foe Enginects és CHAPTER UT DAMPED AND FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATION Motion in a resisting medinm-Logarithmic decrement of damped scillaare isten-Pewer dissipation in damped harmonic oselltion = Quality “tor Example of damped harmonic oscillation : the LCR circwit-F ‘Quality factor-Sharpness of resonance-Phase of the driven ar-Power absorplion-Driven LCR circuitSalved problems 3.1 Motion in a resisting medium When the bob of a simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position and then released, it will execute simple harmonic motion. force trying petually to bring it back to its mean position. The time period of oscillation depends only on the length of the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity of the place. As there is no 10ss of energy by friction or otherwise, the pendulum will go on oscillating with the same time period and amplitude for any length of time. These types of vibrations will be undamped and are referred to as undamped free vibration In actual practice a simple harmonic oscillator almost always vibrates in a resisting medivn, lke air oil, ete, Consequently when the oscillator vibrates in such a meditim, energy is dissipated in each vibration in overcoming the opposing frictional or viscous forces The amplitude of vibration, therefore, goes on decreasi progressively with time. Such forces, which afe non-conservative in nature, have thus a damping effect om the oscillations and are aptly referred to as damping, resistive or dissiputiveorces. Inthe absence af any such frees the osilaions will continue indefinitely, without any change in amplitude (Fig. 3,1), But inthe presence of these frees, the amplitede of vibration dees ously wl time and finally the oscillations die out, Such ‘ree damped vib : ibrations arePhysgg Time —= Fig. 3.1 ‘Thus a body executing simple harmonic oscillations in a damping medium will be simultaneously subjected to the following two opposing forces : WBF the festoring” force: acting on the body which is proportional to the displacement of the body and acts in a direction opposite to the displacement. Let this force be ~ ay where a is the force constant GIF a resistive oF damping force. It has been. shown by Mayevski that-at ordinary velocities, the opposing, resistive or damping force is, to a first approximation, proportional to the velocity of the oscillating body. ‘As most cases of interest to us fall in the category of ordinary velocities, the damping or resistive force may thus be represented by cere b is a constant of proportionality. b is a positive constant ‘coefficient of the medium and may be looked upoo “dissipative force per unit velocity. The negative fluence on the vibration of the particle wh called damping as the resistive or sign signifies a restraining in Thus, the diffe equation of motion of 'a body executing damped harmonic oscillations may be written as @y 4 ay-b. & m. =for Engineer 3B gy +a Dawy= ae yne co) © and w? =a, Eqn. (3.1) is referred to as the differential equation of a damped harmonic oscillator. Solution of eqn. (3.1) + Eqn, 3.1) which is a homogeneous linear type differential equation of the second order, rust have at least one solution of the form y = Ae where A and k are both arbitrary constants. Let this be used as atrial solution, Differentiating y = Ac with respect to time, we get Ae! and #3 a Substituting these values in eqns(3.1), we have WeAct + 2nkAc" + wel =0 Dividing throughout by Ae, we have Ke Dk tw? #0 62) qn, (3.2) is clearly a quadratic equation in k, the solution of which is kena dP—w? ‘The differential equation (3.1) is, therefore, satisfied by two values of y, vir, akfor Eine=ts % dy dy ae dt « Lay o» where2= and w? =a/n Eqn. (3.1) is referred to a8 the differential equation of a damped harmonie oscillator. Solution of eqn. (3.1) + Eqn. G.1) which is a homogeneous linear type differential equation of the second order, must have at least one solution of the form y = Ae’ where A and k are both arbitrary constants, Let this be used as a tral solution Differentiating y = Act with respect to time, we get fy Be Kae! and HL ek? Aet at a Substituting these values in eqn=(3.1), we