article imitat-
ing them. You have to make especially sure that there is not a single page
on which the name of the book is not mentioned. Whenever you come to
the phrases which you didn’t understand, by no means show this but
instead place them without shame in your own writings, and with this
make strangers tremble with fear and your acquaintances go green with
envy and jealousy. … Never forget that if in your writings and talks you
trumpet to the importance of honesty for society and mankind’s moral
issues and such major topics which appear fundamental but are actually
trivial, whether it is convenient or inconvenient, whether you are asleep
or awake, then it won’t be long before you receive the title of philosophic
scholar and social reformer. Your name will be on the lips of every man
and woman and you will have made it.25
We must wait years and save up our meager pennies, or borrow at exorbitant
interest rates, so that we can cover the expenses of printing one tiny book.
Then, we expend our time, money, and mental and physical strength in
determining the book’s format and font, and in selecting the type of
paper and the cover’s color. We undergo the torture of proofreading, and
ultimately, with a hundred heartaches behind us, we deposit our printed
books with the bookseller, where, if we are fortunate and he is one of the
class of honest booksellers, as time passes we will slowly receive our
money from him in credit. And if God forbid he is from that other class,
then Angel of Death Azrael save us.26
But there were also famous scholars like ‘Ali Akbar Dehkhoda who supported
the literary activities of the young and motivated writers. According to ‘Alavi,
Dehkhoda occasionally participated in their literary get-togethers in a café in
Lalehzar Street or invited them to his home. Dehkhoda’s advice for the young
generation in dealing with the literary establishment was: “Don’t look at
238 Roja Dehdarian
them. They are in power and your battle against them is of no use. You are
the princes of literature (shahzadeh-ye adab) and we are only your parasites
(rizehkhor).”27
Mojtaba Minovi retrospectively emphasizes the prolific collaboration of the
young writers in contrast to the rivalry between those of the older generation.
In 1952, in his speech in memory of Sadeq Hedayat, one year after his death,
he stated:
They were more than seven and we also were more than four, but they
had a thousand faces and a thousand hearts, while we were one. Each of
us had his own personality and we answered to nobody, but in our love
for the arts we were like-minded and we shared our thoughts and were
equal to one another.28
Maybe, if the conditions didn’t force her to, Katuschka could live with me
without becoming my wife, today, when neither her father nor her mother
can force her. But an ominous and terrible devil – money, society and her
milieu – forces her to sell herself. To sell herself for an entire lifetime just in
order to live. Every woman sells herself, some of them for some change for a
few hours or days, others for a whole lifetime to ensure their subsistence.30
The story ends, when F. discovers that his beloved’s fiancé is his own father.
In another story of the same volume entitled “Shik-push” (Chic-dressed),31
which to date has been almost completely overlooked, ‘Alavi satirizes the type
of the typical pseudo-educated Europeanized Iranian “intellectual.” The essay
focuses on the Iranian dandy Mr. Navapur who, in the circles of Tehran’s
intelligentsia, is said to be a young and modern intellectual.32 In fact, he is
not interested in anything but his appearance, and in the course of the story
the narrator exposes him to be a gold-digging poser. In the story ‘Alavi makes
particular reference to the literary establishment, which he depicts as superficial
and self-important, only interested in liberating the Iranian homeland from
noxious Arabic influences, and debating hour after hour over nonsense.33
In ‘Alavi’s elaborate story “Sarbaz-e sorbi” (The tin soldier)34 in particular,
Iranian society is highlighted as morally and socially damaged. It is the story
of the young man F., government official and son of a clergyman, and the
naïve and chubby-faced girl Koukab, who one morning when F. wakes up
240 Roja Dehdarian
after his first drinking bout is in his room. “With that my story with Koukab
began … .”35 ‘Alavi depicts the fateful relationship between the two protago-
nists: Koukab comes to stay with F., who was living in Bushehr at that time,
but he, as a result of his noxious obsession with his mother (who died shortly
before), sees her as a mother-substitute and remains incapable of bonding
with Koukab as a woman. Koukab on the other hand is obsessed with reco-
vering a tin soldier which seems to have been the substitute for her former
husband. F. begins to cast one tin soldier after another for Koukab, but never
the right one, and loses his job as a result of this obsession. Shortly after F.
has completed the – in his view – “right tin soldier,” Koukab disappears and
F. returns to Tehran, where he sinks deeper and deeper into opium addiction
and madness. Koukab is not able to free herself from the destructive rela-
tionship either. Not able to return home to her husband – who in the mean-
time has married another woman – she comes to Tehran, where F. picks her
up. Fleeing from F.’s rage, she ends up in the milieu of prostitution with a
wrinkled, pockmarked face and straggly hair. The narrative structure of the
story is of particular interest: narrated by three sources (the narrator, F. and
Koukab) in the first person, the reader himself has to combine the different
and, in parts, disconnected narrative sections, to understand the development
of the story. But in the end, the “real” course of events remains open or, as is
much more the case, a “subordinate reality” does not exist at all. Social cri-
ticism – as shown in the story – concerned society as well as human relations,
such as relationships between men and women and intra-familial relations.
‘Alavi creates an image of a society in which civil servants, instead of fighting
against the opium trade, are personally involved in selling opium and are them-
selves addicted to it. He depicts in the most minute details the milieu of misery
and poverty to which his protagonists have fallen. The reader is confronted
with a subtle criticism of the role of women, the Iranian divorce law and
the inhumanity of a society that reduces the individual – as picked up in the
beginning as well as in the end of the story – to its cash value, to ten shahis.
Despite the fact that the young writers’ works were not censored by the
censorship authority until around 1935,36 they did not go unnoticed by the
political department of the police. The meetings of these young men and their
unconventional behaviour were viewed suspiciously. Minovi recounts:
‘Alavi refers to an event that took place in one of the cafés of their regular
meetings: “One day one of the Armenian servants warned us that some
Bozorg ‘Alavi on the young literary scene 241
people had come and asked what are you playing up here.”38 ‘Alavi in parti-
cular seems to have been under observation. He remembers that one day in
the printing office of the Majles, where from time to time he corrected statutes
commissioned by the military headquarters, one of the employees advised
him not to go home too late:
Every evening when you go home that late, someone has to follow you.
After all, the poor guy is only human. He never makes it to bed before
midnight.39
But ‘Alavi didn’t take it seriously and did not want to unsettle his friends. And
although the group was sometimes observed by state officials, the young men
did not encounter serious difficulties until 1936. The reason for this is on the
one hand the fact that the writers did not participate openly in political
activities. On the other hand their works were often published in very small
print runs – in some 300 or 1000 copies – at their own expense. At this time
they were practically unknown and their writings, although often critical,
were for the most part overlooked by state officials.40
The sight of Tehran was terrifying for me. The lanes appeared to be
narrower. The street lamps which in Europe towered straight up to the
sky, appeared to be crooked and in a bad state of repair. The water in
the basin smelled bad, my mother had grown old and even my sister
wanted to hide her face from me.48
To link the claims of modernity with their sense of patriotism they jumped on
the bandwagon of nationalism. Following the lead of their predecessors like
Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh or Hoseyn Kazemzadeh Tabrizi they encouraged
each other to read European orientalist works published on Iran’s history. Even
the young and highly critical intellectuals absorbed the “imaginary perception”
of old, that is, authentic Persian culture, constructed in them and developed
romantic nationalist sentiments with regard to Persia’s pre-Islamic past.49
This attitude is reflected in many of their writings, for example in their
folkloric publications, such as the Neyrangestan by Hedayat or the Nowruz-nameh
by Minovi. The volume Aniran, published by the three writers Shin Partow,
Bozorg ‘Alavi and Sadeq Hedayat in 1931, must also be seen in this context.
The authors touch upon three historical events, Alexander’s conquest of Iran,
the Arab conquest and the Mongol invasion, and present them as the three
disasters of Iranian history. Therewith they follow the prevalent “nationalist
‘emplotment’ of Iran’s ancient history as a tragedy [which] was based on the
comprehension of the Muslim conquest as a force engendering ‘the reverse
progress of Iran’ (taraqqi-ye ma‘kus-e Iran).”50 In his story “Div! … div! … ”
(Demon! … demon! … ) ‘Alavi focuses on the period of the Arab conquest of
Iran of about 1200–1300 years earlier. Modelled on the style of Hedayat’s
novel Parvin, dokhtar-e Sasan, ‘Alavi’s story has strong overtones of anti-Arab
racism. He depicts the Arab conquerors as utterly underdeveloped, ugly and
cruel – in sum, as the title indicates, the personification of div (demon). Like
wild animals they came at the civilized, sophisticated and virtuous Iranian
people and “raised the centenary-long Sasanian civilization to the ground.”51
Again and again ‘Alavi describes the predatory practices of the “black faced
Arabs” with their “uncombed hair” and “dirty necks,” murdering Iranian
men, robbing and hawking Iranian women. The story develops from this
contrast between the Arab invaders, compared to Ahriman, and the Iranian
nation, as Ahura, embodied by an Iranian woman named Arnavaz and some
Iranian patriots. After the takeover of Iran, Arnavaz, the daughter of
the border official of Hamadan, is kidnapped by the invaders and sold at the
bazaar in Kufa to an Arab camel driver. Twelve years later she returns mor-
ibund to her father’s house, wanting him to care for her adolescent son and
raise him as an Iranian. Arriving deep in winter at a tumbled-down cottage
she does not meet her father, who had committed suicide years earlier in
244 Roja Dehdarian
order not to fall into the invaders’ hands. She does however find her former
fiancé Zaravand, who was sitting together with some friends, all of them dis-
illusioned patriots. According to Arnavaz’s testament, Zaravand raised her
son Gazravan as an Iranian, but despite this, some years later, he came to
betray his Iranian family; in the end he couldn’t stand his predisposition as an
Arab and “turned into div.” One of the basic statements of the text is the
declaration of an old Iranian patriot: “Iran won’t bow to Aniran [Non-Iran] …
Iran belongs to the Iranians.”52
As Tavakoli-Targhi states, by “linking the end of the ‘enlightened’ pre-
Islamic times to origins identified with Iran through Mahabad or Kayumars,
a new memory, identity, and political reality were fashioned.”53 By discover-
ing contemporary signs of modernity, like nationalism and scientific progress,
in Iran’s glorious past, the country could be conceived as a modern nation
and the Iranian civilization at least on a level with European civilizations, if
not superior. This is what Marashi calls the “authentication of modernity.”54
In this, European orientalist scholarship played an important part.
According to Marashi “orientalism thus enabled nationalism by helping to
excavate the deep reservoirs of pre-modern Persianate culture in order to find
the nation-subject of a new national narrative.”55 Writers like Bozorg ‘Alavi
and Mojtaba Minovi through their translations of philological and historical
orientalist works like Theodor Nöldeke’s Das iranische Nationalepos or A.
Christensen’s L’empire des Sassanides were the main actors fashioning this
“new national narrative.” One of the most important events promoting this
new national Iranian identity was the Pahlavi state’s celebrations marking the
millennium of Ferdowsi’s birth. Some of the young intellectuals even took an
active part in these. Within the context of the Ferdowsi congress in October
1934, the actor ‘Abd al-Hoseyn Nushin and Gholam Hoseyn Minbashiyan, both
belonging to the circle around Hedayat, brought three plays of the Shah-nameh
to the stage.56
The strong nationalist character of Reza Shah’s regime had encouraged
from the beginning scholarly interest in national history. Men like Sa‘id
Nafisi, Mohammad Taqi Bahar, ‘Abbas Eqbal and Mohammad Qazvini,
according to ‘Alavi, spent most of their energy on “academically consolidating
the national pride in Iran’s historical heritage.”57
However, not only the established literati took part in the so-called
“nationalist memory project” of Reza Shah’s regime. The young writers, too,
highly influenced by their encounter with the West, had thoroughly absorbed
the spirit of romantic nationalism.
In ‘Alavi’s Geschichte und Entwicklung der modernen persischen Literatur
(History and development of modern Persian literature), we read:
Conclusion
During the preceding period, despite the arbitrary rule of Reza Shah, the
country experienced – as ‘Alavi states in his literary history – a “revolutionary
intellectual upheaval.”66 We are dealing here with a lively and diverse cultural
scene in Tehran and – with regard to literature – a great deal of experimental
creativity. ‘Alavi himself illustrates the atmosphere of this period as follows:
Notes
1 Donné Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi: A Literary Odyssey (Syracuse,
NY: Syracuse University Press, 1985), p. x. See also “Letter of Don Shojai/Donné
Raffat to Bozorg ‘Alavi from October 28, 1972” in Nachlass Bozorg ‘Alavi (Literary
estates of Bozorg ‘Alavi) 29–1, Archive of Humboldt-University Berlin.
2 Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi, p. 90.
3 Bozorg Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung der modernen persischen Literatur
(Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1964), p. 160. See also Bozorg ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e
zamaneh (Tehran: Mo’assaseh-ye Entesharat-e Negah, 1385/2006), p. 65.
4 Homa Katouzian, “Preface,” in Sadeq Hedayat: His Work and His Wondrous
World, ed. Homa Katouzian (New York: Routledge, 2008).
5 Including the three volumes of short stories Zendeh be gur (Buried alive) (Tehran
1930), Seh qatreh khun (Three drops of blood) (Tehran 1932), Sayeh rowshan
Bozorg ‘Alavi on the young literary scene 247
(Chiaroscuro) (Tehran 1933) and his novel Buf-e kur (The blind owl) (Bombay
1936).
6 A circle is defined as “a group of people connected in an informal way by
common interests,” Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture
(Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1993), p. 218. Hereafter I will use the term with
regard to the “group of four,” an informal but nonetheless influential association
of young intellectuals united by their common interest in literature.
7 See ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, pp. 58–59.
8 Ibid., p. 59.
9 Bozorg ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg Alavi/Memoirs of Bozorg ‘Alavi, ed. Hamid
Ahmadi (Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab, 1377/1998), p. 165.
10 See ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 61.
11 Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi, p. 61.
12 See ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 40. ‘Alavi recalls that as a teacher he only had
to work until midday and he didn’t need much time to prepare his lessons. So he
had a good deal of spare time which he could use to read and write.
13 “Letter of 29 August 1931,” in Ketab-e Sadeq Hedayat, ed. Mahmud Katira’i
(Tehran: Sazman-e Entesharat-e Ashrafi, 1349/1970), p. 212, as quoted in Homa
Katouzian, Sadeq Hedayat: The Life and Literature of an Iranian Writer
(London and New York: Tauris, 1991), pp. 49–50.
14 Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi, p. 63.
15 Ibid., p. 92.
16 Katouzian, Sadeq Hedayat, p. 54.
17 Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 173.
18 For example, the famous prose author and lexicographer ‘Ali Akbar Dehkhoda,
the literary scholar Vahid Dastgerdi and the Rumi researcher Badi‘ al-Zaman
Foruzanfar.
19 See Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 173.
20 ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg ‘Alavi, p. 168.
21 ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 66.
22 Ibid., p. 74.
23 Ibid., p. 66.
24 ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg ‘Alavi, p. 188.
25 Sadeq Hedayat and Mas‘ud Farzad, Vagh vagh Sahab (1933; Tehran: Entesharat-
e Javedan, 2536 [Pahlavi]/1976), pp. 106–7.
26 Hedayat and Farzad, Vagh vagh Sahab, pp. 111–12, as quoted in Iraj Parsinejad,
A History of Literary Criticism in Iran (1866–1951): Literary Criticism in the
Works of Enlightened Thinkers of Iran: Akhundzade, Kermani, Malkolm, Talebof,
Maraghe’i, Kasravi and Hedayat (Bethesda, MD: IBEX Publishers, 2003), p. 216.
27 ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 75.
28 “Sokhanrani-ye Aqa-ye Mojtaba Minovi dar jalaseh-ye yadbud-e Hedayat (25
Farvardin 1331/14 April 1952)” in ‘Aqayed va afkar darbareh-ye Sadeq Hedayat
pas az marg (Tehran: Entesharat-e Anjoman-e Giti, 1335/1956), p. 106.
29 Bozorg ‘Alavi, “Chamadan,” in Chamadan (Tehran: n.p., 1313/1935), pp. 5–20.
30 Ibid., p. 15.
31 Bozorg ‘Alavi, “Shik-push,” in Chamadan (Tehran: n.p., 1313/1935), pp. 93–113.
Jan Rypka refers to this story as being of interest for the insight into a little-known
field of Persian literature that it provides, but which stands apart from the rest of the
book. Jan Rypka, “Aus der modernsten Belletristik Íráns,” Archiv Orientální:
Journal of the Czechoslovak Oriental Institute, Prague VII (1935), p. 313. Wickens
touches briefly upon the story in his article, G.M. Wickens, “Bozorg ‘Alavi’s
Portmanteau,” University of Toronto Qarterly XXVIII: 2 (1959), pp. 116–33.
32 ‘Alavi, “Shik-push,” p. 93.
33 Ibid., p. 109.
248 Roja Dehdarian
34 Bozorg ‘Alavi, “Sarbaz-e sorbi,” in Chamadan (Tehran: n.p., 1313/1935), pp. 71–91.
35 Ibid., p. 76.
36 In 1935, Sadeq Hedayat “had to give a written pledge to the censors to stop publish-
ing altogether.” See Homa Katouzian, “Riza Shah’s Political Legitimacy and Social
Base, 1921–41,” in The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah
1921–1941, ed. Stephanie Cronin (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 31.
37 “Sokhanrani-ye Aqa-ye Mojtaba Minovi,” p. 106.
38 ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 72.
39 Ibid., p. 73.
40 See ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg ‘Alavi, p. 186.
41 Theodor Nöldeke, Das iranische Nationalepos (Berlin and Leipzig: Vereinigung
wissenschaftlicher Verleger Walter De Gruyter & Co., 1920).
42 ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg ‘Alavi, p. 174.
43 Rypka, Aus der modernsten Belletristik Íráns, p. 302.
44 Ibid.
45 For an account of the celebrations and their positioning in the national project of
the Pahlavi state see Afshin Marashi, “The Nation’s Poet: Ferdowsi and the Iranian
National Imagination,” in Iran in the 20th Century: Historiography and Political
Culture, ed. Touraj Atabaki (London and New York: Tauris, 2009), pp. 93–111.
46 ‘Alavi, Gozasht-e zamaneh, p. 69.
47 Ibid., pp. 32–33.
48 ‘Alavi, Khaterat-e Bozorg ‘Alavi, p. 118.
49 See also Houra Yavari, “The Blind Owl: Present in the Past or the Story of a
Dream,” in Sadeq Hedayat, ed. Katouzian, pp. 44–45.
50 Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, “Historiography and Crafting Iranian National
Identity,” in Iran in the 20th Century, ed. Atabaki, p. 5.
51 Bozorg ‘Alavi, “Div! … div! … ,” in Aniran, by Shin Partow, Bozorg ‘Alavi and
Sadeq Hedayat (n.p.: Samimeh-ye majalleh-ye Arman, n.d. [2nd edn]), p. 22.
