Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.

2, July-Dec 2010

RE\, I F\" ,\RTI(,LE

Forensic Instrumental Technique Series-VI

ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY-A REVIEW

AK JaiswaJl, M. Mohrana2, P.H.R. Krishna3, D.V. Moon4, T. Mill0 5, O.P. Murty6

ABSTRACT spectroscopy, the sample is first converted into an atomic

vapour and the absorption of atomic vapour is measured at
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) plays
a selected wavelength which is characteristic of each
important role for analysis of several metals It s use is
individual element. So, when a light of this Wavelength is
readily understood from breadth of its applications. The
allowed to pass through a flame having atoms of the metallic
range of material that can be analyzed by AAS is
species, part of that light will be absorbed and the
essentially unlimited. Applications are found in such
absorption will be proportional to the density of the atoms
diverse field as forensic science, pharmaceuticals, food
in the flame. Thus, in AAs one determines the amount of
and agriculture, biological and clinical chemistry,
light absorbed. Once this value of absorption is known,
environmental chemistry and many others'!t is a very
the concentration of metallic element can be calculated
common and simple insfnlment which is available in nearly
because the absorption is directly proportional to the
almost all the laboratory.
density of the atoms in the flame. Here, the absorption is
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Keywords: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy; Metals; independent of the wavelength of absorption and the
AAS; Absorption. temperature of the atoms.
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In AAS the signal is obtained from the difference

INTRODUCTION
Since its introduction by Alan Walsh in the mid 1950
atomic absorption spectroscopy has proved itself to be
the most powerful instrumental technique for the qualitative/
quantitative determination of trace metals in any substance.
This method provides a total metal content of the sample
and is almost independent of molecular form of the metal in
the liquid. The importance of this instrument can be realized
from the fact that nearly more than 70 elements including
most of the common rare earth metals have been determined
in concentrations that ranges from traces to macro
quantities. In this method, one can determine metal
concentration in the presence of many other elements.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is not only used for
aqueous solutions but also to non-aqueous solutions.
The metallurgical engineer, non-chemist, biologist or
clinician can handle this instrument very convenientlyI·2.
PRINCIPLE
This technique involves the study of absorption of
radiation (usually in the ultraviolet visible region) by neutral
atoms in the gaseous state. Thus in atomic absorption
1,5,6 Dept!. of Forensic Medicine And Toxicology,
All India. Institute of Medical SCiences,
Ansari Nagar, New Delhi-l 10029,
2,3,4. Indian Bureaue of Mines, GU Palya
Yeshwanthapur,Bangalore-560022
Corresponding Author. A.K. laiswal
Email: akjtoxil@yahoo.com
64
between the intensity of the source in the absence of metallic
elements present in the liquid and the decreased intensity
obtained when metallic elements are present in the optical
path. In this technique atomic absorption depends upon
the number of unexcited and the absorption intensity does
not depend on the temperature of the flame. The relation
between the absorbance and the concentration is nearly
linear. It means Beer's law is obeyed over a wide range of
concentrations.
ADVANTAGES OF ATOMIC ABSORPTION
SPECTROSCOPY OVER FLAME EMISSION
SPECTROSCOPY
(a) The atomic absorption technique is specific, because
the atoms of a particular element can only absorb
radiation of their own characteristic wavelength.
Spectral Interferences which occur in flame emission
spectroscopy therefore occur rarely.
(b) Because of the much larger number of metal atoms
that contribute to an atomic absorption signal,
variation in flame temperatures has shown relatively
less effect in AAS than Flame emission spectroscopy
in which the smaller number of atoms are producing
an emission signal.
(c) It is more sensitive then flame emission.
(d) This technique is quite independent of flame
temperature.
(e) It is rapid and requires only small amount of
materials.
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010

DISADVANTAGES OF ATOMIC ABSORPTION a = Absorption coefficient, a constant which is