have WAct + 22kAc! + welt =0 Dividing throughout by Ae, we have K+ Dk tw sO 62) Eqn. (3.2) is clearly a quadratic equation in k, the solution of which is ke-neVPw? The differential equation (3,1) is thereto, saiaied by two values of y, . (2+ e(-h-VAP a?a Physi ‘The equation being a linear one, the linear sum of the tyq Tinearly independent sotutions of the equation is also. a ~ ing iijoed the most general solution, Thus the general solution is, To (Eaky Ging ayeiaty 6a where A, and A; are two arbitrary constants, ‘The values of the arbitrary constants A; and A; may be determined as follows: Differentiating eqn. (3.3) with respect to t, we get ae HAVA IW?) Age G4) Let the maximuim value ofthe displacement y be yar = doy 5 at time ¢ = 0. Then we have from eqn. (3.3) 7 ee Yous == A; + Ar 6s) Again, the velocity is zero at maximum displaceinent, ie... atr=0. : & Hence from eqn. (3.4), we have (Chev - of, =A(A +A, )4VR ow? (A, - or, Va? =w? (A, -A,)=2(A, +A;)= ag or, A,-Ay : ti G6) Adding eqns. (3.5) and (3.6), we have dagfor Enginers (ates sarc s fierdel te \ va? -w ) The c important cases now arise () 22 > ws Damping is large; iP —w? is clearly a real quantity with a positive value, less than 2. Thus each terms on the righthand side of ean, G2) ha apative power and lence each decreases exponentially with time, I this weer the pariele docs not vibrate, The displacement, after attaining is case tna value falls off asymptotically to zero {curve () Fig 3.2) eee gus no escillation and the motion is, therefore, called sreamped or apeeriodic, or dead beat. Examples are x dead beat uivanometce ora pendulum osellaing na viscous Mud Tike ol the two ponential vem with a Wi) Rew so that each of the two terms on the right hand side of eqn. (3.7) in this case, a2 —w? 18 obviously equal to zero, becomes infinite and the solution breaks down, Let us, however, consider that 2? is not quite equal to w", but ery nearly so, $0 that Em & Ba very sl amity but non ero. Then from eq. (3.3), we have Ay BEM La Aye PMYPhysic, %6 h We * eave BE ay Neglecting terms containing second and higher powers of h, we get y= EMA (1 +h) + Ar(1—hO] = MEAL + Ay) +(Ar~ Ag) ht] G8) Putting (A; + Az) = M and (A, - Az) h =N, we have y=e™(M+ NO, Recalling that y= yg = a and 2. =0 at t = 0, we have M= ymax “ay and N =a [A.-Ar= Eqn. (3.8), therefore, becomes (ay + Ragl) = ae (1420) 69) The second term in eqn. (3.9), vis, ayité™ decays less rapidly ‘han the first term, vis: age" and the displacement of the oscillator ‘first increases but as ¢ increases the exponential factor becomes more important and the displacement decreases rapidly reaching the value zero for a-finite value of ti The oscillator just cones to oscillate and is motion just becomes aperiodic or rove eon, This sealed the case of ertcal damping [ourve (i) in Fig 3.2 te necessary condition for which is that 2 should be almost, but not quite, equal 10 w? (i.e,, 22> w?)pe xine 8 This principle finds: application in many, pein iairamens Tike galvanometers where the pointer moves at once, and stays at, the correct position, without any annoying oscillations. onedanped Fig. 32 It may be seen that although the motion is non-osellatory both ’ tical damping and overdamping the time taken to reach in case of tion from a given’ displacement becomes near the equilibrium posi greater and greater with the inrease of damping. he quantity Vatu is clearly (ii) P< ws i =w equa tog where iV=1 and g~ Jw? =H a eal quanti. Eqn. (3.3) then becomes: imaginary, say ye E AO or, y= OMA et Ane) ALA, (60s gt ti sin gt) + Aa (cos gt =i sin g0)) = eM(AL + As) £08 gt +i (Ar Ad) sin gt) Putting (Ar + A)= A and i(Ar- Ay)‘ Physi 8 "(A cos gt +B sin gt) if A. B and ag be related as shown in Fig. 3.3. Fig. 3.3 5 A B (ao cos gt + ay sin gt ) © (ao cos gt sin $ + ay sin gt cos 6) =e ay sin(gt+ 9) aye” sin (gt + 6) 3.10) Eqn. G10) is the equation of a’ damped harmonic oscillator with amplitude age and frequency g/2n = ly? 92 )/2n). It is so called because the sine term inthe equation suggests the oscillatory Gharacter'of the motion and the exponential term, the. graduel damping out of the oscillations [curve ii) Fig. 3.2} Thus damping clearly