52 Ibid., p. 24.
53 Tavakoli-Targhi, Historiography and Crafting Iranian National Identity, p. 5.
54 Afshin Marashi, Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 1870–1940
(Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2008), p. 55. See also Cyrus
Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Science, Class, and the Formation of
Modern Iranian Society 1900–1950 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 2009), pp. 47–49.
55 Marashi, The Nation’s Poet, p. 99.
56 “Sokhanrani-ye Aqa-ye Mojtaba Minovi,” p. 107.
57 Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 171.
58 Ibid., pp. 132–33.
59 Ibid., pp. 133, 155.
60 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, p. 113.
61 Ibid., p. 109.
62 Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 131.
63 Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi, p. 9.
64 See also ibid., p. 35.
65 See Afshin Matin-asgari, “Marxism, Historiography and Historical Consciousness
in Modern Iran: A Preliminary Study,” in Iran in the 20th Century, ed. Atabaki,
p. 208.
66 Alavi, Geschichte und Entwicklung, p. 127.
67 Raffat, The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi.
68 Claus V. Pedersen, “Sadeq Hedayat, A Writer Ahead of Time,” in The Necklace
of the Pleiades: Studies in Persian Literature Presented to Heshmat Moayyad on
his 80th Birthday, ed. Franklin Lewis and Sunil Sharma (Amsterdam: Rozenberg
Publishers, 2007), p. 334.
11 Giving birth to a new generation
Midwifery in the public health system of
the Reza Shah era
Elham Malekzadeh
Introduction
Reza Shah’s reign is one of the historical epochs during which the state took
various measures to change the status of women in society. There were var-
ious social, economic, and even political spheres in which women were able to
engage, provided they were cognizant of the limitations imposed on them by
the state at that time. Health and medicine was one of the domains in which
women could get involved during the early Pahlavi period. Obviously, the
effectiveness of their role depended on the level of awareness of health
authorities.
One of the most important fields of women’s activity was the occupational
system of midwifery in the health organizations, which this paper analyzes. It
considers the role of the Pahlavi administration in modernizing the country in
order to examine the evolution of a modern national health system. This
article focuses mainly on the sector of women’s service provision, as well as
efforts of the state to establish a systematic network to take care of pregnant
women and their children. In the path to a modern society, the Pahlavi state
paid close attention to the birth and development of a new generation, which
was supposed to be in charge of the country’s future. Therefore, during the
entire period of Reza Shah’s reign, the government exercised strong control
over this field, including prenatal care.
Before addressing the main issue, we provide the historical background of
health and medical treatment in Iran. Then, we discuss how different gov-
ernments fulfilled their obligations toward citizens in this field. Finally, we
conclude with discussing the increasing attention paid to gynaecology and
women’s and children’s diseases. This study is based on a wide range of dif-
ferent primary sources from the Reza Shah period such as books, journals,
and newspapers. But first and foremost, unpublished documents from the
National Archives in Tehran (Sazman-e Asnad va Ketabkhaneh-ye Melli)
are analyzed to outline the changes in the occupation of midwifery in the
administrative framework of the national health organization during the
1920s and 1930s.
250 Elham Malekzadeh
Iranian socio-political conditions and their impacts on the
evolution of medicine
The Qajar era was one the most important epochs in the evolution of
medicine in Iran. During this period, medicine and public health changed
significantly, due to the impact of the Dar al-Fonun School, which incorpo-
rated traditional medicine with European medicine into the Iranian medical
education system.1
These changes were the result of reforms by Naser al-Din Shah, the first
ruler to establish health service centres. In 1265q (1849), he decided to build a
hospital near the city of Astarabad, but the project was not realized.2 The
next year, 1266q (1850), he ordered the establishment of a hospital in Tehran,
which was inaugurated in 1268q (1852).3 After the establishment of Dar
al-Fonun by Amir Kabir, European medicine found its way into the medical
education system, but it did not replace traditional medicine, which survived
alongside modern medicine. Application of modern methods of medicine,
especially new methods of surgery taught by European physicians, was the
most important contribution of the Dar al-Fonun to Iranian society. These
measures played a significant role in public health advances. The establishment
of health societies (anjoman-ha-ye hefz al-sehheh) in the capital and major
provinces of Iran, which coordinated government health measures and gran-
ted medical certificates to qualified candidates, was one of the most important
steps taken in the Qajar Era.4
Naser al-Din Shah’s trips to Europe encouraged him to adopt the industrial
and medical services of European countries. He also decided to establish a
hospital in Tehran in the European model. As a result, in addition to the
hospital built in 1268q (1852), another hospital was built in 1284q (1868). In
1290q (1873) the Public Hospital in Tehran was officially inaugurated.5 New
physicians titled hafez al-sehheh were put in charge of public health in Tehran
and other big cities.6
However, the hafez al-sehheh were not able to perform their tasks due to the
lack of necessary medical instruments, and in most cities, the only physicians
were the traditional health practitioners called hakem bashi. The hefz al-sehheh
societies established in the larger provinces of Iran were particularly sig-
nificant in introducing modern medicine and improving the health of the people.
These societies monitored the status of public health and physicians’ practice
and issued medical certificates. Beginning in 1323q (1905), two French physi-
cians, Dr. George and Dr. Calais, were employed by the government of Iran, a
move that accelerated the progress of modern medicine in Iran. Soon, however,
political events in Iran hindered further development.7 The Constitutional
Revolution and changes in the socio-political situation together with widespread
poverty also had an impact on the health sector. Meanwhile, charity hospitals
were established due to the efforts of individuals such as Hajj Sheikh Hadi
Najmabadi, who used the legacy of the late Mirza ‘Isa Khan Vazir, governor
of Tehran, to establish an endowed hospital named the Vaziri Hospital.8
Giving birth to a new generation 251
During the Iranian Constitutional period, the name of the Department for
Health Care (Edareh-ye Hefz al-Sehheh) changed to Health Department
(Edareh-ye Sehhiyeh). As few and ineffective measures were taken to improve
public health, the status of public health in Tehran and other cities did not
change much, and rural districts and villages suffered from a lack of hygiene.
Often, drought, famine, or other natural disasters caused epidemics such as
cholera, malaria, and plague, which got out of control and killed many people.
The outbreak of such epidemics also led to the introduction of quarantine reg-
ulations, to be enforced along the borders of Iran with neighbouring states to
prevent the spread of such disasters.9
As foreign physicians saw that Iran was unable to prevent such epidemics
from spreading to neighbouring countries, they decided to take certain steps to
prevent chaos; among them, the measures taken by Dr. Tholozan, the king’s
attending physician, were of great importance. In 1324q (1906), Dr. Tholozan
who was appointed as the first ambassador of the physicians’ society, established
the Central Board of Health (Hey’at-e Sehhiyeh), the institute responsible for
maintaining public health in Iran. This department passed quarantine reg-
ulations for ports and border regions and implemented a vaccination program
carried out previously by Dr. Cloquet, another European physician.10
Later, the Central Board of Health changed its name to the Sanitary
Council (Majles-e Sehhat or Hefz al-Sehheh). In 1329q (1911), the Sanitary
Council of Tehran, which was an affiliate office of Majles-e Sehhat, passed a
budget for public health for the first time.11 As these decisions were made to
promote the health and welfare of the people, any public services were to be
covered. At the same time, because of changes arising out of the Constitutional
Revolution and the establishment of the National Consultative Assembly
(Majles), special laws and regulations to administer the medical and phar-
maceutical affairs of Iran were prepared by the Sanitary Council and passed
by the parliament.12 In 1277 (1861), the first medical physicians’ meeting was
held by the order of Naser al-Din Shah, and from that time on, this meeting
was held weekly to discuss heath and medical issues.
As a result of these measures and new conditions, the improvement of
health services attracted attention, and the government decided to establish a
medical school as an affiliate of the Dar al-Fonun. However, because of the
difficulties faced by the main health authorities, no significant improvement
was achieved, and the only step taken was the ratification of the education
law (qanun-e asasi-ye ma‘aref) and the medicine law (qanun-e tababat) in
1329q (1911).13
The medicine law was formulated and passed by a group of physicians who
had graduated from European academic centres, including Dr. ‘Ali Khan Hakim
A‘zam, Dr. Yahya Mirza Lesan al-Hokama, and Dr. Amir Khan Amir A‘lam,
who were all members of parliament. This law began to be enforced two years
after its ratification. When World War I began, the disordered situation
caused by the breach of Iran’s neutrality increased the instability of the med-
ical school. The abovementioned law was comprised of 13 articles, whose
252 Elham Malekzadeh
first, second, and eleventh articles stipulated that every physician’s practice
required an official certificate issued by the Ministry of Education.
Thus, after the ratification of this law, any physician who wanted to prac-
tice was obliged to attend medical school.14 The enforcement of this law
developed the medical school and increased the number of its students. In
general, it can be claimed that government reforms before the Pahlavi era
paved the way for later changes in the field of health and medical treatment.
The Health Department of Iran, like that of other countries, tries to employ
competent and educated nurses to supervise and take care of poor families,
teach them principles of health and wellbeing, examine the health condi-
tions of children in schools, and prevent any epidemics. Moreover, the Red
Lion and Sun Society (Jam‘iyat-e Shir-o Khorshid-e Sorkh) [equivalent to
the Red Crescent] of Iran is responsible for employing proficient nurses to
work as a standby workforce and in case these nurses get married, they
can take care of their children better than any other.19
[W]hen the Shah made his notable visit to the Central Mission Hospital
in Teheran, he asked particularly that the lady doctor should be pointed
out to him, exclaiming, “Is it possible for a woman to have enough knowl-
edge to become a doctor?” Upon being told that the slender, blue-eyed
person, Dr Mary J. Smith, was she, he held out his hand, saying, “Feel
my pulse and tell me the state of my health.
It happened that in 1906 the Iranian wife of the prime minister urged him
to stipulate, when he was signing the permit of the American Missionary
Hospital in Teheran, that no women should be allowed. After she herself
was ill and taken for care there, she gave a sum of money for the estab-
lishment of a woman’s ward. This gift was duplicated by Mrs McCormick
of Chicago, so the woman’s ward in Teheran came into being. It was
maintained as a distinct unit of the medical work in Teheran until ill
health compelled Dr Smith to resign, when the women’s work became
part of the general work of the hospital.21
The newspapers of the Reza Shah era mentioned that there were more than
three thousand female physicians in Britain, in order to introduce Iranian
women to the efforts of women in other countries and encourage them to
promote their social and educational status.22 Coursebooks were the most
essential and effective means of applying the policies of the government
regarding women’s affairs. They were compiled to create a new culture among
young girls to improve women’s long-term health conditions. For this purpose,
the models of other countries regarding women were used:
In civilized countries, there are several societies and associations with the
participation of mothers and mature girls, helping other deprived mothers
and taking care of poor children … women’s charities are divided in most
countries into four important classes, and each class has clearly defined
254 Elham Malekzadeh
tasks and duties. One of these classes is in charge of preparing clothing
and garments for the infants of poor mothers given to them free of
charge. Another class is responsible to prepare milk technically for those
mothers who are not able to or are forbidden from breastfeeding. They
take care of the infant by observing hygienic principles. The third class
is in charge of hospitals and pharmaceuticals for infants. Deprived
mothers refer to these hospitals if they feel their child is sick. The fourth
class takes care of orphans and homeless children.23
After the Constitutional Revolution, Dr. Mary Smith served for several years
in the public hospital of Tehran. However, during the rule of Reza Shah,
health programs and the methods of administering hospitals were changed to
nationalize the field of health and medical treatment, therefore no foreign
physician or medical staff was authorized to work in Iran. From that time,
Iranian staff were for the first time in charge of the supervision and management
of the health affairs of their own country. For the purpose of this policy,
Iranian-educated physicians increased in number.
In 1335q (1917), Dr. Amir Khan Amir A‘lam felt the need to establish a
specialized hospital for women. Until that time, there was no hospital to
admit women and children independently. Dr. Amir A‘lam did his best to
build a hospital on land presented to him by the government. One part of this
building was used as the central section, and the other parts were assigned
to become a clinic and pharmacy.24 Moreover, as no male physician was
authorized to examine a woman, a French midwife was responsible for
examining women, and for several years she was in charge of the management
of the hospital. The first midwifery school in Iran, the Amuzeshgah-e Mama’i,
was established at this hospital, which was composed of two separate wards
assigned to the treatment of children and women, and training of service
providers for deprived women.25
In early 1337q (1919), the women’s hospital was inaugurated officially,
presided over by Dr. Mohazzab al-Dowleh, and began operation with a
budget of 200 tumans provided by endowment income (owqaf).26 Fifty-nine
female patients were hospitalized in this hospital by the end of the same year.
Additionally, ten students of the Teacher Training School (Dar al-Mo‘allemat)
were trained by Madame Frascina for midwifery. In late 1337q (1919) when
Mirza Ahmad Khan Naser al-Dowleh Badr was minister of education, the
École Franco-Persane for girls changed to the Dar al-Mo‘allemat and it was
decided that ten students of this school would be trained for midwifery in the
women’s hospital three days per week. The educational program of the Dar
al-Mo‘allemat consisted of a four-year education after obtaining the certificate
of the sixth grade of elementary school.
Dr. Amir Khan Amir A‘lam was aware of the necessity of establishing
maternity hospitals; therefore he took steps to educate and train proficient
midwives, who were able to help mothers give birth to their children based on
scientific and medical principles of gynaecology. He believed that maternity
Giving birth to a new generation 255
hospitals could be centres of progress in the profession of medicine, since in
such hospitals the students of natural sciences could realize through practice the
more abstract aspects of delivery.27 In a lecture on this subject, Dr. Amir A‘lam
introduced maternity hospitals as centres for the education of knowledgeable
and competent midwives. He also wrote,
In 1337q (1919), when the Medical Department of the Dar al-Fonun was
presided over by Dr. Mohammad Hoseyn Khan Loqman Adham, the medicine
class changed its name to “medical school.” The school became administered
separately and was assigned to an independent location. It was reformed and
attention was paid to the field of midwifery, which had not been previously
taught:
Before the rule of Reza Shah, it was not common for midwives to study and
most of them were illiterate. Indeed, many held superstitious views about
birthing rituals. Because of this ignorance, midwives who were unaware of the
scientific principles of delivery failed to save many mothers and infants during
labour. If a baby was born feet first and unable to breathe, the midwife who
was unaware of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and instead used superstitious
methods caused the infant to suffocate and die. Severe psychological traumas
arose out of the deaths of children. The application of unsterile instruments and
contamination of parturition space and midwives’ hands were other factors
that led to infection, haemorrhage, and death of mother and child.
When during the Reza Shah period reforms were carried out to modernize
Iran, the municipality was the executive organization assisting the government
to establish centres and institutions to realize the objectives of such plans. One
of the responsibilities of municipalities was to construct urban wastewater
256 Elham Malekzadeh
systems through proper piping, public toilets, and clean streaming water in
the gutters of streets and alleys, since people thought that running water was
not polluting.
To provide safe and clean water, the decision was made to construct sanitary
pipelines, which was vital to the improvement of health conditions, since such
pipelines could supply potable water for all uses, including washing vegetables
and other foodstuffs.30 All these issues were the responsibility of municipalities.
For the purpose of improving the social and health situation of all people,
and saving the lives of pregnant mothers from the ignorance of uninformed
midwives, the municipality charted important plans and established a midwifery
school, whose first program was completed in the academic year 1311–12 (1932–
33). The first 18 female graduates of this school fulfilled the requirements of
this field of study and began to provide the women of Tehran with health and
welfare services.31
The most important objective of Reza Shah’s government was to establish
special institutions and organizations to protect the lives of infants, like the
numerous institutions of various foreign countries, which were established
under different titles but with a unified intent to decrease the annual mortality
rate of neonates, fight ignorance, and assist the deprived classes of society.
Through lectures delivered to the public and essays published in newspapers,
this goal was approached by supervising and promoting public health. For
example, after the establishment of the Organization for Public Enlightenment
(Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar), several lectures were delivered on the subject
of under-population in developing countries. One of the lectures published in
the newspaper stated,
One of the most important measures set forth in the above publications spe-
cified “first aid stations and hospitals in many cities of Iran, especially in
Tehran, establishment of health centres by municipalities and State General
Department of Health, establishment of maternity hospitals, orphanages,
establishment of women and children hospitals, erection of midwifery schools
and nursing schools, whose annual graduates can serve people.”35
Ratification and enforcement of medical law was another step taken to
regulate the health affairs of Iranian society. In principle, this decision not
only covered the profession of medicine, but also other fields of study relating
to the field of health. The government paid particularly close attention to the
practice of midwives. The documents addressing these issues prove this claim.
All students of midwifery abroad had to legalize their education documents
through the Ministry of Education to be permitted to work in Iran, and in
some cases their diploma had to be certified by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
to receive their professional permit; otherwise, they were not allowed to
practice as midwives, and in case of practicing without such formalities,
they could be legally prosecuted and their diploma deemed null and void.
Considering the importance of these documents in explaining the activities
of the midwifery school and the education of modern midwives, we studied
the documents of the National Archives of Iran regarding the laws and reg-
ulations on midwifery, the articles of association and bylaws of the govern-
ment, and individuals applying for the study of midwifery. The results of this
survey follow:
Obtaining a certificate.
The applicants shall enroll in the school of midwifery; after education
and receiving diploma, they are allowed to apply for the license of
midwifery.
260 Elham Malekzadeh
Not only midwives who practice by experience rather than education
are entitled to study midwifery to receive the midwifery license, but
also volunteers are allowed to take the examinations held by the
Department of Examinations (Edareh-ye Emtehanat) in accordance
with the program of the school. If they pass the courses, they can
receive the midwifery license.41
6. After the abovementioned programs, the entrance exam of the midwifery
school was held on 29 Hut 1302 (20 March 1924) for the female students
of the women’s hospital.42 The following information is of particular
importance:
13. The study of these documents from the Reza Shah period reveals the
objectives of the government on the one hand and the effects of the ideas
of intellectuals and female social activists on the other hand. For example,
Ms. Tarbiyat, the head of the Women’s Association stated,
Conclusion
It was during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah that Iran witnessed the first
steps to improving the general health status. Especially in the years after the
Constitutional Revolution, and even more after the War, the eagerness to
provide medical services to women resulted in the foundation of the first private
hospitals reserved for female patients and the employment of French mid-
wives. The pioneering role in this process played by Dr. Amir Khan Amir
A‘lam also encompassed instruction in women’s diseases.
With the beginning of Reza Shah’s rule the conditions for midwifery changed
tremendously, with the result that under the supervision of the state, a modern
midwifery education came into existence. According to documents from the
early Pahlavi period in Iranian archives, the most important measures taken in
the field of health care and gynaecology were the following: ratification of
laws on health and women’s medicine; legal regulation and supervision of the
practice of physicians; establishing a system of health and medical education,
including the instruction of midwives at special schools; the regulation of
admission to these midwifery schools; the preparation of educational material
and syllabi with theoretical and practical courses. This regulation by the state
aimed at supervising and organizing the issuing of medical certificates and
diplomas for midwives by official institutions, preventing the practice of
unauthorized midwives who had no certificate of license, and determining the
scope of service and terms of reference of midwives.