SPECTROSCOPY characteristic of the absorbing species

(a) A separate lamp for each element to be determined is b = Path length

required. Nowadays to overcome this multielement c = Concentration of the absorbing species in the absorption
lamps are developed with a high resolution cell.
monochromator.
This equation states that the absorbance is directly
(b) This technique cannot be used very successfully for proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species
the estimation of refractory metals like, AI, Mo, V, and for a given set of instrumental conditions. When the
Sietc., absorbances of standard solutions of known
(c) The use of this technique is limited to metals only. concentrations of analyte are measured and the absorbance
data are plotted against concentration, a calibration
relationship similar to that in Figure 2 is obtained.
ATOMIC ABSORPTION PROCESS
Over the region where the Beer's Law relationship is
The atomic absorption process is igiven in the Figure 1.
observed, the calibration yields a straight line. As the
Light at the resonance wavelength of initial intensity 10 is
concentration and absorbance increase, non-idealities in
focused on the flame cell containing ground state atoms.
the absorption process cause a deviation from straight line
The initial light intensity is decreased by an amount
behavior as shown in ftg 2.
determined by the atom concentration in the flame cell.
The light is then directed on to the detector where the
reduced intensity 1 is measured. The amount of light
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absorbed is determined by comparing 1 to 10

The "transmittance" (T) is deftned as the ratio of the
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fmal intensity to the initial intensity. Transmittance is an

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indication of the fraction of initial light which passes

through the flame cell to fall on the detector.

T= I 110
%T= 100xIllo
A=IOO-T
%A= 100-% CONC.ENT~ATJO N
~
There is another term "absorbance" which is purely a
mathematical quantity. Fig 2: Graphical Representation of Beer's Law.
A=log(U1o)
INSTRUMENTATION
Absorbance is the most used term for characterizing light
There are two basic types of atomic absorption
absorption in absorption spectrophotometry, as this
instruments, one is single-beam and other is double-beam.
quantity follows a linear relationship with concentration.
Schematic diagram of single beam atomic absorption
As per Beer's law defines as
spectrophotometer and double-beam atomic absorption
A=abc spectrophotometer are given in Figure 3 and Figure 4
respectively. Atomic Absorption spectroscopy instrument
Where generally contains the following basic components3-4.
A = absorbance, 1. The light source of the element of interest.
2. Chopper to break the steady light from the lamp into
pulsating light.

0-----'
~O\l't..(.t of:
3. An "absorption cell" in which atoms of the sample are
produced (flame, graphite furnace, MRS cell).
Ll.u. .. '\' 4. A monochromator for light dispersion.
5. A detector for measurement of light intensity.
6. A display that shows the reading.
Fig 1 : Atomic Absorption Process.
65
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010

field to collide with the negatively charged cathode and

dislodge individual metal atoms in a process called
,~::----1 "sputtering". Sputtered metal atoms are then excited to
l ,'~
~~lo( emission through impact with gas ions.
Hollow cathode lamps have a finite lifetime. As the
lamp is used, the sputtering process may remove some of
the metal atoms from the vicinity of the cathode to be
deposited elsewhere. Lamps for volatile metals such as
arsenic, selenium, and cadmium damage faster due to rapid
vaporization of the cathode during use. Adsorption offill
gas atoms onto the inside surface of the lamp housing is a
primary cause of this type oflamp failure.
Electrodeless Discharge Lamps(EDL): Another light
source is electrodeless discharge lamp (EDL). EDLs offer
better spectral output, longer life, for better precision and
Fig 4 : Double-Beam Atomic Absorption lower detection limits. A small amount of the element or salt
Spectrophotometer of the element for which the source is to be used is sealed
inside a quartz bulb. This bulb is placed inside a ceramic
1. LIGHT SOURCES cylinder on which the antenna from a radio frequency
In order to measure this narrow light absorption with generator is coiled. When an Rf field of sufficient power is
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maximum sensitivity, it is necessary to use a line source, applied, the coupled energy will vaporize and excite the
which emits the very specific wavelengths that can be atoms inside the bulb into emitting their characteristic
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absorbed by the atom. The hollow cathode lamp is an spectrum. Electrodeless discharge lamps are available for
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excellent, light source for most of the elements shown in
figure 5. The anode and cathode are sealed in a glass
cylinder filled with either neon or argon. A window
transparent to the emitted radiation is fused to the end of
the cylinder. The anode is in the form of a thick wire,
generally of tungsten or nickel.
Aluminium, Antimony, Arsenic, Bismuth, Cadmium, Cesium,
Germanium, Mercury, Potassium, Phosphorus, Rubidium,
Selenium, Tellurium, Thallium, Tin, Titanium etc. Hollow
cathode lamps also exist for these elements.
2. CHOPPER