produces two effects (2 The frequency of the damped harmonic oscillator, g/2n i Shaler than its natural or undamped frequency. This mace damping somewhat decreases the frequency or increases the wen weer ane scillata. In actual practice, the damping is cen n the case of musical instruments) stiod of frequency of oseillation is and its effect on the tim therefore, quite negligible, (i) The amplitude of the oscillation do at ao, which represents the amplitude in the but decays exponentially with time, to zen absence of any da in accordance wth ieor Engineers at 1 team eM, The term e™ displacement —— Fig. 3.4 SSince-the maximum vale’ of bin (gt"+ ¢) alternate between + 1 and ~ 1. the time displacement curve of the oscillating particle is ‘ound by the dotied curves a ~/aj &™ and «= “to ¢ " ‘Thus although the amplitude of an underdamped harmonic oscillate dearcases exponentially with time, it does perform a sort ae tfiory motion, The motion does nol, of course, repeat itself a ese or periodic inthe usual sense ofthe term, However, i iit has me peviod 23/8 ~ 2m iy? 72 Which isthe time interval alween ite supeessive, passages in the same. direction past the enrium point. It is obviously also the time interval between saeieetive maximum displacements onthe same side of the postion of equilibrium Note : Eve ifthe body vibraes in vacuum, thereby eliminating external force de 10 the frietion of ar, sill the vibration is not free. Viscouity-or internal friction arises within the material of the body tunings vibration. This: internal friction. wltimately brings the vibration to a stop.on » energy stored ‘energy lost per period where P is the rate of loss of energy = 2n Now 5 Bis the frequency of the damped harmo oscillator. Then Ege PAE 2a In the case of low damping g ~ w ; therefore, (3.18) The quality factor, as the name suggests, measures the qual ‘of a harmonic oscillator in so far as damping is concerned. The les the damping, the better the quality of the harmonic oscillator as « oscillator and, therefore, the higher its quality factor Q We also know that fe ana 2 ee G.19) fa Jam “Vm b clearly indicating that lower the value of damping, ic, bs higher the value of Q. Or, asb30, Q>0 3.$ Example of damped harmonic oscillation — the LCR circa! tance (4 An electrical circuit which contains inductance (L), capacit and resistance (R) renders an excellent example of damped h=™xc Engines fe 9s zilltion. The resistance by itself pl = plays the part of a resistive of dissipative foree analogous to that of friction or viscosity in the case of igechanical oscillations, eater te teen trowgh the hey K. Whew R prea scat dhorged.On releasing K, the baltry is own ot othe ciao he capacitance discharges through the resistance and the inductance. Morse Key Fig. 3.5 Suppose that at a given instant‘, the:charge on the capacitor is O and the current flowing through the circuit is i. Then the induced emf. il difference across the across the inductance Lis L Sand the pote a resistance R is Ri. Since there-is no extemal emy. in the circuit now (the battery being disconnected), then according to Kirchoff's law, (3.20) 4Q Buin gefe nies os cetaon. THe resistance by itself plays the part of a resistive or force analogous to that of friction or viscosity in the case of| sisipalive chanical oscillations Fig. 3.5 shows a circuit containing a resistance, an inductance anda capacitance connected in series. battery can be included into aadfenit though the key K. When K is pressed, the capasitor is the On releasing K, the battery i thrown out of the cireuit and the imritance discharges through the resistance and the inductance Morse Key L_4,= Fig. 3.5 ‘Suppose that ata given instant 4, the:charge on the capacitor is Q and the current flowing through the circuit is i. Then the induced emf. Ter te cc 81 ad pel ec or resistance R is Ri. Since there is no extemal emf. inthe circuit now (the battery being disconnected), then according fo Kirchof?'s law, G20) 2 120, 982,.0 at? dtcPhy 4 Mig #Q,, RA 3 0 621) Lat LU dt sgn. (3.21) is very similar to eqn. (3.1), the differential equating of aid harmonic oscillation, with the difference thar gy. displicement y is replaced by charge Q, 24 by R/Land w* by 1/1, Préceeding in the same manner’ as, described in Art. 3.1, the solution of eqn. (3.21) is 7 sae where the value of the arbitrary constants 4), and Ay are (3.22) ( Again the following three cases arise Vi? =’ (i) when the damping is large, ie., or, R?