In the course of this policy other institutions like nurseries or orphanages
were also founded. The process of implementing all these measures was not
without problems, but the main burden had been placed on the women
practicing in this field. Their continuous efforts and pursuit, however, con-
tributed to the acceptance of modern forms of midwifery by more and more
Iranians and also fuelled the call for women’s rights in general. By establishing
midwifery as a modern profession a further step towards the creation of a
new Iranian society was taken.
264 Elham Malekzadeh
Notes
1 The Dar al-Fonun, the first higher school in Iran, was founded in 1851 to integrate
modern European practices into science, technology, and military training. Nikki
R. Keddie, Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 2003), p. 49.
2 Cyril Elgood, A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate: the Develop-
ment of Persian and Arabic Medical Sciences from the Earliest Times until the
Year A.D. 1932 (1951; Amsterdam: APA-Philo Press, 1979), p. 512.
3 Fereydun Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khvarazmi, 1362/1983),
pp. 30–31. For more information regarding the establishment of hospitals in the
Qajar era see: Elham Malekzadeh, Negahi be omur-e kheyriyeh-ye Iran dar
dowreh-ye Qajar (Tehran: Daneshgah-e Azad-e Eslami Vahed-e Shahr-e Rey,
1385/2006).
4 Mohammad Hasan E‘temad as-Saltaneh, Al-ma’aser va al-asar, lithograph
(Tehran: Sana‘i, no date), p. 156.
5 E‘temad as-Saltaneh, Al-ma’aser va al-asar, p. 105. Naser Najmi, Tehran-e ‘ahd-e
Naseri (Tehran: ‘Attar, 1364/1985), p. 421. Naser Najmi, Dar al-khalafeh-ye
Tehran (Tehran: Hamgam 1362/1983), p. 146.
6 E‘temad as-Saltaneh, Al-ma’aser va al-asar, p. 115.
7 Majalleh-ye Mahyaneh-ye Shir-o-Khorshid-e Sorkh-e Iran 1:2 and 3 (1305/1926),
p. 174.
8 Malekzadeh, Negahi be omur-e kheyriyeh, pp. 117–18. For more information
regarding other endowed and charity hospitals see: Elgood, A Medical History of
Persia.
9 The quarantine regulations were enforced along the borders by the government of
Iran with the assistance of other countries such as the Ottoman Empire, Britain,
and Russia. For more information see Elgood, A Medical History of Persia.
10 Elgood, A Medical History of Persia, pp. 517–18. Gholam Hoseyn Sadri Afshar,
Sargozasht-e sazman-ha va nehad-ha-ye ‘elmi va amuzeshi dar Iran (Tehran:
Vezarat-e ‘Olum va Amuzesh-e ‘Ali, 1354/1975), p. 131.
11 Elgood, A Medical History of Persia, pp. 531–32.
12 Elgood, A Medical History of Persia, pp. 535–36.
13 Mohsen Rusta’i, Tarikh-e tebb va tababat dar Iran: az ‘ahd-e Qajar ta payan-e
‘asr-e Reza Shah, be revayat-e asnad, vol. 1 (Tehran: Sazman-e Asnad va Ketab-
khaneh-ye Melli, 1385/2006), p. 17.
14 Ruz-nameh-ye rasmi-ye dowlat-e shahanshahi-yi Iran 1:42 (26 Saratan 1329q / 17
July 1911), pp. 26–27.
15 Peter Avery, Tarikh-e mo‘aser-e Iran, trans. Mohammad Rafi‘i Mehrabadi, vol. 2
(Tehran: ‘Ata’i, 1367–68/1988–89), p. 59. The original edition is Peter Avery,
Modern Iran (London: Benn, 1965).
16 Samuel Huntington, Saman-e siyasi dar javame‘-e dastkhosh-e degarguni (Political
order in changing societies), trans. Mohsen Salasi (Tehran: ‘Elm, 1370/1991), p. 150.
17 ‘Isa Sadiq, Tarikh-e farhang-e Iran az aghaz ta zaman-e hazer, vol. 2 (Tehran:
Sazman-e Tarbiyat-e Mo‘allem va Tahqiqat-e Tarbiyati, 1342/1963), pp. 301–5.
18 ‘Alam-e Nesvan 11:4 (Tir 1310/June–July 1931), pp. 89, 155–56.
19 “Mashaghel-e Nesvan,” ‘Alam-e Nesvan 11:5 (Shahrivar 1310/August–September
1931), pp. 214–16.
20 Rosalie Slaughter Morton, A Doctor’s Holiday in Iran (New York and London:
Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1940), p. 234.
21 Morton, A Doctor’s Holiday, p. 236.
22 Shafaq-e Sorkh 8:1258 (27 Tir 1308/18 July 1929), p. 1.
23 Vezarat-e Farhang, Ketab-e sheshom-e ebteda’i-ye dokhtaran (Tehran: Sherkat-e
Tab‘-e Ketab, 1319/1940), p. 15.
Giving birth to a new generation 265
24 Malekzadeh, Negahi be omur-e kheyriyeh, pp. 131–32.
25 Document no. 14/702–29701506, Tehran, Archive of the Centre for Documents
and the National Library and Archives of Iran, referred to hereafter as ACD/NLI.
26 Rusta’i, Tarikh-e tebb va tababa, vol. II, p. 558.
27 Majalleh-ye Mahyaneh-ye Shir-o-Khorshid-e Sorkh-e Iran 1:4 (1305/1926).
28 Majalleh-ye Mahyaneh-ye Shir-o-Khorshid-e Sorkh-e Iran 1:5 (1305/1926).
29 Ahmad Hashemiyan, Tahavvolat-e farhangi-ye Iran dar dowreh-ye Qajariyeh va
madreseh-ye Dar al-Fonun (Tehran: Entesharat-e Mo’asseseh-ye Joghrafya’i va
Kartugrafi-ye Sahab, 1379/2000), pp. 134–37. Rahnama-ye daneshkaddeh-ye
pezeshki, qesmat-e avval, pp. 66–68.
30 Morton, A Doctor’s Holiday, p. 240.
31 Majalleh-ye Baladiyeh 6 (1310), p. 300.
32 Ettela‘at 4:3919 (18 Mordad 1318/10 August 1939), p. 1.
33 Mozakerat-e majles, dowreh-ye sheshom-e taqniniyeh, jalaseh-ye no. 252 (15 Khordad
1307/5 June 1928), p. 4584.
34 Vezarat-e Farhang, Ketab-e sheshom-e ebteda’i-ye dokhtaran, p. 14.
35 Sa‘id Nafisi, Tarikh-e shahriyari-yi Shahanshah-e Reza Shah-e Pahlavi: az 3
Esfand 99 ta 24 Shahrivar 1320 (Tehran: n.p., n.d.), pp. 182–85.
36 Doc. No. 33/702–297015061, ACD/NLI.
37 Dated 19 Mizan Sichqan Il, the Turkish year, which was used instead of Iranian
years until 1925.
38 Doc. No. 297015061–270/44, ACD/NLI.
39 Docs. No. 11 and 12/701–297015030, ACD/NLI.
40 Majalleh-ye Mahyaneh-ye Shir-o-Khorshid-e Sorkh-e Iran 1:2 and 3 (1305/1926),
pp. 6–7.
41 Doc. No. 14/702–29701506, ACD/NLI.
42 Doc. No. 702/90–29701506, ACD/NLI.
43 Doc. No. 3/702–297015061, ACD/NLI.
44 Doc. No. 297015037–702/3, ACD/NLI.
45 Doc. No. 297015030–701/6, ACD/NLI.
46 Doc. No. 297015030–701/3, ACD/NLI.
47 Doc. No. 297021597–702/7, ACD/NLI.
48 Doc. No. 29702159–702/4, ACD/NLI.
49 Doc. No. 7/702–297021597, ACD/NLI.
50 Doc. No. 1/701–297015020, ACD/NLI.
51 Doc. No. 4/701–297015020, ACD/NLI.
52 Docs. no. 1, 2, 3, and 4/702–297015020, ACD/NLI.
53 Majalleh-ye Tarbiyat 5:5 and 6 (Farvardin 1316/April 1937).
12 Engineering a modern society?
Adoptions of new technologies in early
Pahlavi Iran
Bianca Devos
The day after 4 Shahrivar 1317 (26 August 1938), when Reza Shah had
driven the final spike to complete the Trans-Iranian railway, Tehran’s largest
newspaper reported enthusiastically on the ceremonial opening. The Ettela‘at
came up with a 16-page special issue featuring reports of the festivities,
background articles about the building project, and, above all, a selection of
the latest photographs showing newly constructed bridges and tunnels – with the
emperor on his inspection tour.1 There can be no doubt that the Trans-Iranian
railway was of utmost propagandistic relevance for the Pahlavi regime,
but apparently it was not only the official state propaganda that prompted
Ettela‘at’s editor to cover the event so extensively. In fact, he expected to sell a
huge number of copies due to the general appeal that technology as a fascinating
manifestation of the modern age had for the general public in Iran.
The popular excitement surrounding such a marvelous feat of engineering
was not special to Iran. Public enthusiasm for technological innovation found
its expression on the pages of newspapers and magazines all over the world.
Hence, the technical challenges involved in the construction of the Trans-Iranian
railway, which passed through difficult terrain and symbolized the conquest
of nature, attracted international compliments as well. The German orientalist
Walter Hinz visited the northern section of the railway with its elaborate
constructions – such as the outstanding “Three Golden Lines” spiral climbing
the Alborz mountains at Gaduk2 – shortly after its completion and pro-
claimed that its spectacular panorama could even rival the Gotthardbahn.3
Such statements demonstrate clearly why the railway became the jewel in the
crown of Reza Shah’s personal modernization agenda. The propagandistic
importance of the project was further increased by the fact that it was completely
financed through extra consumption taxes on sugar and tea, deliberately
avoiding foreign loans. However, it was exactly the way this gigantic project
was funded that led critical observers like Robert Byron to assess the railway’s
economic aspects. He came to the conclusion that the railway would never
pay and identified other reasons behind the ambitious undertaking:
The taxation imposed by the first two hundred miles of it is already depriv-
ing the peasants of their only luxuries, tea and sugar. But its purpose is a
Engineering a modern society? 267
question of psychology rather than economics. For the modern Persian it
is the symbol of national self-respect … .4
Technology had become the distinctive feature of modernity and thus the
level of mechanization was regarded as a clear indicator of the degree of a
nation’s progress. Consequently, the possession of modern technology was not
only a matter of rationalization and raising efficiency, it was also a question
of prestige, so that the decision for costly technology did not follow exclusively
economic considerations.5 Even if the Pahlavi state promoted technology first
and foremost as a means to achieve economic advancement, it also intended
to gain international prestige as a progressive nation. Moreover, technology
served as a domestic tool to enforce the authority of the central government,
which thereby tried to exert its influence even on an everyday level, penetrat-
ing the life of most Iranians to a degree hitherto unknown in the country’s
history. In addition to this new extent of state interference, Iranian society
was affected by the concomitant social and cultural impact of technological
advances, epitomized by the beginning of mass market advertisement and
consumerism.
Considering the immense socio-cultural dynamics of modern technology,
this chapter examines the adoption of technological innovations in Iran in
order to illustrate different facets of the change in relations between state and
society during the early Pahlavi period. How modernity was practically
embraced by Iranians during this crucial stage has hitherto not been addressed
sufficiently. The introduction of new technologies is therefore not analyzed in
an abstract manner, but at the micro level of society.6 First, I focus on how
the Pahlavi state under Reza Shah used technology to govern the country in an
authoritarian and perhaps already proto-totalitarian way. The discussions
among members of the modern middle class on correct and beneficial ways of
modernization and the role of technology that took place in the capital’s
newspapers especially during the 1930s will also be taken into account. The
modernization debate provides insights into the middle class’s conception of
modernity, the position of their members vis-à-vis the increasingly dictatorial
state as well as towards ordinary Iranians, and their self-image as role models
of a modern Iranian society. The chapter then explores how the majority of
Iranians actually adopted technology in their daily lives by examining three
specific fields of modern technology in detail: transportation, cinema, and the
telephone.7
Generally, the radio programme consists of three parts: news, music, and
the educational part. … The instruction programme of the radio comprises
Engineering a modern society? 269
features (goftar-ha) about farming, hygiene and sports, history and
geography of Iran, as well as housekeeping.21
Music and public instruction made up the major part of the programme, so
that the radio was an important tool for exerting cultural influence and thus
became a key medium of official propaganda. Consequently, the entire pro-
gramme was subject to strict censorship: all news, feature programmes, and
commentaries had to be approved by the police or other state institutions
before being broadcast.22 The radio as a state-owned institution with an
exclusive broadcast monopoly was much easier to control by the authorities
than the several existing journals and newspapers, which – except for Iran-e
Emruz – were in private hands and employed their own editorial staff.23
Several other aspects made the radio more attractive for state propaganda
than newspapers and journals. First of all, it had a much wider range than the
print media, since the rate of illiteracy in Iran at the beginning of the 1940s
was still very high.24 Even if it was quite common by then among urban
middle- and upper-class Iranians to read a newspaper regularly, it was not yet a
mass phenomenon. Even the paper with the highest circulation, the Ettela‘at,
cannot be regarded as a mass medium at that time.25 Radio broadcast could
hence reach a greater audience than print media, particularly since the trans-
mission at public squares was free of charge and accessible for people from
the lower classes.26 Beyond that, the radio as a sound-transmitting novelty
enjoyed great popularity and was more appealing than the press, especially
since its music programmes were highly entertaining.
This audio dimension made the radio also instrumental in the enforcement
of another prominent project of Reza Shah’s cultural reform agenda: the
purification of the Persian language. Before Radio Tehran began to broadcast,
the new words approved by the Iranian Academy (Farhangestan-e Iran) had
been published in the newspapers. This was an effective way of introducing
the spelling of neologisms, but not their pronunciation.27 With the start of
Radio Tehran’s language programme, the Farhangestan had an acoustic tool
at hand that enabled it to introduce the correct articulation of new words – an
aspect which was regarded as one of the fundamental duties of the radio.
Therefore, two or three times a week, the Farhangestan sent an instructor,
usually Sa‘id Nafisi, to the radio station to teach the announcers how to
pronounce the new words correctly and how to apply them.28
Apart from this domestic function, Radio Tehran now provided the govern-
ment with a valuable platform for positive publicity outside the country. The
Persian programme on foreign radio stations like the BBC or Radio Berlin
was well received in Iran and certainly raised the Pahlavi state’s awareness
that it had to counter external propaganda with its own media.29 Domestic
news was soon announced in five, later even six, foreign languages.30
Even in comparison to motion pictures, the radio occupied the predominant
position as a propaganda medium. The first films had been commissioned by the
government already in the 1920s, and from 1932 onwards, sound newsreels
270 Bianca Devos
were screened regularly in Persian.31 The propagandistic use of motion pictures
apparently climaxed in 1934, when a film about Reza Shah’s journey to Turkey
was dispatched to all parts of Iran32 and a state-sponsored film about the life of
Ferdowsi was screened commercially as part of the poet’s millennium celebra-
tion.33 The relevance of films in the realm of state propaganda declined,
however, in the second half of the 1930s, at the same time as the development
of a national cinema came to a halt: no single feature film was produced in
Iran during the decade from 1937 to 1947.34 And so, the radio must indeed be
regarded as the most important medium for official public instruction, possi-
bly benefitting from its rather late establishment.35 Reza Shah’s rule was
actually almost over when Radio Tehran started its programme in 1940. Only
at this late stage of his reign can a planned and organized state propaganda
be discerned, first and foremost in the creation of the Sazman-e Parvaresh-e
Afkar.36 However, to what extent this institution actually enabled the state to
use mass propaganda, as Hamid Mowlana has suggested,37 is not entirely
clear and cannot be answered as long as an in-depth evaluation of the activities
of the Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar remains a desideratum.38
Transportation
The concern about Iran’s image in the West is particularly obvious in the
opening phrase of an article entitled “bus stops” (istgah-ha), from April 1931:
“Everything new that has gained a foothold in our country has immediately
taken up our peculiar appearance,”57 states the author and disapproves of the
local colouring Iranians give to innovations. Offering the example of public
transport in Tehran, he complains about the common misuse of buses, which
he considers to be unique in the world. As the article illustrates, it was cus-
tomary in Tehran for only the starting point and the destination of bus routes
to be fixed. The stops in between were not defined and depended on the
wishes of the passengers.
[I]t is now more than three years that regular bus services have been
established in the city of Tehran, [but] it has not yet assumed an orderly
shape. … Nowhere in the world is it acceptable that passengers get on
and off every few metres; and that after three years of bus service, no
fixed bus stops exist.58
The first in a series of three editorials from September 1934 asserted that
many drivers regarded the transport of passengers as a usual business without
bearing their great responsibility in mind, pointing out this attitude as the
most common reason for accidents. Thus, most drivers did not check the
brakes or the engine before departure and, once behind the wheel, considered
smoking, drinking alcohol, or even sleeping as admissible.64
Another malpractice was to overload the car with cargo or passengers, so that
the danger that the vehicle might overturn and catch fire rose dramatically. If
such an accident had destroyed transported goods, it was the immediate eco-
nomic loss that was deplored; if there were casualties, the author complained
about the loss of valuable manpower:65 “Every healthy person has an ethical
and economic value for us. Every single one of these healthy persons …
Engineering a modern society? 275
represents in his occupation an active unit of energy and power for this
country.”66 Faced with the negative effects of such an imprudent handling of
technology, the middle-class modernists raised the question of what could be
done in practice to prevent accidents, especially since traffic on the streets was
continuously increasing. As there were not enough policemen, at least not
enough to position one at every street corner in order to observe compliance
with the regulations of the bylaw, authors called for the personal responsi-
bility of Iranian citizens. As a first step, drivers should be alerted and made
aware of their liability for their passengers, who in turn were supposed to
watch over the drivers’ performance and, if necessary, admonish them to
observe the rules.67 The authors advocated further steps to improve the
security of other traffic participants. Correct traffic behaviour had to become
a matter of common knowledge, and specific measures had to be taken to
enable pedestrians to cross the streets safely, such as the creation of sufficient
crosswalks and the erection of traffic signs.68 Since nobody could trust the
general adherence to traffic rules, timid pedestrians showed rather unpredict-
able behaviour when crossing the street: as soon as a car appeared, they
started to run back and forth, thereby making the situation even more dan-
gerous.69 In order to make people more confident, the authors regarded harsh
penalties for traffic violations as essential; in particular, the legal punishment
for accidental deaths was not sufficient:
Drivers, who cause an accident, must be punished, and article 177 of the
general penal law (qanun-e mojazat-e ‘omumi), which defines the case of
unintentional killing (qatl-e gheyr-e ‘amd) and which is applied for punishing
indicted drivers, is not sufficient in the light of the multitude of accidents
and the recklessness of the drivers. A more severe punishment is needed … .70
The demands of these modernist authors were met with various measures to
extend state control over traffic and transportation. In the following years,
one can regularly find further provisions concerning the national transport
system, such as the regulations for the transport industry in 1936.71 For the
young Pahlavi state, traffic accidents and casualties were not the only problem
modern transportation entailed. It also raised the level of mobility for Iran’s
inhabitants, which the state in turn sought to control by means of travel per-
mits (javaz).72 Another harmful consequence of modern means of transport,
which the Pahlavi state had to address, was damage to historical monuments.