The emission process is illustrated in Figure 6. When
an electrical potential is applied between anode and
cathode, some of the filled gas atoms are ionized. The
positively charged ions accelerate through the electrical
A rotating wheel is placed in between the hollow
cathode lamp and the flame. This rotating wheel is called as
chopper and is imposed to break the steady light from the
lamp into pulsating light. Chopper gives a pulsating current
in the photocell. There is also a steady current caused by
light which is emitted by a flame, but only the pulsating
current is amplified and recorded and, thus the absorption
oflight will be measured without interference from the light
emitted by the flame itself.

3. ABSORPTION CELL
Burner System: In order to achieve absorption by atoms, it
becomes necessary to bring the sample to the atomic state.
The most common way is to use a flame which is used for
converting the liquid sample into the gaseous state and
also for conversion of the molecular entities into an atomic
Fig 5: Hollow Cathode Lamp vapour. Cutaway view of an atomic absorption burner
system is shown in figure 7. Generally there are two types
1 .JoU1T''''H~
:.. l.MI1o~,eN of burners are in use
I ,:-' -~:--, :
~ ::: ~-:j ":r'" , ,;,4 a. Total consumption burner: Total consumption burner is
.: ...,M·
l-) \'
"~'-
..... '-"I:I: 1/".... )
.~
noisy and hard to use. The efficiency of this burner is not
\! ---..---,.,~~
!, _ _
~ - -'-·-1
_. lL, ...:...-=,=-' very good. In this burner,the sample solution,the fuel and
oxidizing gas are passed through separate passages and
Fig 6 : Emission Process meet at an opening at the base of the flame

