Stem Cells

Embryo Development

Blastocyst Formation

 The egg and sperm nuclei combine to form a diploid nuclei and the fertilized cell is now called
a ………………..

The zygote will undergo several mitotic divisions to form a solid ball of cells called a ……………….
 As the morula continues to divide, it undergoes differentiation and ……………………..(cavity formation)
to form a …………………………

A blastocyst is comprised of three distinct sections:

 An ……………………………………………….. (that will develop into the embryo)
 A surrounding outer layer called the ……………………………..(this will develop into the placenta)
 A fluid filled cavity called the ……………………………..

Early Embryo Development

Introduction: What are stem cells and why are they important?

Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into …………………………………………………….

in the body during early life and growth. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to
remain a …………………. or become ………………………………………. with a more specialized
function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.

Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics.

1. They are ………………………………………… capable of renewing themselves through cell

division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity.
2. Under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be …………………… to become
tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions.
Eg: In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide
under …………………………..

Stem cells are important for living organisms for many reasons.
1. In the 3- to 5-day-old embryo, called a blastocyst, the inner cells give rise to the …………………….
……………………………………., including all of the many specialized cell types and organs such
as the heart, lungs, skin, sperm, eggs and other tissues.
2. In some adult tissues, such as bone marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete populations of adult stem
cells generate ……………………………………………….. that are lost through normal wear and
tear, injury, or disease.
Unique properties of all stem cells

Stem cells differ from other kinds of cells in the body. All stem cells—regardless of their source have three
general properties:
1. They are capable of ……………….. and renewing themselves for …………………………………
Unlike muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells—which do not normally replicate
themselves—stem cells may replicate many times
2. They are ………………………………
It does not have any tissue-specific structures that allow it to perform specialized functions.
For example, a stem cell cannot work with its neighbors to pump blood through the
body (like a heart muscle cell), and it cannot carry oxygen molecules through the
bloodstream (like a red blood cell). However, unspecialized stem cells can give rise to
specialized cells, including heart muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells.
3. They can give rise to …………………………………………….
When unspecialized stem cells give rise to specialized cells, the process is
called differentiation.

There are different kinds of stem cells from animals and humans:

 ……………………………………………………....…
 ………………………………………………………….
 ………………………………………………………….

Embryonic stem cells

Embryonic stem cells are derived from …………………. They

are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman's body.

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are generated by transferring cells

from a preimplantation-stage embryo into a plastic laboratory culture dish
that contains a nutrient broth known as culture medium. The cells divide and
spread over the surface of the dish.

As long as the embryonic stem cells in culture are grown under appropriate
conditions, they can remain …………………………. (unspecialized). But if cells are allowed to clump
together to form embryoid bodies, they begin to …………………………………………………………...
They can form muscle cells, nerve cells, and many other cell types.
To generate cultures of specific types of differentiated cells—heart muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells,
for example - scientists try to control the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. They change the;
 chemical composition of the culture medium
 alter the surface of the culture dish
 modify the cells by inserting specific genes

Umbilical cord stem cells

………………………………………….. collected at birth is a rich source of stem cells that can be used in
…………………. and in the ………………………………………………. of the blood and immune system.
With the consent of the parents, blood can be collected from the umbilical cord of a …………………….
shortly after birth. This does not hurt the baby or the mother in any way, and it is blood that would otherwise
be discarded as biological waste along with the placenta (another
rich source of stem cells) after the birth.

The umbilical cord blood contains stem cells - similar to those

found in the bone marrow - and which can be used to generate
………………………………………………… and …………
………………………………………………. Cord blood stem
cells are currently used to treat a range of blood disorders and
immune system conditions such as …………………, ………………. etc.
Umbilical cord blood can be collected and stored in a cord blood bank

Adult stem cells

An adult stem cell is thought to be an ………………………………….. cell, found among

……………………………………… in a tissue or organ. They can renew itself and can differentiate to
yield some or all of the major specialized cell types of the tissue or organ.
The primary role in a living organism - to maintain and ……………….. the tissue in which they are found.
Also known as ………………………………………… (cells of the body) instead of adult stem cell.
Unlike embryonic stem cells, which are defined by their origin (cells from the preimplantation-stage
embryo), the origin of adult stem cells in some mature tissues is still under investigation.