> 44) Cc az ic both the terms on the right hand side of eqn. (3.22) hav? exponential terms with a negative power. The charge (Q), there" decays exponentially with time without changing sign ie, with!Ling any oscillation. Thus the discharge of the capa tory or damping [eurve (1) Fig. 1.6 sill (ii) when the damping is critical Le whem 2 = 8 ( rere the discharge of the condenser just becomes apetiovlic and Jn in the shortest possible time as shown hy curve (i). when the damping is small, he., 32 < w (or, RP 2, the motion is oscillatory. Frequency of the oscillatory motion, = 1.81 sec. approx. Example 3.5. Suppose a tuning fork in air has a frequency g/2z = 200 cps and its oscillations die away to Ie of its former amplitude in one second. Show that the reduction in frequency brought about by air damping is exceedingly small, Soln, For damped vibrations, 2e Let the amplitude at time t be given by yee! Then the amplitude after one second, YX oaghtrn y= Ae in}lor or, BEL 8 ce, = 299=S a1 Hence, 3 - ‘Therefore, the value of w is 2m x 200) + 1]! ty 4? Since <> is negligible as compared to (200), damping due to sirhas only a negligible effect on the frequency of the tuning fork 4.6 Forced vibration The time period of a body executing simple harmonic motion depends upon the dimensions of the body and its elastic properties. ‘When the body oscillates in.a medium like air, its oscillations, as we know get damped, i, its amplitude falls exponentially with time to 0 due to dissipation of energy. Jf, however, an external periodic force is constantly applied to the osvillator, ofa frequency nat necessarily the same as the natural frequency of the oscillator, a sor of tussle ensues between the damping force and the applied force. The damping force tends 10 retard the motion ofthe body and the applied force tends to maintain it Initially, the amplitude of the oscillations increases, then decreases with time, becomes minimum and again increases. After Some initial erratic movements, the body ultimately succumbs tothe applied or driving force and settles down to oscillating with the ffequeney of the applied oF driving force and a constant amplitude and phase <0 long as the applied force remains operative. Such vibrations of the body are called forced (or driven vibrations. The Amplitude of this forced vibration of the body depends on the diffrence between the natural frequency and the frequency of thePhy S I be large if difference applied force, The amplitude will be la re 8 frequencies is small and vice vrs Lette periodic force which is applied on & damped harmo: oscillator be F = Fo sin pt. This is obviously a sinusoidal force ot amplitude Fo and frequency p/2r. Now the damp ad restoring forces on the oscillator are ~ 4 I and — ay respectively where b and a have the same meaning asf, Ant 3.1. Hence the equation of motion for forced vibration may ty writen as nfZ eof ae dt ay dy’ me Sg Rat a? a ~ay+F sin pt 2, or, Landy py = (3.26) eth ty =f sin 6.26) tussle between the damping and the applied force dies down, a steady state is attained and the ‘oscillator settee down to oscillate with the frequency p2 of the applied force and : onstant amplitude. Let a particular solution of the equation of pration of the body as given by eqn. (3.26), after the steady state ba been attained, be » yaa in (pt 0) G27) is the possible phase difference placement of the oscillator. where A is the amplitude and 6 between the applied force and the dis Then, we have P 60s (pt 0) 3.28) Ap? sin (pt = 0) == pry 6.29)one a 109 Pi i a & jnuting these values of & and 2 in eq substi en Ge eM. (3.26), we get | Ap’ sin (pt—0) + 2RAp cos (pt—0) +1 A sin (pt-0)= sin pt = fsin ((pt-0) + 0) = fo sin (pt — 8) 608 0 + fo cos (pt ~0) sin 0 ae, A (wp?) sin (pt~0) + 22. Ap cos (pt 0) = fy cos 0 sin (pt- 0) +a sin 8 cos (pt-0) £3.30) {rthis solution is to hold good for all values oft, the respective efits of sin (pt ~ 0) and cos (pt—0) on either side of eqn. (3.30) Sst be equal. Thus We must have A(w=p’)=focos @ z @ and 2hAp= f2 sin 0 aaseet> iil) squaring and adding eqns. (i) and (ji), we have Aiwa phi e4warpte cost + f2 sink 0 or, A? [or =p + ave fe fe or, AP = fea joule i Thus the amplitude of the driven or forced oscillator is Lt 5 A= ha? G31) ora 1 of the square root has been considered Only the positive valu Value will mean opposite phase but then ‘nega. (3.31) Its negati 8:00 will change by . “Thus there will be no effect on the value of A. The value of Q is'given by-the expression110 Physi, fsind___22AP 2p Fe00" Mer) bF-F) Thus the phase difference between the driven oF for, ‘oscillator and the applied force is 2p a=tan G32) Since sin 0 is positive, it follows that @ must lie between 0 to, Substituting these value in eqn. (3.27) we get So Eqn. (3.33) represents a S.H.M. of frequency p/2n ice, the sang as that of the driving force, but lagging behind it in phase by 0 = tan! [24p/0w? — p?)] where 8 lies between 0 and a. 1633) Now, because of the presence of the term sin pt which contain: neither the variable (9) or its derivative; eqn. (3.26) is « inhomogencous differential equation and hence y =A sin (pt ~ 6) i not really its complete solution. The solution will, therefore, be complete only if we add to it a complementary function which isa 2 solution of the related homogeneous equation 2-¥ 5.24.9 4 2, Ot a? One such solution, as we know, is y=ae™ sin (gt+ 6) which Tepresents a damped harmonic oscillation frequency 8 ee of Sema Jaq * The addition of this term to the solution Y= A sin (pt — 8) does not, in any way, impair the validity of th latter, since the term, taken by itself, reduces the left hand side eqn. (3.26) t0 zero,abies ‘Thus the complete solution of eqn. (3.26) is m y= ane sin (gt + 9) +A sin (pt 0) where, the first term on the right hand side represents an initial damped oscillation of frequency g/2x with its amplitude decaying fexponentially to zero while the second term represents a forced vibration of frequency p/2z and a constant amplitude A. The former {Gamped) oscillation dies out quickly and the latter alone then remains effective, so that one is left with y = A sin (pt ~ 6) as the equition of motion of the forced (or driven) oscillation, with its amplitude A and phase angle @ as given by eqns. (3.31) and (3.32) respectively. Maximum displacement of a driven oscillator — Resonance. Although the period of the forced vibration will eventually be same as that of the applied force, its amplitude, irrespective of the magnitude of the damping forces present, will depend on the ratio between its natural frequency and the frequency ofthe applied force, However, the amplitude will have a definite value for a particular amount of damping. This: means that if the damping. (resisting) forces acting on the body are changed without changing the ratio tetween is natural frequency and the frequeney ofthe applied force, the amplitude will change due only to change in damping, When the damping ie., % has 4 finite value greater than zero, the value of the amplitude, as given by eqn. (3.31) will obviously be maximum when the denominator in the equation has its minimum Value, Le., when ds iat aan are Spl PY +40 61-2. (w= p?).2p +442 2p=0 or, (w= pt) = 20? or, pnw? 24?m2 Physi ‘be maximum when the driving frequeyg, ‘Thus, the amplitude will 22 gt us denote this particular value ofthe frequen, ro ‘y by pra. This state of ela becomes maxim ‘The pra forced frequency (Pr/2#) fOr called resonant frequency 1h the absence of damping, resonance takes place hen 1 atusty(requency of the oscillator {8 equal to the frequency of rei ede put when damping i present, the resonant frequen p/n ibration when the amplitude of the dry, qite = [(HF=DF) ans smash he nat nny / ffequeney wor the natural, damped fequency /2n = (Vw? ~2? are the oscillator ‘Substituting p, = Yw? —22 for p in the expression for A as gi by eqn. (3.31), we have 79)for Engineers 13 Ifthere is no damping, ie. it 2 toinfinity. This, however, 0. then the amplitude Aras tends Never happens since damping i never actual zero. When iti very small 2 willbe negligibly small compared and the maximum amplitude becomes Apne f value of 2 larger the val this point fy?2hw. Mence smaller the e of the maximum amplitude, Fig 3.7 illustrates the magtte of 4 is conled bythe for p) Sea ope arom the relate values ofp and. Ths te vale of inate oth hen p> ward wien pw. Fig 37 shows «numberof eaver pote iv ampite 4 along the Y-axis and p slong he Seas Fac ce Coresponds fa gven vale of damping (2) wl be noted hat (i) The peak value of amplitude Amar = f/22w occurs when (1? ~ 7°) = 0 ée., when p =, which represents the condition for amplitude resonance.