66
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010
Fig 7: Cutaway view of an atomic absorption
burner system
b. Premixed burner: Most of the AAS instruments having
the premixed burners. In this a mixture of the sample solution
and premixed gases say acetylene and oxygen is allowed
to enter the burner. In this "premix" system, sample solution
is aspirated through a nebulizer and sprayed as a fine
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aerosol into the mixing chamber. Here the sample aerosol is
mixed with fuel and oxidant gases and carried to the burner
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head, where combustion and sample atomization occur. Fuel
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gas is introduced into the mixing chamber through the fuel
inlet, and oxidant enters through the nebulizer sidearm.
Stainless steel has been the most common material used
for construction of the nebulizer, but this has the
disadvantage of corrosion from samples. For such cases,
nebulizers constructed of a corrosion resistant material,
such as an inert plastic or platinum-rhodium alloy can be
used.
Generally, the uptake rate of the sample solution for a
conventional fixed nebulizer is about 6 mVmin. At higher
uptakes the system tends to saturate, and the additional
solution is not effectively atomized by the flame.
Burner Heads: Burners are designed specifically for the
various combustion gas mixtures employed. They are all
made of solid titanium which is corrosion resistant and free
of most of the elements commonly determined by atomic
absorption. There are three burner heads available for use
with the dual-option burner system.
i. The 10-cm burner head is designed to be used with the
air-acetylene flame. Because of its long burner path
length, it provides the best sensitivity for air-acetylene
elements.
ii. The 5-cm burner head or nitrous oxide burner head is
required for nitrous oxide-acetylene operation. It can
also be used with air-acetylene or air-hydrogen. It can
be rotated 90° to provide reduced sensitivity.
iii. The three slot burner head can be used for air-acetylene
and argon-hydrogen-entrained air flames. It is
67
designed to be used when analyzing samples with high
concentrations of dissolved solids. With a fuel-rich,
chemically reducing flame, free analyte atoms persist
up to 4 cm above the burner tip.
Flames: Major function of the flame is to convert the sample
to the atomic state. The two most common oxidant I fuel
combinations used in atomic absorption are air-acetylene
and nitrous oxide - acetylene. Other flames that can be
used for atomic absorption are the air-hydrogen flame and
the argon-hydrogen-entrained air flame. The air-hydrogen
flame burns with a temperature of approximately 2000"Cs.
Air Acetylene: Air-acetylene is the preferred flame for the
determination of marked elements by atomic absorption.
The temperature of the air-acetylene flame is about 2300"C.
For the air-acetylene flame, the acetylene flow is about 4
liters I minute. Following precautions should be taken
during handling of Air- Acetylene flame.
1. Normally, welding grade acetylene is supplied
dissolved in acetone. As tank pressure falls, the
concentration of acetone entering the flame increases.
This increase may produce erratic results when
determining elements that require a fuel-rich flame or
elements with analytical wavelengths in the lower UV
range.
2. Acetone passing into the gas control box may damage
valve and tUbing. For these reasons, acetylene
cylinders should be replaced when the tank pressure
falls below 75 psig (520 kPa).
3. The high solubility of acetylene in acetone enables it
to be supplied dissolved in acetone.
4. Acetylene cylinders are filled with a porous material,
which carries the acetone.
5. Cylinders should always be used in a vertical position
to minimize liquid acetone entering the gas line.
6. As the cylinder pressure falls, the acetone entering
the gas stream increases, producing instability of the
flame and erratic results for flame stoichiometry
sensititive elements such as calcium, tin and others.
7. Acetylene line pressure from the cylinder to the
instrument should never be allowed to exceed 100 k Pa
(15 psig). At higher pressures, acetylene can
spontaneously decompose or explode.
8. Acetylene and copper form an explosive combination.
So Copper tubing or fittings for acetylene gas must,
hence be strictly avoided. Both fuel and oxidant
pressure in all gas lines should be relieved at the end
of the experiment.
9. Compressed air is needed for Air-acetylene flame. The
air supply should provide a minimum of28 liters lmin
at a minimum pressure of 275 k Pa. It is essential to
have a water and oil traps or filter between the
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010

compressor and the instrument gas control system to the detector through a window strike a photocathode,
keep oil and water droplets out of the flow-metering Electrons are ejected from the photocathode and
stem. accelerated by a voltage potential to the 1st dynode, where
more electrons are released. These are accelerated to the
Nitrous oxide - Acetylene: The nitrous oxide -
2nd dynode, repeating the electron multiplication step. The
acetylene flame has a maximum temperature of about 2900"(: process repeats with each dynode stage until fmally the
and is used for the determination of elements which form stream of electrons reaches the anode, amplified as much
refractory oxides. It is also used to overcome chemical as a hundred million times. The resulting electrical signal
interferences that may be present in flames of lower then goes to the main amplifier8•
temperature. The use of nitrous oxide requires a number of
accessories and precautions.
l. When nitrous oxide is rapidly removed from the
cylinder, the expanding gas causes cooling of the
cylinder pressure regulator and the regulator diaphragm
so that it sometimes freezes. This can create erratic
flame conditions. It is therefore, advisable to heat the
regulator, using either a built in heater or an externally
supplied source of heat such as an electrical resistance
heating tape.
2. Only the nitrous oxide burner head can be used with
the nitrous oxide-acetylene flame.
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3. ~lliines carrying nitrous oxide should be free

of grease,
011 or other organic material, as it is possible for ~f;t.»ar C l, II'
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spontaneous combustion to occur.