One of the first measures to protect the national heritage of Iran was carried
out in Isfahan in 1935, when it was prohibited to pass over the Si-o-seh pol
bridge by any means of transport.73
Cinema
The growing awareness that modern technology might be dangerous for both
historical buildings and the physical health of people was accompanied by an
276 Bianca Devos
increasing cognizance of possible harm to the mind.74 Consequently, modern-
ist authors called for further regulations also to prevent psychological com-
plications. The cinema illustrates this concern quite clearly and highlights
the modernists’ dilemma, caught between striving for fast progress and at the
same time pleading for a regulated use of technology. They regarded the
cinema as a progressive form of entertainment and a useful tool for educating
people, especially since it was very popular among large parts of the Iranian
populace.75 However, not all movies were considered adequate for a general
audience. One of Ettela‘at’s columnists, for example, reported that a film
showing “one of these vulgar and meaningless fights which ten or fifteen year
olds like” created such an aggressive atmosphere among some petty criminals
sitting with their wives and children in the audience that the screening ended
up in a punch fest.76
Especially children who were taken to the movies by “ignorant” parents
attracted the attention of several modernist authors. They agreed that, above all,
horror films could bring mental harm to young spectators. But also romantic
movies were regarded as a threat to the moral constitution of children. The
author of one article was appalled by small children in movie theatres
watching kissing scenes: “When the lips of the lover touch the lips of the
beloved, the sound of kissing [imitated] by attending children reaches the ear
even before the [sound of the] cinema loudspeakers.”77 The common practice
to bring even small children along to the cinema was also mentioned by the
German Walter Hinz, who frowned on the noise children made and the fact
that everybody read aloud the Persian subtitles of the mostly Russian films.
He commented on the emotional involvement of the Iranian audience,
astonished at the cheering or disapproval during the screening of a movie.78
Such observations probably fuelled the concerns of the modernists, who accord-
ingly welcomed the revision of the cinema statutes, issued by the Ministry of
Justice and the Ministry of the Interior in 1939, in several newspaper articles.
The revised statutes imposed the legal obligation on cinemas to refuse
entrance to children under the age of seven. Children between seven and six-
teen were only admitted to special screenings of educational films, which
should take place once a week. Even the fact that these regulations contained
a kind of pre-censorship of films did not diminish the authors’ applause for
this state intervention.79
The Ettela‘at articles dealing with cinema generally reveal the predicament
in which the Iranian modernists were caught: despite their wish to introduce
Western media as fast as possible, they could not accept it in its entirety and
refused some of its productions, especially commercial films like action and
horror films. The authors argued that such films had been produced for the
European and American lower classes and did therefore not answer Iran’s
needs, but would rather pose a threat to the progress and reform of Iranian
society.80 Western-oriented, but also vested with a strong nationalist fervour,
the modernists were often trapped in such conflicts. On the one hand, they
considered a strict imitation of Western ways of employing and using
Engineering a modern society? 277
technology as the only way of reducing dangers, assumed to occur only due to
misapplication. Most of all, they were convinced that the correct usage of
modern technology would definitely help to reduce Iran’s image as a backward
country. On the other hand, this would always imply the adoption of the
corresponding cultural aspects as well, at least to a certain degree. This in
turn stood in stark contrast to the ambition of Iranian modernists to limit the
increasing Western cultural influence. Of course, this dilemma was not a
uniquely Iranian, but rather a global phenomenon at that time.81
This attitude arose out of an increasing awareness among modernists of the
risks and dangers that accompanied modern life. It must also be seen against
the general background of growing nationalistic sentiments, sometimes even
xenophobia, in Reza Shah’s state of the 1930s, so frequently reported by foreign
travellers at that time. For instance, the German journalist Margret Boveri
had to face anti-European attitudes during her stay in Tehran. She as well
attested to the Iranians’ inconsistency between their blind adoption of
modern technology and the newly awakened national quest for liberation
from foreign influence. In her opinion, everything European was taken over
jauntily as long as it was mere technology; as soon as Weltanschauung was
touched, the state strongly intended to remain purely Iranian.82
The telephone
A mere adoption of technology, however, was naturally impossible, since new
technical devices always brought new forms of cultural techniques with them.
This aspect is also illustrated by our third example, the telephone. Whenever
Iranians developed supposedly peculiar ways of using Western technology, the
state as well as the concerned middle-class modernists felt the need to redirect
its use into the “right” direction, not only in order to prevent mental or physical
harm, but also to ascertain an authentic imitation of the foreign example.
The first telephone lines had been installed in Iran already before World
War I. In 1923, the basis for a national telephone system was established with
the support of the German company Siemens. Fourteen years later, the auto-
matic telephone service was launched, which required the allocation of new,
four-digit numbers to every subscriber and brought along the first telephone
directory.83 Since the telephone was extremely popular, the demand out-
numbered the supply for a long time. When, in 1937, automatic dialling
became possible and 3,000 new telephones were put in operation, the enthusiasm
of the people in Tehran was great. They were now able to make calls without
contacting an operator and going through a switchboard. Immediately, the
Ettela‘at published instructions on how to use the automatic telephones and
urged readers to keep their phone calls short so that others could use the
phone without difficulty.84 But subscribers were so excited that they ignored
the instructions and, as a result, frequently dialled wrong numbers or used the
telephone so extensively that the whole system was close to collapse. The
situation remained completely chaotic for one and a half days.85
278 Bianca Devos
One reason behind the strong demand was that Iranians had by then discovered
the telephone as a new pastime. Talking to someone on the phone had become a
leisure activity not only enjoyed by regular subscribers, but also by people who
used public or semi-public phones. In the column “social problems” (masa’el-e
ejtema‘i), from 1935, one author gives an account of a conversation he had
with his friend, who as a shopkeeper also owned a telephone. This friend
complained about daily visitors who came to his shop only to call a friend as
they were bored of walking alone in the street. By referring to the original
purpose of the telephone as a technical device created first and foremost for
urgent matters or business affairs, the author of the article makes it clear that
such calls were an obvious misappropriation of this helpful technology:
So many people get on our nerves. If they only would make urgent phone
calls! [Instead,] they want to play every joke which the telephone has to
offer on their friends and fellows. … We ourselves have to know the
[proper] way of using every single device and invention and make use of
it in due time.86
The author continues by stating that the main benefit of the telephone was to
save time; but since Iranians did generally not yet know the value of time,
they inevitably used modern time-saving innovations in an improper way.87
His criticism is apparently much affected by the idea of an efficient and
rationalized way of life, exemplified by the use of modern technology in
Western societies. For Iranians this would be impossible to attain as long as
they were not even aware of the original purpose behind specific inventions.
Consequently, the first step to overcome this obstacle to Iran’s progress was to
educate people how to think modern – before actually being modern.
In fact, the call for a rational and sober employment of technological
innovations was widespread and not restricted to Iran. But the Iranian mod-
ernists were apparently not aware of the global phenomenon that such devices
were often used in another way than originally intended by their inventors.
The way Iranians used the telephone actually corresponds with international
developments of that time, when the telephone started to transcend its original
function as a medium for business and turned into a medium of private
communication. First emerging in the USA, this trend gradually spread to
Europe, where, until the 1920s, the telephone had continued to be regarded as
a prolongation of the telegraph or one-way means of communication.88
The modernist’s concern was only partly caused by their fear that techno-
logical benefits would not materialize, due to possible misappropriation or ill
use. As seen already above, their worry owed much to observations made by
foreigners which could possibly cement a negative perception of Iran in the
world. This fear resurfaces also in connection with the telephone, even though
this time it occurs in a reversed way, with a positive account made by a foreigner.
When the newspaper announced the launch of the automatic telephone
system, it reported how the German engineer who was in charge of supervising
Engineering a modern society? 279
the installations in Tehran praised the almost natural talent of the Iranians to
put the new telephones to use. By pointing out his international experience,
his assessment is presented as particularly reliable:
He was amazed that people became so familiar with the new apparatus in
the course of only two or three days and he deemed the grasp and
instinct (farasat) of the Iranians praiseworthy and applaudable, seeing
that [the people] in foreign countries, while instructions … were posted
in every public place several days before and after the telephones
started their service, did not learn the new way of talking as fast as the
Iranians did.89
How important the foreign perception of Iran was becomes constantly evident
in the modernization debate of the 1930s in the Ettela‘at, and it is also
reflected in a short anecdote reported by Ella Maillart in her travelogue.
When Crown Prince Mohammad Reza married the Egyptian princess Fowziyeh
in 1939, the Iranian government did not possess enough cars to organize
adequate wedding celebrations and, therefore, temporarily confiscated all
private cars in Tehran.90 Such unusual measures were deemed necessary by
the authorities in order to stimulate the country’s image as a progressive
nation, since even towards the end of the 1930s Iran’s actual mechanization
was not as far advanced as intended. Ironically, technology itself posed a
threat to the state’s ambition of presenting a fully modernized country: the
cameras of foreign travellers could catch the still existing signs of “back-
wardness,” like mules and camels transporting goods, which continued to be
quite common in the 1920s.91 As a consequence, police officers were instructed
to prevent foreigners from photographing manifestations of “backwardness”
like ruined buildings or camels,92 and, as part of the state’s virtual obsession
with regulations, special photographing licenses (javaz) were issued as well.
Walter Hinz obtained such a javaz and translated the regulations, printed on
the back of the license in Persian, for future travellers to Iran. According to
these regulations, it was prohibited to photograph military facilities and to
take pictures that offended taste and decency or damaged national prestige.
Photographs of streets, boulevards, newly constructed as well as renovated
historical buildings, however, were explicitly permitted.93
With such regulations the Iranian state could of course exert only rather
limited influence on Iran’s image abroad, which presents itself as quite diverse
in the travelogues from the 1920s and 1930. The way in which foreign visitors
actually perceived the country depended to a large extent on the author’s
personal attitude towards modernization and imitation of the West. For those
who came to Iran in search of traditional forms of living or historical archi-
tecture, it was quite sobering to witness the spread of cars and electricity. One
of them was Ella Maillart, who passed through Iran in 1939 on her way to
Afghanistan, where she intended, together with Annemarie Schwarzenbach,
to explore an almost unknown nomadic tribe. Her principal reservations
280 Bianca Devos
against the benefits of Western progress as well as her general scepticism
about a blind adoption of technical innovations are displayed in her account
of Tabriz:
Arg, or citadel, is a wrong name for the great wall we had ascended:
built under Ghazan Khan at the beginning of the fourteenth century, it is
the ruin of the Mosque Ali Shah which must have had one of the biggest
vaults that have ever been built. … Below, at the far end of the open
courtyard, spotless in daylight stood a huge cinema screen. Below us
where the arched mihrab stood once to indicate the direction of the
sacred Mecca, was throned the fire-proof cabin of a cinema-projector,
new god, and bestower of oblivion to our mass civilisation.94
Other travellers, however, were more favourably disposed towards the under-
taken reforms and shared the state’s technocratic view on transforming the
country and its society. They gave enthusiastic reports on the advancement of
road building and the rationalization of the public sphere.95 But even these
authors, who were sympathetic to Iran’s rapid modernization, found it espe-
cially worthwhile to mention such uses of technology that differed from the
“standard” Western ways. Consequently, travelogues constitute a valuable
source of information on how technical devices were actually used by
common Iranians, and they highlight the fact that technology was never
adopted in a cultural vacuum. Instead, technology was adopted in ways that
best served the specific demands of the local society. The Austrian geographer
Gustav Stratil-Sauer, for example, describes an image that must have been
quite common at that time in and around Mashhad: an automobile with a
coffin strapped onto the hood or running-board, bringing a deceased to his or
her last resting place next to Imam Reza. These automobiles had gradually
replaced the former camel caravans, the so-called “caravans of death” feared
for the scent of decay after their at times week-long journeys.96 When Stratil-
Sauer gives an account of trucks whose cargo deck was used for passenger
transportation, he noted especially the preservation of the traditional sex
segregation that was guaranteed by spanning a rope in the middle of the
loading space, thus separating the women’s from the men’s space.97 A pal-
pable example of foreign amazement at the influence of local climate and
environmental conditions on the perception of technology is finally given
again by Ella Maillart:
The Persians have a talent for cutting off their nose to spite their face.
They stopped the Junkers air service because it exhibited foreign supe-
riority. They make roads, but their customs duties prohibit the import of
motors. They want a tourist traffic, but forbid photographing because
somebody once published a picture of an Iranian beggar, while con-
formity with their police regulations is a profession of itself, as I have
discovered in the last day or two.99
Technology might have brought more state control into the daily life of Iran’s
population, but first of all it offered them a more comfortable way of living.
Therefore, it was eagerly used by large parts of society, who also quickly dis-
covered the entertaining and exciting features of modern technology. When
ordinary Iranians who were largely unfamiliar with the European lifestyle
282 Bianca Devos
integrated technical devices into their normal course of life, they inevitably
adapted them to their personal needs. Such pragmatic ways of using technol-
ogy often differed from the ideal, but it obviously was this pragmatism that
enabled ordinary Iranians to overcome possible frictions between tradition
and modernity and even, deliberately or unintentionally, to thwart the state’s
supervision over their everyday life.
These developments prompted middle-class modernists, who advocated
a strong central state and a controlled social modernization, to subject
technology to discussion. They themselves already made use of technical
innovations in their daily routine for practical reasons, but as an emerging
social class were also well aware of these innovations’ prestige and distinction.
Their discussions about correct and beneficial modernization focused very
much on practical issues of modernity like the misuse of specific technical
devices. By adjusting the discussion to the facts that the enforcement of
reforms by the authoritarian regime had created, the whole modernization
debate in the Pahlavi state shifted to a more practical level. This new
dimension in Iran’s modernization discourse can be interpreted as a beginning
transformation of the public sphere, initiated by the participation of the new
middle class, which increasingly embraced a more and more bourgeois cul-
ture. Its members found a platform in the emerging high-circulation press,
particularly Tehran’s greatest daily Ettela‘at, which owed its leading position
in the country’s newspaper market mainly to a technical innovation: Iran’s
first rotary press.100
Notes
1 Ettela‘at 3583, 5 Shahrivar 1318 (28 August 1939). This issue had twice the
number of pages of a regular issue.
2 “Seh khatt-e tala,” Cheshmeh towse‘eh online 20 (Farvardin 1390/March–April
2011), at http://www.cheshmeonline.ir/MAGAZINE/page_view.asp?artid=259&
vol=20, accessed 20 February 2012.
3 Walther Hinz, Iranische Reise: Eine Forschungsfahrt durch das heutige Persien
(Berlin-Lichterfelde: Hugo Bermühler, 1938), p. 85.
4 Robert Byron, The Road to Oxiana (London: Penguin Books, 2007), p. 224. The
railway was indeed not efficient enough to be competitive in land transportation,
see Patrick Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together: The Land Transport Revolution,
1920–40,” Iranian Studies 26 (1993), pp. 235–50: 241.
5 Most evident was this development in the construction of luxurious ocean liners,
Bernhard Rieger, Technology and the Culture of Modernity in Britain and
Germany, 1890–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 1–5.
6 Cyrus Schayegh has shown in his inspiring article “Seeing Like a State” that the
historiography of Pahlavi Iran is characterized by a strong state-centred view,
which separates the state and its bureaucratic or technocratic elite as the motor
for modernization from a passive society and, thus, disregards people’s everyday
lives. As a suggestion for future research, Schayegh advocates taking hitherto
neglected sources into consideration and resorting to microhistorical approaches.
Cyrus Schayegh, “‘Seeing Like a State’: An Essay on the Historiography of
Modern Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010), pp. 37–61.
Engineering a modern society? 283
7 The main sources for this study are newspaper articles from the Ettela‘at,
published material from Iranian archives, and selected reports from European
travellers to Iran during the Reza Shah period.
8 Chahryar Adle, “Daguerreotype,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 6, 1993,
pp. 577–78.
9 F. Gaffary, “‘Akka-s-Ba-šı-, Ebra-hı-m,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 1, 1984, p. 719.
10 A farman by Mozaffar al-Din Shah permitted an American company to sell
gramophones in 1323q (1905/1906). Digital Persian Archives, http://www.asnad.
org/en/document/753/, accessed 19 August 2010.
11 Another advantage in the development of light industry was that it was the least
capital-intensive industrial branch. Hassan Hakimian, “Industrialization i. The
Reza Shah Period and its Aftermath, 1925–53,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 13,
2004, pp. 105–10. With the acceleration of industrial development in the second
half of the 1930s, the government even undertook tentative attempts to establish a
national heavy industry. The construction of a factory site in Karaj had been
started in 1939, but with the German consortium Demag-Krupp in charge, the
project was given up after the allied invasion in 1941. Willem Floor, “Steel
Industry in Iran,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, online edition, 2005, at http://www.
iranicaoonline/articles/steel-industry-in-iran.
12 For a more detailed account of the effects of mechanized transportation in Iran
see Cyrus Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong: Science, Class, and the
Formation of Modern Iranian Society, 1900–1950 (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2009), pp. 95–97.
13 [Habiballah] Nowbakht, Shahanshah-e Pahlavi: Dar tarikh-e farmandahi va
vezarat-e jang va zamamdari-ye Shahanshah-e Pahlavi, vol. 1 ([Tehran]:
Matba‘eh-ye Majles, 1342q/1924), p. 226.
14 Mahmud Delfani, ed., Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah: Asnad-e
montasher nashodeh-ye Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar, 1317–1320 h.sh. (Tehran:
Entesharat-e Sazman-e Asnad-e Melli, 1375/1996), p. 36.
15 Afshin Marashi, Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 1870–1940
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), p. 108.
16 A collection of documents, published by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic
Guidance in 2000, provides a good deal of source material (without further
analysis), Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu dar Iran: 1318–1345 h.sh., ed. Mo‘ave-
nat-e khadamat-e modiriyat va ettela‘-rasani, Daftar-e ra’is-e jomhur (Tehran:
Sazman-e Chap va Entesharat-e Vezarat-e Farhang va Ershad-e Eslami, 1379/
2000).
17 Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 7. “A’in-e goshayesh-e dastgah-e pakhsh-e
seda-ye Tehran,” Ettela‘at 4166, 5 Ordibehesht 1319 (25 April 1940), p. 1.
18 The programme also ended with the national anthem. “Bar-nameh-ye goshayesh-e
dastgah-e pakhsh-e seda,” Ettela‘at 4162, 1 Ordibehesht 1319 (21 April 1940),
p. 1. “Ruz-e goshayesh-e Radiyu Tehran,” Ettela‘at 4169, 9 Ordibehest 1319 (29
April 1940), p. 1.