“If in addition there is no damping fe, 2 = 0, dyn becomes infinity for this value of p, the curve being asymptotic tothe Y- or the amplitude axis, Since damping is never zero, we do not obiain such a curve in actual practice but only those ofthe type shown for light and moderate damping. (ii) The maximum value of 4 is diferent for different degree of damping, becoming less and less as damping increases. But, provided the damping isnot too large, the maximum value of 4 always occurs at, or very nearly at (wp?) = 0. This means that the resonant frequency in all these cases is equal fo or very nearly equal towi Physics n (3.38) above, that the average power It is clear from rel cits maximum value, when p= w, so that, absorbed per cyete will have G41) Pras ‘Thus the resonant frequeney for the average power absorbed i.e, the frequency at which the value of the average power absorbed becomes maximum, tums out to be the same as the resonant frequeney for velocity. Or, p = py = W. It should be noted that the power resonance takes place at py = w whereas the amplitude resonance takes place at p, = yw? 22? 3.11 Driven LCR circuit An LCR circuit, ie., a circuit containing an inductance L, a capacitance C and a resistance R connected in series acts as a damped oscillator (Art. 3.5). If an extemal source of alternating electro-motive force (emf) is included in the circuit, also in series, the cireuit now acts asa driven oscillator. The source of emf supplies the necessary energy to maintain the oscillation. instant and @ the charge on the capacitor at that instant, Then the potential drop Let i be the current in the circuit at a gi across the resistance is iy that across the inductance is'~ 12 and Q at that across the capacitance is 2 rs c If E = Ey sin pt be the external emg, impressed on the circuit, then we have ai p-L9_8,, ‘acrn ai a2 1 LRA of, LE RiA Gal) of Ry Qn Be iy a DLO balrag eesoe Engineers dQ since i= “2 the above relation may be written as Ge the above relation may be writen &Q at R U sin pt 3.42) Eqn. (G41) is identical in form with eqn. (3.26), with Q RQ Ey replacingyand ©,-2- and “2 replacing 24 wand fo respectively sin (pt-@) where 0= tan’! PRL WC=p ‘The value of the current flowing through the circuit can be easily obtained by differentiating this expression for Q with respect fot Alternately, however, the value of the current can be obtained directly in the manner described below. Let i ~ fp sin (pt ~ 6) be atrial solution of eqn. (3.41). Then ai i, p co 1-8 Si nig po (4-0) and Q= [id ~ fins (1-9): = 53 c08 (t=) Substituting these values in eqn. (3:40), we get L pio cos (pt -0) + Ria sin (pt 0) ~ Leos (pt = 0) = Ee'sin pt oni R sin (0) +(LP~ Mp) cos (pt -8))= Basin pt. B43) Putting Ra cos 0and (Lp 1/Cp)= asin 0, we havePhysic, - Jee(o Substituting these values of R and (Lp ~ and tan 0 = ep H/Cp) in relation (3.43 above, we have iea [c0s 0 sin (pt — 8) + sin 0 cos (pt ~ 0)] = Ea sin pt or, isa sin [(pt~0) +0] = ioa sin pt = Fo sin pt or, jo YR? + (Up—1CpP + sin pt = Ea sin pt From the above relation we find that io J? +(Lp- 1G —————— (44) YR? +(Lp-/Cp) is igsin(pt-0) (3.45) where 0 =tan | It can be readily seen from eqn. (3.44) that the denominator AR? +p =P functions’ as! the effective resistance in the circuit. I is called the impedance of the circuit and denoted by the letter Zand measured in ohms The impedance itself is made up to two parts, the ohmic resistance R and the quantity (Lp ~ 1/tp), called the reactance. THe reactance usually denoted by X, is also measured in ohms although and C are individually measured in henry and farad respectv The relation