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4. Care should be exercised with nitrous oxide on cold
and humid days in that the flow of gas through the
regulator forms ice and under extreme conditions can
freeze up the regulator causing erratic results.
4. MONOCHROMATOR
The function of the monochromator is to isolate that
resonance line from non absorbing lines situated close to it
in the source system. A general purpose monochromator
should be able to separate two lines 0.1 nm apart or less
when operating with minimum slit width. The better the
monochromator the smaller the slit width 7•
Pictorial view of monochromator is given in Figure 8.
Light from the source enters the monochromator at the
entrance slit and is directed to the grating where dispersion
takes place. The diverging wavelengths oflight are directed
towards the exit slit. By adjusting the angle of the grating,
a selected emission line from the source can be allowed to
pass through the exit slit and fall onto the detector. All
other lines are blocked from exiting. The useful atomic
absorption wavelength ranges from 200--900 nm.
5. DETECTORS
Photo-multiplier tubes are used for conversion of the
radient energy signal to an electrical one. Photo-multiplier
tube consists of a vacuum photo cell with an anode, a
radiation sensitive electrode and a number of emission
cathodes which have increasing positive potential with
respect to the photo cathode. Photo-multipliers with a total
of 10- 15 electrodes are frequently used. Photons entering
Fig 8: Monochromator
6. READOUT SYSTEM
The readout system of an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer is simply the means whereby amplified
electrical signals from the photomultiplier are translated
into instrumental readings corresponding to the analytical
result. In most of the atomic absorption measurement simple
meters, digital displays, printers, chart recorders, and of
course computers are used.
SENSITIVITY, DETECTION LIMIT AND WORKING
RANGE
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the concentration of an element
that will produce a transmittance of99% (absorbance of 0.0044),
also known as reciprocal sensitivity orcharncteristic concentration..
As long as measurements are made in the linear working
range, the sensitivity of an element can be determined by
reading the absorbance produced by a known concentration
of the element, and solving the proportional equation below
Sensitivity Cone. ofstandard x 0.0044
Measured Absorbance
Sensitivity Check: Different instruments will produce
different values of sensitivity for the same element. The
sensitivity check (in mg/L) value is the concentration of
element that will produce a signal of approximately 0.2
absorbance units under optimum conditions at the
wavelength listed. Using the sensitivity check, the operator
can determine if instrumental parameters are optimized and if
the instrument is performing up to specifications.