Where are adult stem cells found, and what do they normally do?
Adult stem cells have been identified in many organs
and tissues, including
…………………………………………….………...
………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………….
They are thought to reside in a ………………………
of each tissue.

Adult stem cells are used for ………………………..

In fact, blood-forming, stem cells from bone marrow
have been used in transplants for more than 40 years.
Some examples of potential treatments include regenerating bone using cells derived from bone marrow
stroma, developing insulin-producing cells for type 1 diabetes, and repairing damaged heart muscle
following a heart attack with cardiac muscle cells.

What are the key questions about adult stem cells?

Many important questions about adult stem cells remain to be answered. They include:
 How many kinds of adult stem cells exist, and in which tissues do they exist?

 How do adult stem cells evolve during development and how are they maintained in the adult? Are
they "leftover" embryonic stem cells, or do they arise in some other way?
 Why do stem cells remain in an undifferentiated state when all the cells around them have
differentiated? What are the characteristics of their “niche” that controls their behavior?
 What are the factors that control adult stem cell differentiation?
 What are the factors that stimulate stem cells to relocate to sites of injury or damage, and how can
this process be enhanced for better healing?
Stem cell classification
Stem cells can also be classified according to their developmental versatility. Stem cells are perhaps best
understood in terms of how committed they are to becoming any particular type of cell. The categories into
which they fall include:
 the ……………………………….stem cell
 ………………………………….. stem cell
 …………………………………… stem cell

Totipotent stem cells

 These are the …………………………………… of the stem cell types.
 When a sperm cell and an egg cell unite, they form a one-celled fertilized egg. This cell is totipotent,
meaning it has ……………………………………………………………………………………..,
such as brain, liver, blood or heart cells. It can even give rise to an …………………………………...
 The first few cell divisions in ……………………………………….. produce more totipotent cells.
After four days of embryonic cell division, the cells begin to specialize into pluripotent stem cells

Pluripotent stem cells

 These cells are like totipotent stem cells in that they can give rise to ……………………………...
Unlike totipotent stem cells, however, they cannot give rise to an entire organism. On the fourth day
of development, the embryo forms into two layers, an an outer layer which will become the placenta,
and an inner mass which will form the tissues of the developing human body. These inner cells,
though they can form nearly any human tissue, cannot do so without the outer layer; so are not
 totipotent, but pluripotent. As these pluripotent stem cells continue to divide, they begin to specialize
further

Multipotent stem cells

 These are …………………. and more ……………………………. stem cells. They give rise to a
……………………………………………………………………………………………. They can
become one of several types of cells within a given organ. For example, multipotent blood stem cells
can develop into ………………………………………………………………………………………

 zygote / morula are ………………………………stem cells as they give rise to …………………..

 blastocyst / inner cell mass contains ……………………………….. cells that give rise to the cells of
the embryo (and not the extra embryonic tissue) / ……………………………………
 cells in the developing embryo are ………………………….as they become
……………………………………

The similarities and differences between embryonic and adult stem cells

 Embryonic stem cells can become …………………………………………….. because they

are pluripotent. Adult stem cells are thought to be limited to differentiating into different cell types of
their tissue of origin.
 Embryonic stem cells can be …………………………………………………….. Adult stem cells are
rare in mature tissues, so isolating these cells from an adult tissue is challenging
 Embryonic stem cells are that they offer one cell source for multiple indications. They provide the
potential for a ……………………………………………. than do adult stem cells.
 Adult stem cells, and tissues derived from the patient, are currently believed less likely to initiate
rejection after transplantation.
 Adult stem cells ……………………………………………. roused by embryonic stem cell research.
 Embryonic stem cells appear to be immortal in vitro, while adult and differentiated stem cells cannot
be cultured indefinitely in the lab. Once differentiated, these stem cells seem to die off like typical
tissue cells.