19 Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 8 (doc. 4).
20 Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 23 (doc. 12). See also the contribution by
Keivan Aghamohseni in the present volume, Chapter 4.
21 “Gozaresh-e komisiyun-e radiyu,” Ettela‘at 4169, 9 Ordibehest 1319 (29 April
1940), p. 1. Since the public instruction programme was considered to be most
useful for an audience outside the capital, it was broadcast in the early evening,
which was the only time when the majority of provincial towns had electricity
supply. Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 6 (doc. 3).
22 Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, pp. 12–16 (doc. 6 and 7), p. 28 (doc. 15).
23 Even though the censorship under Reza Shah must be regarded as strict, its
categorization as all-embracing should be reconsidered. Entrepreneurial interests
284 Bianca Devos
of newspaper editors, for example, could challenge the suggested omnipotence of
Reza Shah’s censors. Bianca Devos, Presse und Unternehmertum: Die Tageszei-
tung It.t.ila-‘a-t in der frühen Pahlavı--Zeit (Würzburg: Ergon, 2012). See also the
contribution by Karim Soleimani in the present volume, Chapter 8.
24 There are no reliable data for the 1920s and 1930s on literacy rates in Iran.
Young estimates that in 1934 ten per cent of Iran’s total population of twelve
million were illiterate. Herrick Black Young, “The Modern Press in Persia,” The
Moslem World 24 (1934), p. 20. See also Julian Bharier, Economic Development in
Iran 1900–1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 37.
25 Devos, Presse und Unternehmertum, pp. 297–303.
26 On the installation of loudspeakers at public squares in provincial capitals see
Delfani, Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye Reza Shah, p. 2 (doc. 1). The nationwide
range of the radio broadcast was actually limited by insufficient electricity supply
in the provinces. Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 9 (doc. 4).
27 “Farhangestan: Eslahat-e pezeshki,” Ettela‘at 4192, 1 Khordad 1319 (22 May
1940), p. 3. Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 35 (doc. 16). On the history of the
Farhangestan from 1926 till 1941 see Mohsen Rusta’i, Tarikh-e nakhostin Far-
hangestan-e Iran be revayat-e asnad: hamrah ba vazheh-ha-ye mosavvab va gom-
shodeh-ye Farhangestan, 1314–1320sh (Tehran: Nashr-e Ney, 1385/2006).
28 Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 34 (doc. 15/3), p. 35 (doc. 16).
29 When Radio Tehran started broadcasting, Radio Berlin’s Persian service had
been already established. Jeffrey Herf, Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World (New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 36–56. M., “Ghamkhvari be vasi-
leh-ye radiyu,” Ettela‘at 4236, 14 Tir 1319 (5 July 1940), p. 1. The BBC started
its Persian broadcast in late December 1940. F. Safiri and H. Shahidi, “Great
Britain xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),” in Encyclopaedia
Iranica, vol. 11, 2002, pp. 276–86.
30 The strong concern about a positive representation abroad led the Iranian
authorities to allow their ambassadors in Moscow, Ankara, and Kabul to report
immediately about the reception quality of the programme in the respective cities.
Asnadi az tarikhcheh-ye radiyu, p. 25–26 (doc. 14–14/2).
31 Hamid Reza Sadr, Iranian Cinema: A Political History (London: Tauris, 2006),
pp. 9, 23.
32 “Film-e mosafarat-e ‘alahazrat-e homayun-e shahanshahi dar Mashhad,” Ette-
la‘at 2615, 6 Mehr 1314 (29 September 1935), p. 4.
33 Sadr, Iranian Cinema, 34. Hinz, Iranische Reise, pp. 49–50. See also the con-
tribution by Christoph Werner in the present volume, Chapter 9.
34 Peter Chelkowski “Popular Entertainment, Media and Social Change in Twen-
tieth-Century Iran,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol 7. From Nadir Shah to
the Islamic Republic, ed. Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly and Charles Melville
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 795.
35 According to the then prime minister Matin-Daftari, Reza Shah at first even
disapproved of the radio. Ahmad Matin-Daftari, Khaterat-e yek nakhost vazir, ed.
Baqer ‘Aqeli (Tehran: Entesharat-e ‘elmi, 1371/1992), p. 164.
36 As an institution founded in 1939 under the auspices of the pro-German prime
minister Ahmad Matin-Daftari it is suggestive to compare the Sazman-e Parvar-
esh-e Afkar with fascist propaganda institutions like the German Reichs-
ministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels. See also
Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, p. 104.
37 Hamid Mowlana, Journalism in Iran: A History and Interpretation, Ph.D. thesis,
(Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, 1963), p. 484.
38 Mahmud Delfani made with the publication of Farhang-setizi dar dowreh-ye
Reza Shah a first important contribution, an analytical study on this institution is
still missing.
Engineering a modern society? 285
39 Examples of such advertisements can be found in Ettela‘at 1966, 18 Mordad 1312
(9 August 1933), p. 4; and Ettela‘at 3586, 8 Shahrivar 1317 (30 August 1938), p. 9.
40 An indication that such programmes were popular, even though they were in
foreign languages, is the publication of the schedule of the above-listed radio
stations in the newspaper. “Farda shab – bar-nameh-ye radiyu,” Ettela‘at 3785, 4
Farvardin 1318 (25 March 1939), p. 8.
41 Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi and ‘Alı- Mohammadi: “Communications in
Persia,” in Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 6, 1992, pp. 89–95.
42 Devos, Presse und Unternehmertum, pp. 263–66.
43 Christian Pfister, “Einleitung (1): Bilderwelt der Konsumgesellschaft: Werbung in
ihrem ökonomischen und kulturellen Umfeld,” in Bilder vom besseren Leben: Wie
Werbung Geschichte erzählt, ed. Daniel Di Falco, Peter Bär and Christian Pfister
(Bern: Verlag Paul Haupt, 2002), p. 10. For an account of modern consumption
habits in Iran examined through advertisements for mass consumer products
from the 1950s onwards see Schayegh, “Seeing Like a State,” pp. 50–53.
44 One striking example is an advertisement showing a woman at the wheel of a
Chevrolet picking up one of her friends; both women are dressed in the latest
European fashion. “Chevrolet,” Ettela‘at 938, 10 Dey 1308 (31 December 1929),
p. 3. The image of a car driven by a free, self-confident, and adventurous woman
emerged in Western advertisements at the end of the 1920s; it corresponded with
a change in the social position of women. Monika Baumann, “Ein kurzer Traum
von der Freiheit am Steuer: Autofahrerinnen in der Werbung der späten 1920er
Jahre,” in Bilder vom besseren Leben, p. 98. In Iran, the advertisement was pub-
lished one year after the official permission for veiled women to ride in open
carriages (however only when accompanied by their husband). Houchang Che-
habi, “The Banning of the Veil and Its Consequences,” in The Making of Modern
Iran. State and Society under Reza Shah, 1921–1941, ed. Stephanie Cronin
(London: Routledge, 2003), p. 197.
45 The desire for distinction is addressed, for instance, by the advertising message
that “noble men prefer the excellent automobiles from Vauxhall to all others.”
“Otomobil-e Vakshal,” Ettela‘at 797, 7 Tir 1308 (28 June 1929), p. 6.
46 There were regular advertisements for telephones, fridges, bathroom appliances,
and other technical devices promising to bring more comfort into everyday life,
like electric suns from Bosch: “Zemestan raft,” Ettela‘at 2151, 8 Farvardin 1313
(28 March 1934), p. 6.
47 “Mekanu asbab-bazi-ye ‘elmi,” Ettela‘at 2740, 5 Farvardin 1315 (25 March
1936), p. 6.
48 Ettela‘at 2762, 11 Ordibehesht 1315 (1 May 1936), p. 8.
49 For example “Ranj-e ostad bara-ye amukhtan-e zaban-e khareji,” Ettela‘at 3552,
5 Mordad 1317 (27 July 1938), p. 3; and “Dars-e almani – engelisi – faranseh,”
Ettela‘at 4292, 9 Shahrivar 1319 (31 August 1940), p. 6.
50 Emil Dovifat and Jürgen Wilke, Zeitungslehre 2: Redaktion, die Sparten, Verlag
und Vertrieb, Wirtschaft und Technik, Sicherung der öffentlichen Aufgabe (Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 1976), 183.
51 David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1992), pp. 79–83, 125–26, 129–30.
52 Devos, Presse und Unternehmertum, pp. 171–91, 263–66, 276–83.
53 In her study on the Persian exile newspaper Akhtar-e Estanbul in the late
nineteenth century, Anja Pistor-Hatam used this expression for individuals who
contributed to discussions in the paper on modernization. Anja Pistor-Hatam,
Nachrichtenblatt, Informationsbörse und Diskussionsforum: Aḫtar-e Esta-nbu-l
(1876–1896) – Anstöße zur frühen persischen Moderne (Münster: Lit, 1999).
54 Touraj Atabaki applied this term to intellectuals, who were involved in cultural
reform politics and shaped the official nationalistic discourse, in contrast to the
286 Bianca Devos
urban middle class. Touraj Atabaki, “Agency and Subjectivity in Iranian
National Historiography,” in Iran in the 20th Century: Historiography and Political
Culture, ed. Touraj Atabaki (London: Tauris, 2009), pp. 69–92, p. 82.
55 “Haml va naql,” Ettela‘at 1299, 28 Farvardin 1310 (18 April 1931), p. 1.
56 George Nathaniel Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, vol. 1 (n.p.: Elibron
Classics, 2001), p. 175.
57 “Istgah-ha,” Ettela‘at 1295, 23 Farvardin 1310 (13 April 1931), p. 1.
58 Ibid.
59 Ibid.
60 “E‘lan-e nazmiyeh,” Ettela‘at 1291, 18 Farvardin 1310 (8 April 1931), p. 3.
61 The text was so voluminous that it was published in four Ettela‘at issues.
“Nezam-nameh-ye ‘obur va morur-e ashkhas va vasa’el-e naqliyeh,” Ettela‘at
2116, 18 Bahman 1312 (7 February 1934), p. 1; Ettela‘at 2118, 21 Bahman 1312
(10 February 1934), p. 3; Ettela‘at 2120, 23 Bahman 1312 (11 February 1934),
p. 1; Ettela‘at 2122, 25 Bahman 1312 (14 February 1934), p. 3.
62 For the first police instructions for traffic safety see Willem Floor, “Les premières
règles de police urbaine a Téhéran,” in Téhéran: Capitale bicentenaire, ed.
Chahryar Adle and Bernard Hourcade (Paris: Institut français de recherche en
Iran, 1992), pp. 173–98.
63 “‘Obur va morur,” Ettela‘at 2279, 13 Shahrivar 1313 (4 September 1934), p. 1.
64 “Havades-e otumobil,” Ettela‘at 2277, 11 Shahrivar 1313 (2 September 1934), p. 1.
65 “‘Obur va morur,” Ettela‘at 2279, 13 Shahrivar 1313 (4 September 1934), p. 1.
66 “Havades-e otumobil,” Ettela‘at 2277, 11 Shahrivar 1313 (2 September 1934), p. 1.
67 “Vazifeh-shenasi-ye shufer-ha!,” Ettela‘at 2154, 12 Farvardin 1313 (1 April 1934),
p. 2.
68 “‘Obur va morur,” Ettela‘at 2279, 13 Shahrivar 1313 (4 September 1934), p. 1.
There is no indication that at that time a pedestrian safety campaign was conducted.
69 “‘Obur va morur,” Ettela‘at 2279, 13 Shahrivar 1313 (4 September 1934), p. 1.
70 “Mojazat-e shufer-ha,” Ettela‘at 2278, 12 Shahrivar 1313 (3 September 1934), p. 1.
71 “Nezam-nameh-ye mo’assesat-e haml va naql,” Ettela‘at 2742, 8 Farvardin 1315
(28 March 1936), p. 4.
72 For the strict control of all travellers on Iran’s roads and highways, see for
example Hinz, Iranische Reise, pp. 23–25.
73 “Bara-ye hefz-e asar-e tarikhi,” Ettela‘at 2595, 2 Mehr 1314 (25 September
1935), p. 4.
74 How this insight was gained in the 1930s and 1940s has been discussed extensively
by Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, pp. 75–109.
75 “Sinema va atfal,” Ettela‘at 3871, 31 Khordad 1318 (22 June 1939), p. 1.
76 Hoseyn Hejazi, “Kudakan va sinema,” Ettela‘at 3875, 4 Tir 1318 (26 June 1939),
p. 5.
77 “Sinema va atfal,” Ettela‘at 3871, 31 Khordad 1318 (22 June 1939), p. 1.
78 Hinz, Iranische Reise, p. 48.
79 “Eslah-e a’in-nameh-ye sinema,” Ettela‘at 3864, 24 Khordad 1318 (15 June
1939), p. 1. It revised the cinema statute from 11 Dey 1314 (2 January 1936).
80 Hoseyn Hejazi, “Kudakan va sinema,” Ettela‘at 3875, 4 Tir 1318 (26 June 1939),
p. 5. Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, pp. 78–79.
81 Keith Watenpaugh describes the same phenomenon in his study on the middle
class in Aleppo at the same time: “[The] acceptance of the underlying logos of
Western civilization while asserting the ability of non-Westerners to resist the
political and cultural hegemony of the West is the quintessential ambivalence at
the center of the historical experience of modernity in the colonial and post-
colonial non-West.” Keith David Watenpaugh, Being Modern in the Middle East:
Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 5.
Engineering a modern society? 287
82 Margret Boveri, Vom Minarett zum Bohrturm: Eine politische Biographie
Vorderasiens (Zürich: Atlantis, 1938), p. 345.
83 Sreberny-Mohammadi and Ali Mohammadi, “Communications in Persia,” “Telefon-
ha-ye khodkar be kar oftad,” Ettela‘at 3256, 26 Shahrivar 1316 (17 September
1937), p. 1.
84 “Tarz-e goftogu ba telefon-ha-ye khodkar-e Tehran,” Ettela‘at (morning edition)
131, 22 Shahrivar 1316 (13 September 1937), p. 1.
85 Sreberny-Mohammadi and Ali Mohammadi, “Communications in Persia”.
Phone numbers from 4000 till 6999 had been assigned. “Telefon-ha-ye khodkar
be kar oftad,” Ettela‘at 3256, 26 Shahrivar 1316 (17 September 1937), p. 1.
86 “Telefon,” Ettela‘at 2640, 27 Aban 1314 (19 November 1935), p. 2.
87 Ibid. For the modern middle class’s changing perception of time see Schayegh,
Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, pp. 97–98.
88 This was still the case in the 1920s, especially in France and in Germany, where
the telephone was used for broadcasting concerts and theatre performances.
Werner Faulstich, Medienwandel im Industrie-und Massenzeitalter: 1830–1900
(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2004), p. 188.
89 “Telefon-ha-ye khodkar be kar oftad,” Ettela‘at 3256, 26 Shahrivar 1316
(17 September 1937), p. 8.
90 Ella Maillart reports that the cars “were punctually returned but their tyres had
been replaced by worthless ones” due to the general lack of tyres and other spare
parts. Ella K. Maillart, The Cruel Way (London: William Heinemann, 1947), p. 66.
91 Clawson, “Knitting Iran Together,” p. 237.
92 Wipert v Blücher, Zeitenwende in Iran: Erlebnisse und Beobachtungen (Biberach
an der Riss: Koehler & Voigtländer, 1949), p. 284. Hinz, Iranische Reise, p. 32.
93 Hinz, Iranische Reise, pp. 28–29.
94 Maillart, The Cruel Way, p. 62. For a more positive view, see Hinz, Iranische
Reise, p. 47. Adjacent to the Arg and the public garden was also the newly built
theatre of Tabriz, see the contribution by Christoph Werner in the present
volume, Chapter 9.
95 Hinz, Iranische Reise. Gustav Stratil-Sauer, Meschhed: Eine Stadt baut am
Vaterland (Leipzig: Ernst Staneck Verlag, 1937).
96 Stratil-Sauer, Meschhed, p. 79.
97 Stratil-Sauer, Meschhed, p. 11.
98 Maillart, The Cruel Way, pp. 66–67.
99 Byron, The Road to Oxiana, p. 130.
100 Devos, Presse und Unternehmertum, pp. 199–201, 298.
13 Religious aspects in communication
processes in early Pahlavi Iran
Katja Föllmer
Since the early twentieth century, both traditional and modern forms of
communication have been used in the Iranian public sphere to shape the reli-
gious, social and political discourse of reform and change. While during the
successful protest against the tobacco monopoly (1891–92), Shi‘ite clerics
made use of traditional modes of mass communication, a few years later the
Constitutional Movement (1905–11) employed the newly emerging print
media. Traditionally, religious, didactic and popular modes of communication
were based on direct face-to-face contacts. Only those who had good social
networks could communicate with larger groups across the regions. The
Shi‘ite clergy, which maintained relationships with all social classes, was
therefore the most influential group and a certain kind of medium for the
distribution of information among the masses. The rise of the new media
gradually changed both the traditional social relationship and sphere of
influence. As a result of the emergence of new media such as the press, of the new
political and social self-awareness and the increasing literacy of the Iranian
common people, especially in the 1930s, written mass communication gained
importance in Iranian society. Those who had traditionally been passive reci-
pients became increasingly active in the Iranian public sphere. The new urban
intellectual middle class, which had access to foreign sources of information,
dominated the discourses in the print media and published new ideas in their
own critical newspapers. These publications were read by a growing public.
The social and technical developments, along with a strong censorship,
intensified in the Pahlavi period. Social change, migration and increasing lit-
eracy led to the emergence of new modes of communication, particularly in
urban centres, while the traditional ones still flourished in rural areas. The
new mass media were the preferred means of public communication for both
state and opposition, while clerics still tended to ignore them.
On the basis of some examples, this paper will examine different aspects of
public communication that are related to religion. It will focus on the repre-
sentation of religion in specific settings in Iran until the late 1930s. Particular
attention will be given to the role and function of various ‘media’ and com-
munication practices of the Shi‘ite clergy, the Iranian people during public
religious and popular performances, the print media and literary texts.
Religious aspects in communication processes 289
Theoretical basis
Religion is interwoven with all practices of Iranian social life. Therefore,
conventionally religious aspects and influences are to be found in every kind
of social communication in Iranian culture, as for instance in education,
feasts and rituals, in literature and the press.
Many scholars of media theory usually focus on secondary media, e.g.
books, newspapers and films, and give it a neutral and professional role in the
transmission of messages.1 The primary media – humans as communicators
who use e.g. language in a direct face-to-face communication – and their role
in social communication, especially their contribution to the social meaning
of the mass media, are generally not considered separately in the theories of
mass communication.
Recent communication studies usually have focused on mass communica-
tion which is indirect, unilateral/one-sided, mainly public and which always
needs a technical medium of transmission.2 McQuail notes that the many
connotations of the term ‘mass communication’ do not allow for a simple
agreed definition that is a common-sense perception to provide a general
characterization of the term. It can comprise institutions, techniques and
technologies to disseminate messages to large, heterogeneous and widely dis-
persed audiences.3 According to Habermas all of life is communicative.