68
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010
Detection Limit: The detection limit is defined as the
minimwn concentration of an element which can be detected
with 95% certainity. This is that quantity of the element
which gives a reading equal to twice the standard deviation
of a series of at least 10 determinations at or near blank
level. Detection Limit =2 X Std. Dev .x Conc.lMean Abs.
Working Range: This is the range of concentration of
analyte element which will produce suitable absorbance
values for practical analysis. Generally, however, the working
range should lie between 0.1- 0.8 absorbance since this is
usually the region of optimum optical precision. Specifically
the % relative error is minimum in the absorbance range
from 0.1 - 0.8. Useful measurements can be made at lower
absorbance, and the overall working range can extend to a
lower limit that is about ten times the detection limit.
The working range can be extended by either diluting
all the solutions or altering the instrumental sensitivity. In
flame analyses, selecting alternative (less sensitivity)
wavelengths, rotating the burner across the optical path,
or doing both will allow determinations to be carried out at
significantly higher concentrations
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INTERFERENCEINATOWCABSORPTION
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Following types of interferences generally encountered in
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AAS
a. Spectral Interferences
a. This type of interference may be caused by
overlapping of any radiation with that of characterstic
radiation of the test element to be estimated. The
interfering radiation may be an emission line of
another element. radical or molecule, unresolved band
spectra or general background radiation from the
flame, solvent.
b. In this case the lines will be read together in
proportion to the degree of overlap if the resolving
power and spectral band pass ofthe monochromator
permit the undesired radiation to reach the
photoreceptor. For example, the overlapping of
Manganese triplet (4031,4033, and 4035 A) the
gallium line (4033 A) and potassium doublet (4044
and 4047 A).
c. This type of overlapping can be overcome by
selecting other spectral lines.
d. Suppose the spectral interferences is due to sample
matrices or flame components one can overcome this
problem by working withAC amplifiers tuned to the
frequency at which the source is chopped or
modulated.
h Matrix Interferences
1. Chemical interferences are due to the number of free
atoms reaching the optical path to be absorbed.
2. Factors such as precipitation of the sample before
to entry into the nebulizer are critical, as are the
69
physical characteristics of solutions such as
viscosity, surface tension, density, PH, and solvent
vapour pressure, since all these parameters influence
nebulization.
3. For accurate results the standards and samples
should be matched as closely as possible with
respect to the above physical parameters.
4. Other forms of chemical interference are stable
compound formation and ionization.
c. Chemical Interferences
1. Stable compound formation is responsible for many
of the depressive effects that are observed, both in
atomic absorption and flame emission spectrometry.
2. It arises because the element forms a stable
compound either with a species in the matrix or with
a species in the flame such as aluminium, vanadium,
boron etc., which forms stable refractory oxides not
broken down in the cooler air-acetylene flame.
3. Using high temperatures in the Nitrous Oxide-
Acetylene flame, dissociates the refractory
compounds into atoms.
4. Alternatively a releasing agent such as Lanthanum
or Strontium will help to prevent the formation of the
refractory compounds.
5. Lanthanum works as a agent by forming more stable
compounds.
6. It is added in a sufficiently large quantity to complex
the interferent. The use of such releasing agents
should be added to match standards also.
d Interference Due to Ionization
1. The temperatures of the acetylene or Nitrous Oxide-
acetylene flames may cause considerable ionization
of the analyte.
2. To overcome this problem an easily ionizable element
such as potassium, sodium or cesium is added
sufficiently to produce an excess of electrons in the
flame, thus inhibiting ionization of the analyte.
TECHNIQUES FOR OPTIMIZATION
a. Choice o/Wavelength: Use a Wavelength that does not
require excessive dilution of the sample. Use of line free
from spectral interference also produces a large linear range
of the calibration curve.
b. Lamp current optimization: The use of as Iowan
operating current as possible is better to increase the life of
the lamp and to minimize curvature due to self absorption.
However if the signal is noisy, a higher lamp current will
have to be used, taking care not to exceed the maximum
lamp current.
c. Sample Introduction System: The sample introduction
system comprises nebulization, spray chamber burner and
 Journal of forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010

flame conditions. After optimizing the wavelength and
zeroing the absorbance reading, the burner is adjusted by
using the horizontal vertical rotational controls. The main
aim in adjusting these controls is to locate the optimum
position of the flame in the light beam. Generally, an uptake
of3-6 mllmin is optimum for pneumatic nebulizers. In the
case of Nitrous Oxide-Acetylene flame an uptake of2-4 mll
min is good. Only nebulization should be done in air-
acetylene flame. Optimization ofthe nebulizer is normally
carried out with 5 ppm Copper standard solution. Usually
three standards and a blank are used to cover the range of
0.1 to 0.8 Abs. The calibration is performed by using the
blank solution to Zero. The standards should be aspirated
in ascending order and blank run between standards to
ensure the baseline has not changed. A graph of
Absorbance Vs Concentration is plotted for linearity.
APPLICATION OF THE ATOMIC ABSORPTION
SPECTROSCOPY
1. Analysis of metallic elements in biological samples
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4. Different elements in Agricultural samples
Besides the elements Na, K, Ca, Mn, the trace elements
Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, Mo and B are of special interest in fertilizers
and plant because they play an important role in the cycle
of plants. The analysis of plant materials is always done by
ashing and dissolving in hydrochloric acid.
S. Forensic Science / Toxicology
Different Forensic samples like Wearing apparels, wood,
plastic, skin, glass, leather, metal piece etc., are analyzed
for trace elements Cu, Sb, Hg, Pb, Ni, Sn by AAS.
6. Determination oftoxic elements in wine analysis
Metals in wine occur at the mgllievel or less and though
not directly related to the taste of the final product, their
content should be determined because excess is
undesirable, and in some cases prohibited, due to potential
toxicity. Lead content in wine for example is restricted in
several countries. Ten trace elements which may be toxic or
to which wine is sensitive, can be determined by AAS.