Induced pluripotent stem cells?

 Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are …………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
  They are a type of ………………………. stem cell that can be generated directly from adult cells.

Therapeutic cloning or somatic cell cloning

Therapeutic cloning: …………………………………………………………………………………………..
In therapeutic cloning, the ……………………………., typically a skin cell, is inserted into a
……………………………. whose nucleus has been ……………………….. The nucleated egg begins to
divide repeatedly to form a ………………….. Scientists then extract stem cells from the blastocyst and use
them to grow cells that are a ……………………………………………… for the patient. The cells created
via therapeutic cloning can then be ………………………… into the patient to treat a disease from which
the patient suffers.
What are the potential uses of human stem cells and the obstacles that must be overcome before these
potential uses will be realized?
 There are many ways in which human stem cells can be used in ………………………………..
Studies of human embryonic stem cells will yield information about the complex events that occur
during human development. A primary goal of this work is to identify how undifferentiated stem
cells become the differentiated cells that form the tissues and organs.
 Human stem cells are currently being used …………………………………………..
 The generation of cells and tissues that could be used
for …………………………………………………………….

Using stem cells

Since stem cells can form many different kinds of specialised cell, potentially they could be used to treat
medical conditions where there is a loss, shortage or a reduced function of certain cell types. For example:

 …………………………………………….. – progressive loss of ………………………………….

that are involved in …………… control.
o Parkinson's disease is a progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement.
Symptoms start gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable …………….. in just
one hand. Tremors are common, but the disorder also commonly causes …………….. or
…………………………………………..
o In Parkinson's disease, certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain gradually break down or die.
Many of the symptoms are due to a loss of neurons that produce a chemical messenger in
your brain called ………………………... When dopamine levels decrease, it causes
abnormal brain activity, leading to symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
  ………………………………………….. – caused when cells in the ……………… produces less
than the normal level of ………………………. in response to a rise in blood glucose concentration.
o Type 1 diabetes is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin.
Insulin is a hormone needed to allow sugar (glucose) to enter cells to produce energy.
o Type 1 diabetes happens when your immune system destroys cells in your pancreas called beta
cells.

 ………………………. – skin cells damaged so cannot be replaced.

 ……………………………..

Benefits and risks associated with the use of stem cells in medicine

Stem cells have great potential, in treating patients with currently untreatable conditions, growing organs for
transplants, and research. But there are clinical, ethical and social issues with their use. These issues will be
different for growth and transplant of adult, embryonic and therapeutically-cloned stem cells. They will also
depend on whether the stem cells are to be used for therapy or research.

It is important to obtain a balanced view. Sometimes, there are no right or wrong answers, or even answers
at all.

Some variables which would be considered when discussing stem cells include:

Clinical issues

 There is ……………………………………………………………………………. will be, for example the

use of stem cells in replacing nerve cells lost in Parkinson’s disease patients.

 The current ………………………………………………………………………………………….

 The difficulty in ………………………………………………………………………………………..

These would have to be collected before birth - some clinics offer to store blood from the umbilical cord
when a person is born.

 ……………………….. have been observed in stem cells cultured for a number of generations, and some
mutated stem cells have been observed to behave like …………………………..

 Cultured stem cells could be ………………………………………………………….. which would be

transferred to a patient.

Ethical issues

 A source of embryonic stem cells is unused embryos produced by in vitro fertilisation (IVF)
 For therapeutic cloning ………………………………………………………… for therapy, and destroy
them in the process?
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………, and not as an
embryo that could develop into a person.
 At …………………………………………….. should an embryo be regarded as, and treated as a
………………….?
 Social issues

 ……………………………………………………… about what stem cells can, and can't do, is important.

 Whether the ………………………………………………………………………………………………...

 Much of the research is being carried out by commercial clinics, so reported successes are not subject to
peer review. Patients could be exploited by …………………………………………………. and being
…………………………………………………………………….. as stem cell therapies are only in their
developmental stages.

Why are regulatory authorities important?

 …………………………………………………………...
 …………………………………………………………….
 ……………………………………………………………