Informal relationships exist between public and private space, which are
generally based on face-to-face communication. A change in social and
economic structures and conditions implements varying forms of com-
munication and media organization. Relevant factors for media reception are
for instance the degree of common people’s literacy and their access to and
experience of the media in daily life.4 Habermas’s theory cannot be applied in
contexts with a strong underlying religion, like Iranian society. His theory is
not marked by differences especially of gender, ethnic origin or religious
background.5
When religious aspects in Iranian society are discussed, the primary media
are essential to understanding how the mass media could gain ground in a society
that underwent obvious changes. Traditionally, religious authorities, scholars
and intellectuals dominated the production of meaning in the communication
process because of their great social impact through knowledge and power.
They functioned as social mediators who brought information with religious
concerns to the people of all social strata. They successfully addressed large
and heterogeneous audiences, as the Tobacco Revolt demonstrated. Traditional
religious rituals and feasts are a strong component in this respect.
The beginning of the twentieth century and especially the early Pahlavi era
stands for rapid technical development, social change and a change of com-
munication processes. The traditional institutions were no more social media.
They were now less socially important and only had a medial function.6 The
new media, the telegraph, the post and especially the press were crucial for
mass communication during the Constitutional Movement, but not in the
290 Katja Föllmer
sense that all people had the same access to the media. The mass of illiterate
and rural people rather got the new messages still in the traditional way,
through traditional media, public feasts, narrators etc.
The publications that consider the historical development of the mass
media in Islamic countries like Iran rather focus on technical progress without
concerning the traditional media and communication forms as its social
origin.7 Some authors describe and analyze the later use of mass media in
religious and ethnic contexts and their contribution to the emergence of a new
religious public sphere.8 Eickelman notes that communication via mass media
also has to deal with direct personal communication as an important part of
the development of a public sphere with a vital religious function.9 Thus, the
study of mass communication in the Iranian context should consider the
mutual relationship with direct interpersonal communication, which depends on
the opinion leader of a social group as a central element in the communication
process.10
This paper will focus on those institutions and media through which religious
concerns were communicated and which were addressed to heterogeneous and
widely dispersed audiences. Birgit Meyer notes:
Therefore, the traditional and new role of the clerics and religious intellectuals
as opinion leaders is discussed. Then, the traditional religious passion plays
and public performances as popular rituals are taken into consideration for
their contribution to the discourse about religious values and principles. And
last but not least, the contribution of the press and literature on the religious
discourse will be analyzed. All of these aspects underlay evident changes in
their social and public relevance until the end of Reza Shah’s reign.
The involvement of Shi‘i clerics and Sufi orders in policy and their
modes of communication
Traditionally, many places and centres existed in and around an Iranian city
or village reflecting religious concerns of some kind: the mosque, the traditional
gymnasium (zurkhaneh), the cemetery and shrines of saints (emamzadeh,
qadamgah), sacred trees and wells, the Sufi convents (khaneqah), the educational
institutions (maktab, madraseh), as well as the bazaar nearby the mosque. The
Islamic representatives, the Shi‘i ‘olama’, were involved in many public rituals
and feasts like mourning rites, commemorative rituals (rowzeh-khvani),
weekly gatherings for religious discussion or recitation, annual passion plays
and pilgrimages. They participated in weddings for the supervision of the
public contract, took part in funerals and were responsible for religious
Religious aspects in communication processes 291
instruction and education, as well as for the observance of Islamic morality in
commercial bazaar activities. In sum, religion was part of the everyday social
life of the Iranian people,12 and the clergy’s role was to intermediate between
believers and revelation.13 The strong connection between clerics and bazaaris,
religious education, social welfare, kinds of entertainment and religious public
feasts led to the adept transmission of information in a local area among all
social levels. The clerics were the only group to have links with all economic,
social and administrative strata in Iranian society. The deep involvement of
religion in daily affairs, their description in religious terms, symbols or ele-
ments – preferably in a simple, emotional language and in easy memorable
forms – and their social determination by their local and religious origin, all
this demonstrates the strong religious feeling of the people and their need for
a moral religious authority.
In nineteenth-century Iran we find a range of factors that were to affect public
communication, which was traditionally based on face-to-face interaction and
often determined by the involvement of the clerics. The first political agitation
leading to the mobilization of the masses against the Iranian government was
during the Tobacco Protest of 1891–92. This happened in cooperation with
religious intellectuals like Jamal al-Din Afghani. Afghani wrote a letter to
Ayatollah Mirza Hasan Shirazi (1814–96) choosing a religious tone when
addressing the highest of the ‘olama’, which caused him to agitate and to unite
the ‘olama’, the merchants and the people in the protest movement.14 Shirazi
and the Tehran ‘olama’ communicated via a telegraph connection carried out
via the chief of Tehran merchants, Malek al-Tojjar, who was a close follower
of Afghani. Shirazi received telegrams and letters from all parts of Iran
asking him to help cancel the concession. The nationwide protest reached its
culmination with Shirazi’s Fatwa: ‘In the name of God, the Merciful, the
Forgiving, today the use of tonbaku and tobacco in any form is reckoned as
war against the Imam of the Age (may God hasten his Glad Advent!)’.15
Only through the involvement of high mojtaheds16 in political and economic
issues, and the use of well-known forms of religious discourse by religious
authorities, did the Tobacco Protest of 1891–92 become a successful nation-
wide movement, the first ‘profound mass movement’17 and first politicization
of the Iranian people. Traditional face-to-face-communication (e.g. sermons,
religious ceremonies and gatherings) in combination with a good social and
clerical network and the use of new communication techniques like the tele-
graph still dominated. The Iranian newspapers Akhtar and Qanun, published
outside Iran, were of some influence on the intellectuals, as well as the use of
anonymous letters and placards in an orthodox Islamic language style. The
importance of such new media and the use of an appropriate simple language
increased a few years later during the Constitutional Movement.
In summary, the Tobacco Movement was a significant political event and
provides a good illustration of the nationwide flow of information by means
of both old and new modes of communication through new alliances between
intellectuals, reformists and traditional religious authorities. In this way, the
292 Katja Föllmer
news about extraordinary events such as the ban of a leading molla, the call
for jehad and the exclusion of the ‘unclean’ employees of the tobacco régie
was able to spread throughout the country in a very short time.18 Finally,
Ayatollah Mirza Hasan Shirazi’s (1814–96) pronouncement gave the protest
nationwide proportions. His fatwa, which banned the use of tobacco, was
couched in simple terms.19 The regional movement was able to expand and to
become an oppositional mass movement.20 In all important urban centres the
bazaars were closed and people abstained from the consumption of tobacco.
“After the tobacco movement, the reformer made continual attempts to keep
the leading ‘ulama involved in oppositional activity.”22 Until the Constitu-
tional Revolution (1906–11) a declaration by a local religious authority was
more successful than efforts by intellectuals. High clerics thus led political
agitation through their personal contacts with each other and through public
sermons and instructions. At this time, the press was still of limited impor-
tance for transregional mass communication. Letters and telegrams were the
most commonly used media between the elites. Apart from religious author-
ity, simple language and religious symbolism helped to transform the protest
from an intellectual endeavour into a mass movement. The independent
political position of the ‘olama’ and the success of the Tobacco Movement
increased the ‘olama’s political power in the following years, even though the
Qajars tried to divide them, especially the emam-e jom‘ehs and mojtaheds.23
As many of the leading religious officials (mojtaheds, prayer leaders and
others) were far from being moral paragons, people often expressed their
feelings through the language of Islamic modernism and Sufism.24 Most of
the intellectuals joined Islamic modernism or even advocated secular ideas,
whereas Sufism formed a popular counterpart of the religious doctrines of the
conservative ‘olama’. Reformists, like Sayyed Jamal al-Din Afghani (1839–97)
and Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani (1853–96), saw the need for a cultural revival,
political reform and a move away from the man-made decline, but they were not
successful in the wide-ranging spread of their ideas. Sometimes their language
was too difficult, sometimes their ideas were too abstract, theoretical or con-
tradictory to be understood by the masses.25 The writings of Mirza Malkom
Khan (1833–1908) in his paper Qanun, for instance, might have been influ-
ential among the Tehran intellectuals even before the Tobacco Movement.
The importance of his ideas and postulations was only rediscovered some years
later when new copies of Malkom Khan’s texts were published.26 Malkom’s
confused and contradictory statements of religious affiliation were not of
Religious aspects in communication processes 293
decisive evidence.27 Thus, intellectual reformers did not enjoy direct popular
support during the Tobacco Movement. They could not realize their ideas
without the help of the ‘olama’.
Prior to the Constitutional Movement new intellectual organizations and
secret societies formed the first non-religious opposition network against the
government. These institutions played an important role for the forthcoming
revolution. Their members were interested in the freedom of public opinion
and press to write and publish newspapers. Besides the use of these modern
media, public communication forms like improvisational performances, read-
ings of newspapers and the recitation of poems were used to politicize the
Iranian people.
The first protest against the Qajar government was a peaceful procession
during the religious mourning of Moharram in 1905 to protect and give
sanctuary to Iranian businessmen and a congregation of merchants and
theology students in the main mosque of Tehran, led by the high clerics
Sayyed Mohammad Tabataba’i and Sayyed Abdollah Behbahani, at the
Shrine of ‘Abd al-‘Azim near Tehran.
During the Constitutional period, particularly after the convening of the
Constituent Assembly, when political organizations had developed and regio-
nal, ethnic and religious associations came into being, Iran’s new intellectuals
intensified the use of print media and published many new periodicals. “The
number of papers and journals published within Iran jumped from six on
the eve of the revolution to over one hundred during the ten months after the
Constituent Assembly.”28 The Iranian press thus gave public discourse a new
meaning, which reflected the views of the masses excluding rival opinions,
such as orthodox-religious and anti-constitutional positions. In the Iranian
newspaper Sur-e Esrafil anti-clerical radicals satirized the mollas as ‘money
grabbers’ and suggested that the ‘olama’ should keep their hands out of poli-
tics.’ Habl al-Matin ridiculed the authors of the constitution for having insti-
tuted a supreme committee to judge the religious legitimacy of all bills: ‘This
makes as little sense as having a supreme committee of five merchants to
scrutinize the commercial validity of all laws deliberated by the peoples
representatives.’ The paper also placed the whole blame for the decline of the
Middle East on clerical ignorance, superstitions, obscurantism, dogmatism
and insistent meddling in politics.29
The parliamentary dispute between liberal secular and conservative deputies
led to a conflict with and the detachment of traditionalist clerics, who went
their own way to follow their interests. The ratification of the Fundamental
Law in 1906 caused some ‘olama’ to be dissatisfied with the Constitution.
Traditional conservative clerics like Sheykh Fazlollah Nuri did not use the
full potential of the new media. He rather helped to form a conservative
organization and political society with a functional network of royalists and
lower social classes. To express his protest Nuri went to the Shrine of ‘Abd
al-‘Azim, the place where the Constitutional Movement had its starting point.
He was in close contact with the religious centre in Najaf and the politically
294 Katja Föllmer
neutral marja‘ (source of emulation), Sayyed Kazem Tabataba’i Yazdi, who
supported Nuri’s demands. Furthermore, the constitutionalist ‘olama’ of
Najaf and apolitical clerics also joined Nuri’s alliance. This alliance and its
ideology of Islamic traditionalism found its expression in a published tele-
gram and a so-called ruz-nameh that had an immediate impact on religious
craftsmen and traditionalist deputies of the Majles.30 Nuri’s well-organized
social network connecting conservative, neutral and constitutionalist clerics,
upper-class monarchists and the lower classes against the new middle-class
intelligentsia and secular forces was very successful. The use of print media
and the telegraph was only of secondary importance as far as it could help to
establish transregional connections. This traditionalist alliance was focused on
political agitation rather than intellectual discourse. Chehabi notes on the parti-
cipation accompanied by mass mobilization: “the nondemocratic opposition is
almost by its very nature more adept at bringing out the people to the streets
than its democratic counterpart.”31
Two years after Nuri’s hanging in 1909 by constitutionalists, the nation-wide
traditionalist movement came to an end. The traditionalist Yazdi advised the
‘olama’ to withdraw from the political arena and preserve the Islamic tradi-
tion in their mosques and seminaries. In the 1920s the political figures Ahmad
Shah and Reza Khan still needed the ‘olama’ as allies. They were aware of the
‘olama’s power. Reza Khan consulted with them and cultivated their support
in his efforts to become Iran’s monarch.32 He promised to carry out the cler-
gy’s convictions and intentions, including the distribution of sacred religious
texts. Instead of keeping his promise he imposed many restrictions on their
most important spheres of social influence: religious education as well as
religious endowments (owqaf). The ‘olama’ could not articulate their dis-
content appropriately in public. Protests against Reza Shah soon ceased.
From 1926 until 1932, the ‘olama’ constituted around 30–40 per cent of the
deputies in the sixth and seventh Majles. In 1937, the parliament did not
include even a single important figure from the ‘olama’.33
Even though several westernized intellectuals and Reza Shah himself had
sympathies for and relations with Sufis, Sufism also suffered under the anti-
religious policy of the Shah, who criticized certain dervishes, their practices
and the anti-modernism they represented, and saw a concurring social power
in its popularity.34 Despite its anti-religious policy the Iranian state under Pah-
lavi rule never followed a full-fledged ideology of secularism,35 but western
secular ideas on the separation of nation-state and religion gained ground,
especially in the Reza Shah period, and formed a challenge to Islamic clerics.
In the early Pahlavi period, Sufi orders transformed in different ways as the
Soltan‘alishahi and Safi‘alishahi branch of the Ne‘matollahi order demon-
strate. In 1939, on the Shah’s request, a booklet (pand-e Saleh/Saleh’s advice)
was published, written by a leading Soltan‘alishahi, which instructed adult
illiterates on legitimate Sufi behaviour. Curiously, the mystical content of it
was insignificant. Its description did not distinguish a certain Sufi order from
other Iranian Shi‘ites, and, most important, it was not directed against the
Religious aspects in communication processes 295
prevalent social and state order.36 Thus, van den Bos argues, the Soltan‘a-
lishahi branch of the Ne‘matollahi Sufi order evolved from a powerful but
localized sect into a nationally integrated socio-religious organization.37 The
Safi‘alishahi branch of the Ne‘matollahis instead had founded the Society
of Brotherhood (Anjoman-e Okhovvat) already in 1899 and also combined
politics with mysticism up to 1922. It grew most and became more public and
nation-oriented under Reza Shah. It was an exclusive organization with few
material traces, like the Freemasons. One of its publications was the Magazine
of Brotherhood (Majalleh-ye Okhovvat), published in Kermanshah; another
magazine published in Tehran was the Magazine of Morals (Majmu‘eh-ye
Akhlaq). The Kermanshah magazine was progressive, nationalistic and
patriotic. It discussed the role of poetry, the female role for patriotism and the
need of education. The leader even worked as diplomat.38 The powerful elite
of the order did not question the Shah’s autocracy, and its modernism evolved
from an authentic democratic reform-mindedness to political silence.39
Van den Bos concludes that under Reza Shah Sufism lost its exterior
power and changed radically. Sufi ideology increasingly argued its relevance
for the Iranian nation and transformed mystic religiosity in the context of
the nation-state. The magazines offered a platform for pluralistic discussions
within the Sufi order. Internally this orientation changed the traditional
spiritual authority into a (this-wordly) authority through rational reasoning.
A national religiosity was publicly propagated by the Safi‘alishahis, whereas
the Soltan‘alishahis addressed a generalized Shi‘ite religiosity40 and were thus
excluded from state power.
In summary, clerical institutions in the Reza Shah period were not capable
of challenging the state and its secular opponents. The clergy did not have any
public communication platform, neither political literature nor organizations;
some of them, mainly the orthodox conservatives, persisted instead in maintain-
ing their conventions;41 others, like Sufi orders, gathered and organized in secret
circles and became part of the state administration, or they transformed their
religiosity into the idea of the nation-state. The reliance of the clerics upon
popular support under Reza Shah made many of them subservient to the
wishes of the common people, or they sided with the government and, as a
consequence, they lost their intellectual freedom.42 Socially they lost their
importance as a moral and educated authority. The number of religious
students in the intellectual religious centre Qom declined.43
The Shi‘i establishment in general was a hindrance to the realization of the
Shah’s modernization efforts.44 At the same time, the government’s enforcement
of European dress codes, the headgear for men and the prohibition of veiling
for women, as well as the Shah’s wife’s visit to a mosque while being unveiled,
were great provocations not only for the clerics but also for the religious
feelings of the Shi‘i masses. Since the clergy was divided and influenced by its
own particular interests and individual relations with the laity, rather than by
strong bonds among themselves, their social influence underwent a fundamental
transformation not only through nationalization and centralization measures.45
296 Katja Föllmer
Finally, the clergy was under stringent state supervision from 1934 on, which
curtailed its political and social power during the Pahlavi era.
The time of Reza Shah’s rule could be called a period of contemplation and
self-criticism for the clerics, which formed the basis for later religious reforms.
They were forced to rationalize their financial revenues and economic affairs,
to develop an advanced systematic theology and to standardize the academic
curriculum of religious centres, before, in the 1940s, they successfully cultivated
extensive communication networks throughout the country and established
religiously inclined publishing houses and journals.46
Khomeini reflected the Reza Shah period and the status of the ‘olama’ in
his Kashf-e Asrar (1943). His intention was to defend Islam, the Qoran and
the homeland against unbelief, ignorance and religious factionalism, which
occurred within Iranian society under Reza Shah.47 His polemic writing
against prostitution, the abolition of the veil, mixed schools for girls and boys,
the sale and consumption of alcohol, and music is also directed against the
new media and the media and information policy of the Shah regime.
According to him the media propagate a negative image of the clergy and
circulate lies and untruths:
[W]ith their shameful pens, they have blackened a number of sheets and
distributed them among the masses, not realizing that, today, to weaken
the resolve of the people in religion, in religious observance and towards
the clergy is among the greatest crimes, as nothing is more conducive to
the annihilation of the Islamic countries.48
Khomeini argues that the media produces the degeneration and demoralization
of young people, who spend their time on the streets, in cinemas and theatres
instead of learning the religious commandments and moral issues and
duties.49 The people should read the books and treatises of the mojtaheds and
their advice on the right way of living, based on their rational and decent
judgement. The mojtaheds who have saved the knowledge of centuries can safe-
guard the certainty and security of the country better than the administration
and security forces of the state.50
Khomeini is aware that the clergy are not able to match up to the new
popular media and state-controlled press. One reason for this he sees in the
loss of their authority and the importance of their words even though the
people indeed know the clerics well and look up to them. The clergy needs power
and the support of the people for the realization of their proclamations.51 When
he defends the books of his co-religionists and religious newspapers as a
thousand times better than the other stupid media he calls for the fight
against it:
To communicate the proper religious values and morals Khomeini suggests to the
people to buy and read the treatises of the living mojtaheds, which form a large
collection of substantial knowledge. This would be cheaper than an evening in
the cinema or theatre.53 The radio should have a decent speaker to talk – for
at least a few minutes – about the life of an outstanding man of Islam who
fought for the country’s independence, as a role model for the young people.54
In Khomeini’s understanding the clergy acts in regard to the new media in
a strong, limited frame. He gives preference to written media like books and
treatises, rather than newspapers or direct contact with the people. He does
not take the high illiteracy of the common people into consideration. He still
does not recognize the usefulness of the visual media for his purposes; he
rather reduces its function to the distribution of false images that are hostile
to Islam, whereas the radio could be the only alternative as a means of right
instruction by a ‘decent speaker’.