The atomic absorption spectroscopy is becoming a very 7. Monitoring of toxic elements in waters and effluents
important instrument for the measurement of trace metals
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Monitoring toxic elements in effluents or sludge,

in biological materials. The procedure which has been
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leachates from wastes. Drinking ground, surface and

developed recently and decomposition of the organic
material is the use of hydrogen peroxide. We can get good
results for the digestions of blood, liver and meat products
with combination of acids such as conc H2SO4' RNO3 etc .
2. Analysis of calcium, magnesium in blood serum for
cUnical diagnosis
The determination of Ca & Mg elements in blood serum
is of vital importance in diagnosing many pathological
conditions, like diabetes, and primary aldosterionism. AAS
is regarded as the most suitable instrument for the
determination of these elements in blood serum.
The determination of calcium and magnesium in serum and
urine is the most widely used applications of AAS. The
simplest procedure employed is the direct analysis of 1:20
to 1: 50 diluted sample in an air-acetylene flame. Lanthanum
is added to the diluted serum sample to suppress the
phosphate interference.
3. Analysis of metal in foodstuffs, drinks and beverages
Combinations of nitric, perchloric; nitric, sulphuric;
phosphoric acid, nitric acid and hydrozen peroxide can be
used to bring the sample into solution. Organic substances
can also be decomposed with oxidizing agents agents like
potassium perchlorate, hydrogen peroxide, vanadium
pentoxide etc. For less volatile elements ashing IS
advantageous before the acid digestions. Beverages must
be degassed before spraying. Elements generally analyzed
are Cd in Fish, AI in MJlk, and Ph in food stuffs, AI, Ca, Cd,
Cu, Fe, Mg, Pb and Zn in vegetable samples. As,Se,Hg and
Pb in drinking water, Cr in sewage sludge, leaves etc.
wastewater and sludge samples are analyzed for nearly 33
elements using AAS. The preconcentration of the water
sample i.e., 250: 10 after acidification by either hydrochloric
acid or nitric acid is the best technique for analysis by
AAS.
8. Analysis of metals in geocbemical, minerological
samples
Rock samples received during exploration and mining
activities are normally determined by digesting with the
combinations of either RN0 3 and HF, HF and HCL or HF,
RN0 3, H2 S04 and preparing the clear solution in diluted
acid usually hydrochloric acid. For mineralogical samples
depending on the nature of the sample, several fusion
techniques are suggested. After fusion the samples are
brought into solution using sulphuric acid or hydrochloric
acid. This solution can be introduced to flame for the
elemental analysis by AAS.
9. Determination of Lead (Pb), Barium (Ba) and Tin (Sn)
in forensic sample9-l1
Determination of Lead (Pb), Barium (Ba) and Tin (Sn) is
very important in forensic samples specially in gunshot
residue for identification of the shooter in a gunshot case.
Determination of Lead (Pb), Barium (Ba) and Tin (Sn) by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer has got many
advantages over other methods e.g colorimetric method in
terms of reliability and accuracy of results. Swabs can be
taken from hands with a suitable acid such as Hydrochloric
Acid (HCI ) or Nitric Acid (RN0 3 ) and the sample solution

70
 Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology Vol. 27 No.2, July-Dec 2010

can be aspirated into the flame of an Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer for determination of Lead (Pb), Barium
(Ba) and Tin (Sn) content.
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