The traditional rowzeh-khvani has a special meaning. Khomeini, who
himself worked as a rowzeh-khvan, acknowledges its importance only under
clerical direction. As part of a non-governmental organization, this popular
tradition would hence help the land and the people to convey God’s com-
mandments, moral and gnosis. The social and cultural importance of such
traditional performances as cultural representations and as ‘the most basic ways
to study modes of human interaction’ is outlined by William O. Beeman.55 The
next section will shed light on it.
The unfortunate Azerbaijani, despite the lies of the slanderers with ulterior
motives, is not a wicked insurgent, nor a rebel, nor does he lay claims to
sovereignty: he is not seeking after independence or separation, nor does
he wish to cause a bloody uprising or to take revenge. On every occasion,
he has declared to his opponents and to all the world that his sacred goal
and lost beloved is Iran’s Constitution of eternal dominion, and his
cherished Ka‘ba is the National Assembly of Tihran. As for his equitable
judge and arbitrator of all differences, it is none other than that ‘Holy
Book’, the Constitutional Code.85
Newspapers and their contents had crossed over into popular culture, not
only as conveyors of news but also as purveyors of entertainment and a
kind of entertainment that meshed well with existing traditional modes of
entertainment such as naghali (recitation) and the coffee house culture
that sustained it.115
The reader will never doubt that the composer of the quatrains is mock-
ing all religious dependencies, belittling the clergy who carry on about
subjects of which they are completely ignorant. The quatrains demon-
strate the revolt of the Aryan spirit against the Semitic beliefs, and
Khayyam’s retaliation against the debasing and fanatical principles of his
people. It is obvious that a meticulous and liberated thinker such as
Khayyam could not have blindly adhered to dogmatic, arbitrary, fabri-
cated and irrational injunctions of the clerical institution, and to have
had respect for their silly, deceptive stories.137
Further he writes:
In the 1930s, Hedayat’s most creative years, he not only specialized in folklore
and regional and social dialects, he also published collections of popular songs
and short stories like Zendeh be gur. In one of these stories, “Atashparast”
(The fire-worshipper), Hedayat demonstrates to the Iranian reader how fas-
cinating the experience of the ancient Iranian religion can be for an individual
and even for a foreign ‘unbeliever’.
As Gheissari notes:
The efforts of the intellectuals to make the discourse of nation and patriotism
part of the thoughts of the common people changed under the dictatorship of
Reza Shah. Under his reign the cultivation of the pre-Islamic heritage con-
tinued for state propaganda and political legitimization through the new
media, mainly the press, or by great public events such as the Ferdowsi festival.
The traditional communication modes and the influence of the clerics were
confined as far as possible. The literary activities in the early Pahlavi period
were limited to western-educated nationalist intellectuals who had a particular
interest in ancient Iranian history as a national heritage that distinguishes
Iranian culture from the rest of the Muslim world. Religious aspects were
discussed in relation to an idealization of the Iranian past. The acquisition of
knowledge and the reform of the Persian language superseded questions with
Islamic concerns. The religious rhetoric was replaced in favour of nationalistic
terms. Even though religious networking and reform evolved since the 1940s,
references to Islamic themes in Iranian public communication were still rare until
the 1960s and the publication of Jalal Al-e Ahmad’s (1923–69) Gharbzadegi. If
we find religious subjects in public discourse during the reign of Reza Shah,
these were often related to pre-Islamic issues, whereas traditional orthodox
Islam was generally avoided as being backward, and Sufi orders adapted to
the government policy.
Conclusion
The religious aspects of public communication underwent a significant change
from the beginning of the Tobacco Movement until the end of Reza Shah’s
reign. Public communication changed rapidly, particularly during the Con-
stitutional period. As Eickelman and Anderson summarize, the development
of nationalism and the proliferation of media and means of communication
have greatly increased the possibilities for creating new communities and net-
works among them, dissolving the earlier barriers of space and distance, and
opening new grounds for interaction.140 The increasingly open and accessible
forms of communication played a significant role in fragmenting and
contesting political authority that was not necessarily religious.
The popular support expressed through religious rituals and feasts was
limited by governmental supervision and restrictions. Leading traditional cle-
rics no longer had a significant influence on public communication in urban
centres insofar as they did not regard the new media as an appropriate means
to communicate religious knowledge, values and morals. For the same reason,
they were less than effective in their opposition to the anti-clerical, Islam-critical,
and secular ideas of the new intellectual middle class, or against popularization.
Under Reza Shah, the new media, Western education, and social and cultural
differences between modern urban centres and rural areas had a significant
Religious aspects in communication processes 311
impact on the decline of the clergy’s status and functions. Khomeini
acknowledged that the clergy needed the people’s support to regain its social
power and authority, but he did not offer a solution of the problem to realize
this in practice. Not until over a decade later, did the clergy have a new
opportunity to expand its authority, due to the growing influence of such
religious intellectuals as ‘Ali Shari‘ati and Jalal Al-e Ahmad, and also because
of socio-political factors which cannot be discussed here.
Sufi orders, on the other hand, outwardly adapted to the nationalistic ideas
of the government, while internally they experienced a religious reorientation
with regard to the modernization process. Their participation in public mass
communication was not relevant even though they had a few publications
through which they defined their social alignment. Religious authorities gen-
erally still followed the traditional way of oral communication without the use
of Iranian print media.
The process of transformation of political concerns into popular forms
made Persian print media a crucial means of communication between the
literate elites and illiterate people. A simple rhetoric, colloquial language, and
the use of religious terms and metaphors formed a common base for it.
Literacy and oral tradition could not be isolated from each other.141 The oral
transmission of relevant concerns or contributions of the press demonstrates
an interactive relationship between written and oral communication until the
middle of the Pahlavi period.
The great social and political impact of the press and its status as political
pluralist medium during the Constitutional period were lost in the Pahlavi
era. An intellectual discourse about education, Iranian history and the pur-
ification of the Persian language according to the government’s nationalistic
course dominated the activities in the press. This also included reflections on
religious issues that were shaped by nationalistic ideas.
The repression of Shi‘i clerics and traditions through an enforced moder-
nization process limited Islamic faith to the individual and the private sphere,
and largely confined it to the rural area. Since the clash between the Shah and
clerics, the Islamic faith and its institutions still did not provide an appropriate
alternative for opposition to the government. Thus, some of the intellectuals
such as ‘Eshqi, Hedayat and Pur-e Davud left the popular mainstream, which
criticized the present moral decline through references to the romantic ideal
of the Islamic past and ancient heroism. They rather explored Zoroastrian
faith as a religious and moral alternative even if this implied a rejection of
Islam, whereas ‘Aref Qazvini discovered its potential for the creation of a
national religion. All of them successfully combined the popular knowledge
of ancestral heroism and references to Zoroastrian faith. In his treatise Kashf-e
Asrar, Khomeini vigorously attacked the growing popularity of the Zoroastrian
faith under Reza Shah. He considered this development dangerous for mono-
theism in Islam (towhid) and called for the elimination of Zoroastrianism,
Zurvanism and Mazdakism as polytheistic (sherk) and idol worshipping (bot-
parasti) religions.142 However, the efforts of the Iranian literati to replace
312 Katja Föllmer
Islam with the idealized ancestral faith failed mainly because there were no
acknowledged Zoroastrian authorities who were able to undo the effects of
the centuries-old social tensions between Muslims and Zoroastrians, or elim-
inate their persistent suspicions of one another. The masses, whose knowledge
was only based on the popular Shah-nameh tales, failed to support such
developments, and social and cultural differences between the Islamic and
Zoroastrian communities persisted.143
In summary, the cultural activities in the Reza Shah period were predicated
on familiarization with the new European techniques and modes of commu-
nication, and with the new art forms which began to develop under Qajar
reign. Even though critical forms of expression such as satire stagnated, and free
expression of opinions in public was impossible, both the thirst for knowledge
about the Iranian cultural heritage and the burgeoning means of popular
entertainment under governmental supervision weakened the authority of Isla-
mic traditions. This formed the basis for Khomeini’s polemic treatise Kashf-e
Asrar. He claimed authority and power for the Shi‘i clergy for the sake of the
well-being of Iranian society, but he failed to recognize the potential value of
the new visual media and communication modes. Rather, he condemned
these, preferring communications based either on written texts addressing a
small literate elite or on oral transmission.
Iranian cultural production was generally no longer limited to the social
elite, but a disparity still existed since it was limited to the urban centres;
traditional communication still existed on a local rural level, but it was of less
importance for a transregional flow of information. A reflection of political
and social pluralism and criticism in the print media as in the Constitutional
period did not yet exist, but it offered the opportunity to develop novel fields
beyond journalistic activities and political opposition under the totalitarian
regime of Reza Shah.
The general exclusion of Islamic authorities from the public sphere and
their refusal of the new (particularly visual) media did not prevent them from
continuing with their traditional role and function while opposing Reza
Shah’s secular reforms. Leading clerics, who had lost much of their influence
on society, became less important for public mass communication, which had
been hitherto an established social medium; the clergy now needed to find
another way to communicate with the masses. Khomeini showed a certain
helplessness in this respect.
For the study of this ‘period of silence’ under Reza Shah, the focus on the
new media and modes of mass communication for the propagation of new
ideas and the knowledge of the official power structures alone do not offer a
profound understanding of a society that oscillated between traditional con-
ventions and modernization. Concerning the status of religion and its repre-
sentatives in the Iranian society of that time, we need to take into account not
just the social and ideological disparities, but also the cultural knowledge and
traditions that had accumulated over the centuries and were still very much
alive among the people.
Religious aspects in communication processes 313
Notes
1 Denis McQuail, Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction (London: Sage,
1994), p. 101. See for instance Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson, ed., New
Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere (Bloomington and
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003).
2 Roland Burkart, Kommunikationswissenschaft (Wien: Böhlau, 2002), pp. 170–71;
and Heinz Pürer, Publizistik-und Kommunikationswissenschaft (Konstanz: UVK,
2003), pp. 58–75.
3 McQuail, Mass Communication Theory, p. 10.
4 Hans J. Kleinsteuber, “Nationale und internationale Mediensysteme” in Die
Wirklichkeit der Medien: Eine Einführung in die Kommunikationswissenschaft, ed.
Klaus Merten et al. (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994), pp. 544–45.
5 Peter van der Veer, “The Moral State: Religion, Nation, and Empire in Victorian
Britain and British India” in Nation and Religion. Perspectives on Europe and
Asia, ed. Peter van der Veer and Hartmut Lehmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1999), p. 20; and Talal Asad, “Religion, Nation-State, Secularism”
in Nation and Religion, ed. van der Veer and Lehmann, p. 180.
6 Werner Faulstich, Medien und Öffentlichkeiten im Mittelalter 800–1400 (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1996), passim. Faulstich, who analyzed traditional
forms of direct communication, differentiates between communication media and
medial means of communication in relation to their social relevance. According
to him communication media are socially institutionalized in the communication
process, in contrast to media that only have a neutral function for the transmission
of information.
7 See Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi and Ali Mohammadi, Small Media, Big
Revolution: Communication, Culture, and the Iranian Revolution (Minneapolis
and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
8 Eickelman and Anderson, New Media in the Muslim World.
9 Ibid., p. 15f.
10 Summarized by Gerhard Maletzke, Kommunikationswissenschaft im Überblick:
Grundlagen, Probleme, Perspektiven (Opladen and Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher
Verlag, 1998), pp. 111–16.
11 Birgit Meyer, “From Imagined Communities to Aesthetic Formations: Religious
Mediations, Sensational Forms, and Styles of Binding” in Aesthetic Formations.
Media, Religion and the Senses, ed. B. Meyer (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009),
p. 2.
12 Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge,
MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 136–39.
13 H. E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism. The Liberation
Movement of Iran under the Shah and Khomeini (London: I.B. Tauris, 1990),
p. 14.
14 Nikki Keddie, Sayyid Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani”. A Political Biography (Berkeley
and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 343–44.
15 Ibid., pp. 353–54.
16 A mojtahed exercises the ejtehad, an individual judgement in interpreting religious
law: for details, see Juan R. Cole, “Imami Jurisprudence and the Role of the
Ulama: Mortaza Ansari on Emulating the Supreme Exemplar,” in Religion and
Politics in Iran: Shi‘ism from Quietism to Revolution ed. Nikki R. Keddie (New
Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983), pp. 33–46.
17 Nikki R. Keddie, Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–1892
(London: Cass, 1966), p. 7.
18 The protest sprang up in Tabriz, where a leading mojtahed preached against the
tobacco concession and declared the movement to be a jehad, a battle against the
314 Katja Föllmer
western ‘unbelievers’. The leading religious authorities in Esfahan declared
tobacco to be unclean. The local governor could not prohibit sermons and
meetings or the posting of placards in the bazaar declaring the employees of the
tobacco régie unclean and denying them entry into public places. In Shiraz a
crucial and unusual event which accelerated the protest movement was the official
expulsion of the leading molla, Sayyed ‘Ali Akbar, to Karbala after his public
sermon, which is said to have been inspired by an article against the tobacco
concession in the newspaper Akhtar. A telegram of protest was sent to the gov-
ernment and the telegraph office was threatened by the Iranian people and
‘olama’. This crowd was dispersed by armed troops and at least two people died.
The exiled Sayyed went to see Afghani, who wrote a letter to the leader of the
Shi‘i ‘olama’, Ayatollah Mirza Hasan Shirazi. Later, in London, Afghani printed
this letter and sent it to his Iranian friends for further distribution, see ibid.,
pp. 65–69, 73, 75ff, 94.
19 Clerics were rhetorically practised in communicating with ordinary people,
see Sreberny-Mohammadi and Mohammadi, Small Media, p. 105.
20 Ervand Abrahamian, “The Causes of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979), pp. 399–400. Asghar
Fathi, “Role of the Traditional Leader in Modernization of Iran, 1890–1910,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (1980), pp. 88–89.
21 Keddie, Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani”, p. 355.
22 Ibid.
23 Keddie, Religion and Rebellion, pp. 114–19. Keddie divides between ‘shrine
‘ulama’ and ‘corruptible wordly ‘ulama’.
24 Fischer, From Religious Dispute to Revolution, pp. 136–39.
25 Keddie, Religion and Rebellion, p. 16; Fathi, “Role of the Traditional Leader,”
pp. 88–89.
26 Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1982), p. 69.
27 Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1973), p. 9.
28 Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, p. 87.
29 Ibid., p. 93.
30 Said Amir Arjomand, “Traditionalism in Twentieth-Century Iran” in From
Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam, ed. Said Amir Arjomand (Oxford: MacMillan,
1984), p. 202.
31 Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism, p. 37.
32 Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran. Clergy-State
Relations in the Pahlavi Period (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1980), p. 31.
33 Ibid., p. 59.
34 Matthijs van den Bos, Mystic Regimes: Sufism and the State in Iran, from the
Late Qajar Era to the Islamic Republic (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 74, 88.
35 Mehrzad Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph
of Nativism (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996), p. 86.
36 Van den Bos, Mystic Regimes, p. 90.
37 Ibid., p. 91.
38 Ibid., pp. 99–105. Similar divisions of internal and external orientations already
existed in the thirteenth century, when Sufi Sheikhs could also have this-wordly
professions, like the druggist Sheikh ‘Attar-e Neishapuri.
39 Ibid., p. 108.
40 Ibid., p. 109.
41 The conservatives often spoke for non-practicable ideals and were thus subject of
many jokes, see Fischer, From Religious Dispute to Revolution, p. 138.
Religious aspects in communication processes 315
42 Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals, p. 82. Fischer, From Religious Dispute to Revo-
lution, p. 109: ‘Qum’s madrasas had fallen into disuse and ruin and the town had
suffered … “an intellectual famine”.’
43 Ibid., p. 114.
44 The Shah’s particular measures against the social influence of the clerics are
summarized by Azar Tabari, “The Role of the Clergy in Modern Iranian
Politics,” in Religion and Politics in Iran, ed. Keddie, p. 60.
45 Reza Shah continued to support the open conflict between the mojtaheds and the
emam-e jom‘ehs of the Qajar era, see Bill, The Politics of Iran, p. 24.
46 Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals, p. 80.
47 Emam Khomeini, Kashf-e Asrar (s. l., s. a.), p. 17.
48 Cited by Arjomand, “Traditionalism in Twentieth-Century Iran,” p. 205.
49 Khomeini, Kashf-e Asrar, p. 194.
50 Ibid., pp. 202–3.
51 Ibid., pp. 211–12.
52 Ibid., p. 74.
53 Ibid., p. 193.
54 Ibid., p. 215.
55 William O. Beeman, Iranian Performance Traditions (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda
Publishers, 2011), p. 4.
56 Ali M. Ansari, Modern Iran, 2nd ed. (Harlow, England: Pearson Education
Limited, 2007), p. 99–100.
57 Catherine Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (New York and Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 120–37.
58 Ibid., p. 73.
59 B. Meyer, “From Imagined Communities,” p. 13.
60 Jafar Shahri, Tarikh-e ejtema‘i-ye Tehran dar qarn-e sizdahom, zendegi, kasb-o-
kar … , vol. 1 (Tehran: Esma‘iliyan, 1367/1988), pp. 69–71.
61 Shahri, Tarikh-e ejtema‘i-ye Tehran, pp. 85–87.
62 Ibid., p. 61.
63 Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran
(New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 77–78.
64 Kumiko Yamamoto, “Naqqa-li: Professional Iranian Storytelling,” in Oral
Literature of Iranian Languages, ed. Philip Kreynebroek and Ulrich Marzolph
(London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010), p. 246.
65 Even though in Qajar times professional writers, the maqtal-nevisan, were
employed to write ta‘ziyeh plays down, see Jamshid Malekpur, Adabiyat-e
namayeshi dar Iran: Nakhostin kushesh-ha ta dowreh-ye Qajar, vol. 1 (Tehran:
Tus, 1363/1984), p. 229.
66 Mostafa Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr-e Iran (Tehran: Anahita Osku’i, 1378/
1999), p. 53.
67 Malekpur, Adabiyat-e namayeshi, pp. 242–72.
68 Siegfried J. Schmidt, “Die Wirklichkeit des Beobachters” in Die Wirklichkeit der
Medien: Eine Einführung in die Kommunikationswissenschaft, ed. Klaus Merten et
al. (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994), p. 11.
69 Yamamoto, “Naqqa-li,” p. 246.
70 Peter Chelkowski, “Kashefi’s Rowzat al-Shohada’: The Karbala Narrative as
Underpinning of Popular Religious Culture and Literature,” in Oral Literature of
Iranian Languages, ed. Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Ulrich Marzolph (London
and New York: I.B.Tauris, 2010), pp. 266–67.
71 Fischer, From Religious Dispute to Revolution, p. 178.
72 Ibid., pp. 109, 114.
73 Naql is ‘a huge, tear-shaped, wooden structure, requiring a hundred men to lift it,
representing the coffin of Hoseyn’, see ibid., pp. 170–72.
316 Katja Föllmer
74 William O. Beemann, “A Full Arena: The Development and Meaning of Popular
Performance Traditions in Iran,” in Modern Iran: The Dialectics of Continuity
and Change, ed. Michael E. Bonine and Nikki Keddie (Albany: State University
of New York Press, 1981), p. 374.
75 Osku’i argues that this development may be the main reason for later closing
down the theatre of the Tehran university Dar al-Fonun, see Osku’i, Seyri dar
tarikh-e te’atr-e Iran, p. 103.
76 Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr-e Iran, p. 133f.
77 Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, p. 58.
78 Keddie, Religion and Rebellion, pp. 27–28.
79 Ibid., pp. 46–47, 60.
80 Hamid Khosravi Sharoudi, Zur Problematik des Demokratisierungsprozesses in
Iran: Eine soziokulturelle Analyze anhand von Entstehung und Scheitern der Kon-
stitutionellen Bewegung von 1906 (Berlin: Schwarz, 1998), pp. 157, 163–64.
81 Keddie, Religion and Rebellion, p. 27.
82 Sharoudi, Zur Problematik des Demokratisierungsprozesses, p. 149. Keddie, Reli-
gion and Rebellion, p. 19.
83 Ibid., p. 16.
84 Ibid., pp. 15–16.
-
85 Cited in Touraj Atabakai, Azerba-ija-n: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in
Iran (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 33.
86 Vêra Kubíčkova, “Persian Literature of the 20th Century” in Jan Rypka, History
of Iranian Literature, ed. Karl Jahn (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co., 1968), p. 363.
87 Osku’i, Seyri dar tarikh-e te’atr-e Iran, p. 133.
88 Hasan Javadi, Satire in Persian Literature (London and Toronto: Associated
University Press, 1988), p. 143.
89 Ibid., p. 145.
90 Ibid., p. 147.
91 Raoul Motika, Die politische Öffentlichkeit Iranisch-Aserbaidschans während der
-
Konstitutionellen Revolution im Spiegel der Täbriser Zeitung Aarba-yǧa-n (Frankfurt
am Main: Peter Lang, 2001), p. 185.
92 Ibid., p. 186.
93 This newspaper published weekly seven to eight pages and focused on satire and
social and literary subjects: see Mas‘ud Partavi and A‘zam Yazdanmehr, “Matbu‘at-e
tanz dar Iran az aghaz ta kunun,” Sal-nameh-ye Gol Aqa (1371/1992), p. 105.
94 Javadi, Satire, p. 152.
95 Cited by Yahya Aryanpur, Az Saba ta Nima: Tarikh-e 150 sal-e adab-i farsi, vol.
2 (Tehran: Zavva-r, 1372/1993), pp. 63–64.
96 Hojjatollah Asil, Nasim-e Shomal: Bargozideh va sharh-e ash’ar-e Ashraf al-Din
Hoseyn Gilani (Tehran: Farzan, 1382/2003), p. 10.
97 For example, it influenced the contemporary satirist Kiyumars Saberi Fumani
(1941–2004) and his column “Do kalameh harf-e hesab,” see Abu al-Fazl Zarru’i-
Nasrabad, “Moqaddameh’i bar sabk-shenasi-ye do kalameh harf-e hesab,”
Sal-nameh-ye Gol Aqa (1374/1995), pp. 100–130; and Katja Föllmer, Satire in
Iran von 1990 bis 2000 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2008), pp. 80–90.
98 Gholamhoseyn Yusofi, Didari ba ahl-e qalam, vol. 2 (Tehran: ‘Elmi, 1376/1997),
p. 154.
99 Edward G. Browne, The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia (Los Angeles: Kali-
mat, 1983), xii.
100 Christl Catanzaro, “Leserbriefe in Sûr-e Esrâfîl und Rûh. ul-Qods als Formen des
Informationsaustausches für die Intelligenzija der Mašrût.îyat-Zeit,” in Presse und
Öffentlichkeit im Nahen Osten, ed. Christoph Herzog et al. (Heidelberg: Orientverlag,
1995), p. 21.
101 Cited in Yusofi, Didari ba ahl-e qalam, p. 153.
Religious aspects in communication processes 317
102 Ibid., p. 153.
103 Morad Mohebbi, “Nasim-e shomal,” Sal-nameh-ye Gol Aqa (1374/1995), p. 54.
104 Ibid., p. 57.
105 Motika, Die politische Öffentlichkeit.
106 Charles Kurzman, “Introduction: The Modernist Islamic Movement,” in Mod-
ernist Islam 1840–1940, ed. Charles Kurzman (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2002), p. 16.
107 Motika, Die politische Öffentlichkeit, p. 195.
108 Ibid., p. 195.
109 Ibid., p. 196.
110 Ibid., p. 171.
111 Javadi, Satire, pp. 147ff. Motika, Die politische Öffentlichkeit, p. 182.
112 Ibid., p. 164.
113 Non-Muslims seemed not to be part of the Iranian national ideal because they
maintained a degree of social isolation, see ibid., pp. 165–67. In 1909–10 the left-
democratic newspaper Iran-e Now was more progressive in its nationalistic atti-
tude, because it claimed for a full and equal treatment of Muslims, Jews, Chris-
tians, Zoroastrians, and Persian and Turkic speakers, see Abrahamian, Iran
between Two Revolutions, p. 105.
114 Kubíčkova, “Persian Literature of the 20th Century,” p. 363.
115 Manoutchehr M. Eskandari-Qajar, “Novellas as Morality Tales and Entertainment
in the Newspapers of the Late Qajar Period: Yahya Mirza Eskandari’s ‘Eshgh-e
Doroughi’ and ‘Arousi-e Mehrangiz’,” Iranian Studies 40:4 (2007), p. 521.
116 Kurzman, “Introduction,” p. 14.
117 Homa Katouzian, “Riza Shah’s Political Legitimacy and Social Base” in The
Making of Modern Iran. State and Society under Riza Shah 1921–1941, ed. Ste-
phanie Cronin (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 21.
118 J.E. Knörzer, ‘Ali Dashti’s Prison Days: Life under Reza Shah (Toronto: Mazda
Publishers, 1994), p. 178.
119 The magazine Mehr published the official report of the Ministry of Internal
Affairs, which made a ‘Sheykh Bohlul who was known for his crime in the past
and who has been prosecuted for it’ responsible for the riot in which he protested
under the pretext of the new headgear and dress and proclaimed lies. Mehr
4:1314 (1935), p. 429. Some months later the conviction and execution of
Mohammad ‘Ali Asadi is reported without further comments. Mehr 9:1314
(1935–36), p. 926.
120 Khosrow Mo’tazed, Si sal ba Reza Shah dar qazzaqkhaneh (Tehran: Alborz,
1385/2006), pp. 281–82.
121 Bell, Ritual, pp. 82–83.
122 In detail see Ali Gheissari, Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th century (Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1998).
123 Boroujerdi, “Triumphs and Travail,” p. 148.
124 Tabari, “The Role of the Clergy,” p. 55.
125 H. Kamshad, Modern Persian Prose Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1966), pp. 41–43.
126 Kubíčkova, “Persian Literature of the 20th Century,” p. 370.
127 Kamshad, Modern Persian Prose Literature, pp. 50–51.
128 The poem Iran mal-e shomast, published in the Iranian journal Nowbahar in
1329q/1911, reflects this. Printed in Aryanpur, Az Saba ta Nima, vol. 2, p. 132.
129 Sorour Soroudi, “Poet and Revolution: The Impact of Iran’s Constitutional
Revolution on the Social and Literary Outlook of the Poets of the Time,” part 1,
Iranian Studies 12:1/2 (1979), pp. 15, 26, 28.
130 Ibid., pp. 33–35.
131 Kubíčkova, “Persian Literature of the 20th Century,” p. 372.
318 Katja Föllmer
132 See for instance Kolliyat-e divan-e Mirza Abu al-Qasem ‘Aref-e Qazvini, ed. ‘Abd
al-Rahman Sayf Azad (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1342/1963), pp. 425–30.
133 Browne, Press and Poetry, pp. xvi-xvii.
134 Soroudi, “Poet and Revolution: The Impact of Iran’s Constitutional Revolution
on the Social and Literary Outlook of the Poets of the Time,” part 2, Iranian
Studies 12:3/4 (1979), p. 252.
135 Ibid., p. 263.
136 Ibid., pp. 264, 266.
137 According to Iraj Parsinejad, A History of Literary Criticism in Iran (1866 – 1951):
Literary Criticism in the Works of Enlightened Thinkers of Iran: Akhundzade,
Kermani, Malkom, Talebof, Maraghe’i, Kasravi and Hedayat (Bethesda, MD:
Ibex, 2003), p. 207.
138 Ibid., p. 208.
139 Gheissari, Iranian Intellectuals, p. 46.
140 Eickelman and Anderson, “Introduction” to New Media in the Muslim World, p. 3.
141 This conclusion is based on the study of oral literary communication in Kurdish
culture. Christine Allison, “Kurdish Oral Literature,” in Oral Literature of Ira-
nian Languages, ed. Philip Kreyenbroek and Ulrich Marzolph (London and New
York, 2010), p. 35.
142 Khomeini, Kashf-e Asrar, pp. 11–18.
143 Michael Stausberg, Die Religion Zarathustras: Geschichte, Gegenwart, Rituale,
vol. 2 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2002), pp. 153–87.
Index
‘Abbas Mirza 153 Amir A‘lam 251, 254–55, 257, 259, 263
‘Abdollah, Mirza 75, 77, 79, 85 Amir Kabir 150, 162, 250
Abkar, Paul 106 Anderson, Jon W. 310
Abrahamian, Ervand 158 Anet, Claude 128
Achaemenids: archaeology 136, 138; Aniran 241, 243–44
architecture 101, 104–5, 113; stamps Anjoman-e asar-e melli see Society for
152, 154, 156–57, 160, 169 National Heritage
Ackerman, Phyllis 102 anniversaries 7, 153, 157, 221
actors 202–3, 210, 222 see also theatre antiquities 121, 124–27, 129, 131–35,
advertisements 270–71 138–43
aerodromes see aviation Arabic influence 28–33, 105, 219, 243
Afarin, Hoseyn Heng 75 archaeology 121–22, 135, 137–43, 152;
Afghani, Jamal al-Din 291–92, 300–301 before Reza Shah 122–29; under Reza
Afshar, Mahmud 64 Shah 129–37 see also museums
Aftab-e Sharq 185 architecture 4, 9, 95–100, 114–15;
Agha Mohammad Shah 153 avant-garde 105–9; historicism 101–5;
agency debate 3 Shah’s mausoleum 109–14; stamp
Aghamohseni, Keivan 9 depictions 156–57, 160, 169–70
Ahmad Shah Qajar 152–53, 155, 182, archival sources 181, 193–95
294 ‘Aref Qazvini, Mirza Abu al-Qasem 82,
Ahmadi, Amir 207 307, 311
Ahmadi, Wali 20 aristocrats 97, 268, 271; music 76–77
air traffic see aviation Ariyan, Arshalus 212
Ajam 32 armed forces see military
Akhundzadeh, Fath‘ali 203, 206, 222, 307 Armenians 205, 209–11, 213, 215, 219–20
Al-e Ahmad, Jalal 310–11 art 4, 80–81, 130, 134–35
‘Ala’, Hoseyn 130 arts 101, 106, 211
‘Alamir, ‘Abbas 166 Aryan 210–15, 217, 221
‘Alavi, Bozorg 4, 6, 11, 22, 214, 233–38, Aryanpur, Yahya 22, 211–12, 214–15,
241–42; nationalism 242–46; social 223
critique 238–41 As‘asi, Arshalus 212
Alborz 184 Ashtiyani, ‘Abbas Eqbal 236, 244
‘Alikhan, Moharram 190 Assyrians 205
Alliance Française 62–63 Ataturk, Kemal 252
American Institute for Persian Art and authoritarian modernization 1–2, 9–10
Archaeology 134–35 automobiles see cars
American School 59, 63 avant-garde 4–5, 95–96, 105–11, 114–15
Amin al-Soltan 128 aviation 161–62, 164–65, 268
Amini, Hoseyn Khan 127 Avicenna 102
320 Index
Ayandeh (Future) 64 cafés 77, 234–35, 240
Ayrom, Mohammad Hoseyn 187, 274 callisthenics 57, 59, 61, 66–67
Azar, Mohseni Azar 260 cameras 267–68, 279, 281
Azariyan 209–10, 212, 215 cars 274, 279–80
Azerbaijan 260, 301; censorship cartoons 152, 155, 301–2
185; physical education 55, 60, 67; Caspian Sea 164
theatre 205–6, 210–11, 213, 215–16, Catanzaro, Christl 8
219–22 Caucasus 206, 210, 262
Azerbaijan (newspaper) 303–4 cement factory 158, 161
Azeri 67, 212–13, 216, 219, 300 censorship 1, 10, 181–83, 193, 283n23;
literature 240; music 82; Office of
backwardness 5, 204, 242–43, 273, 279 Guidance in Writing 190–92;
Bader, Ahmad (Naser al-Dowleh) 63, post-Teymurtash era 188–90; Radio
101 Tehran 269; religious communications
Baghcheh-ban, Jabbar 211 300, 305–6; Teymurtash era 184–88;
Bahar, Mohammad Taqi (Malek theatre 202, 209, 223
al-Sho‘ara) 4, 19–27, 31–33, 214, Central Police Office see police
236, 244, 307; on language 27–31 Chamadan (The suitcase) 238–39, 241
Bahman, ‘Ali Akbar 165 Chehabi, Houchang E. 8
Bakhtiyari uprising 165–66, 305 Chelkowski, Peter 214
Baku 206, 210, 215 children 252–58, 263, 271, 276; physical
Balck, Viktor 61 education 63–65
ball games 59, 64–66 Christensen, Arthur 242, 244
Ballereau, Paul 131 CIA 170
Banani, Amin 99 cinema 108–9, 210, 217, 269–70,
Bank-e Melli see National bank 275–77, 300
Baqi‘i, Gholam Hoseyn 66–67 Cinema Suli (Tabriz) 206
Bayat, Mostafa Qoli 165–66 class structure 96–97 see also middle
bazaar 97, 290–92, 303 class
Bazargan, Mehdi 65 classical music: European 78–79, 82,
Bazgasht movement 25 84–85, 88; Iranian 74–78, 90
BBC 269 clerics 111, 288, 290–97, 305–6, 310–12
Beeman, William O. 297, 299–300 see also ‘olama
Behruz, Zabih 205, 214, 217 coins 150
Behzad, Karim Taherzadeh 106 Columbia University 37, 39, 66
Belgium 61–62, 67, 162, 234 comedy 216, 298–99
Benjamin, Samuel Green Wheeler 127 communication 11, 150, 162; popular
Berlin 79–80, 160, 197, 238 events 297–300; religious aspects
Beyza’i, Bahram 203–4 288–90, 305–6, 310–12; satire
Bizhan, Asadollah 48 300–305; Shi‘i clerics 290–97; Sufis
Bolsheviks 136, 220 294–95; telephone 277–80
Boroujerdi, Mehrzad 165 competition 61, 65–67
Bos, Matthijs van den 295 concerts 76–77, 208–9
bourgeoisie see middle class Constituent Assembly 293
Boveri, Margret 276 Constitutional Movement 21–22, 245;
brainwashing 191 archaeology 123, 128, 138;
bridges 161, 163, 266, 275 communications 288–89, 303–4,
Britain 59–60, 98, 121–22, 163–64, 253 307–8; medicine 250–51; music 73,
Browne, Edward G. 47, 303, 308 75–77; stamps 152, 154, 159–62, 167,
Brussels 55, 62 171–72; theatre 203, 205
Büchner, Ludwig 24 Cook, Nilla Cram 222
buses 273–74 Cossack brigade 58
bylaws see nezam-namehs Coste, Pascal-Xavier 122
Byron, Robert 57–58, 218, 266, 281 Cottam, Richard W. 99
Index 321
coups d’état: CIA 170; Reza Khan theatre and 211–12; university 37–38,
154–55, 166, 181 43–49 see also medicine
Court Ministry 183–88 Eickelman, Dale F. 290, 310
Cronin, Stephanie 6, 12n2 elite 3, 8–10, 43, 88, 301; self-image 149
Curzon, George Nathaniel 128, 273 engineering 266 see also technology
customs administration 162–63 England 48–49
ensembles 210–12
dance 57, 216 entertainment 5, 10–11; cinema 276;
Daneshsara-ye tarbiyat-e badani 66 religion/communication 297–300, 305;
Dar al-Fonun 44, 49, 50n2, 57–58, theatre 201–3, 208, 217–18, 222–23
62–63, 75, 250, 255 epidemics 57, 251
Dargahi, Mohammad 183, 188 Esfahan see Isfahan
Darvish Khan 75, 77, 79 Esfandiyari, Hasan 101
Darwin, Charles 4, 24–25 ‘Eshqi, Mirzadeh 183, 193, 205, 300,
Dashti, ‘Ali 63, 182–83, 189 307–8, 311
Davar, ‘Ali Akbar 3, 79, 101; stamps Eskandari-Qajar, Manoutchehr M. 305
159, 165–68, 172; University of Esrafil, Qasem Sur-e Esrafil 154
Tehran 39–41, 44 E‘temad al-Dowleh see Qaragozlu,
Dehdarian, Roja 11 Yahya Khan
Dehkhoda, ‘Ali Akbar 31, 42, 236–37, E‘tesamzadeh, Abolqasem 186
303, 307 E‘tezad al-Saltaneh, ‘Aliqoli Mirza 57
Democratic Party 22 Ettela‘at 266, 270–72, 276–77, 279, 282,
demolitions 97–100 306
Department of Medicine 258 etymologies 24; false 29
Department of Publication and eugenics 4, 63–64
Propaganda 87 Europe 4–5, 77, 122, 149, 277;
Devos, Bianca 11 architecture 98, 101, 105–6, 111–12,
Dewey, John 38, 53–54n57,n59 115; higher education 38, 43;
Diba, Kamran 106 literature 234–35, 242–43, 245;
Dieulafoy, Marcel 122–23, 137 medicine 250–51; museums 127;
Dowlatshahi, Mohammad ‘Ali 157, music 73, 79–80, 82, 84–85, 88;
165–66 physical education 60–61, 64, 67
drama see theatre evolution 4; linguistic 23–24, 29–30
Dramatic Arts School 211–12 exercise see physical education
drugs 216–17, 240 Ey Molla ‘Amu 303