between resistance, reactance, impedance and the phi? angle can best be illustrated as in Fig. 3.9.etnies Fig.3.9 ‘The reactance too is made up of two parts : Lp. the reactance due to inductance (inductive reactance) and 1/Cp. the reactance due to capacitance (capacitive reactance). Inductive and capacitive reactances are usually denoted by X;, and X: respectively Hence X = Xi + Ke Thus, we have 22VR eX? or, Impedance Resistance? + Reactance’ ‘The maximum (or peak) value of the current is given by VR? +x Eqn. (3.45) ean, therefore, be written as i= £2 sin(pt-0) = iy sin (pt 0) and 0= tant LR=UEP = tay R is the difference in phase between the current and the emf in the circuit. The ohimie resistance is quite indey jent of the Frequency and, fs such, has no effect on the phase angle, Hence the phase angle is determined by the reactance (¥ — Xi). hi an inductive circuit the emf leak the current whereas in a capacitive circuit the current leads the emf, When both inductance and capacitance are present in a circuit thePhy eeurent depends upon the realive Vag sng tes eases then aise bas e emf, or th ead or tag ofthe emf, or the Cure (or Lp)and Xi-(or 1/Cp). The Fo ] ace is buch that X, = Xe+ In this cay (Wh ‘ 1 the value of p i ynee in the circuit X = Xi 0. 50 that hy or the bp o impedance in the eircuit = resista wnce R. This is the least value of imbedance and hence the value of the curent in the circuit will Eo R When current in the circuit becomes maximum, we have th case of resonance. From the condition of resonance we have Qn 2n Invi “The circuit under this condition is said to be resonance series cir Further. Since X;, = Xe, or, @ = 0. Thus when X, = Xcy the current in the circuit is phase withthe emf. (ii) when p_hasa value such that Xi>X¢ : l since Lp > —, the net reactance inthe circuit is inductive, an 0 Pre cireuit is induct now a positive quantity and therefore, 8 =". The applied emt ela (er than w leads the curent by © andthe value of pgforEngine=rs ii) when the value of 'p is such that X, < Xe 1 Lp is now less th sl o € net reactance in the circuit is capacitive 0 is now a negative quantity and therefore, 0 = ~ The current thus leads the applied emf by and the value of p is fess than The changes in the maximum value ofthe current iy and the value of | the phase angle 0 with p are shown in Fig 3.10 respectively, for different values of R. It can be seen that lower the value of , the sharper the resonance, and the current lags or leads the emf according as p is greater than or less than w. R corresponds to. the ease of mechanical osillators Se ena ms RAE } erry zs A) MEN ENE wal Fig. 3.10 Example 3.6..A particle of mass 2 gin is free to vibrate under the action of an last force of 128:dyne-cm' und a damping force of 8 dyne-cm | sec. A periodically varying outside force of maximum walue 256 dunes is applied to the particle. Find the frequency for displacement resonance and velocity resonance. Soln.6 a _ 128dyne~cr 2am Vo4—4x2 + VoI-8 1.19 sec" For velocity resonance, Je frequenc; Vm v64 Example 3.7. In an experiment on forced oscillations. frequency of a sinusoidal driving force is changed while iis amplinde is kept constant. I is found that the amplitude vibrations ix 0.01 mm at very low frequency of the driving force a oes upto a maximum of 5.0 mm at driving frequency 200 «Ps Cateulate the quality factor and the relaxation time of the system.5 p= we = 500 [ 0.01 where w = 2an = 2n x 200 = 400 m. 500 00x = 0.40 see. Example 3.8. A harmonic oscillator of quality factor 10 is subjected to a sinusoidal applied force of frequency one and a half times the natural frequency of ihe oscillator. If the damping be small, obtain (i) the amplitude of the forced oscillation in terms’ of its maximum amplitude and (it) the angle by which it will be out of phase with the driving force. Soln, ‘The amplitude of a driven oscillator is given by where w is the natural frequency of the oscillator and p, the angular frequency ofthe driving force. Now, the quality factor,Ph we 10 ” eases: "is *io0™4 -—2%fo. wed c is maximum when p = w on, 2 #1, Then fy an w ye +109” So 10fy aR ae) vite io) A fy - we Row Ww vod “107g Z e008 saa Of, A 0.08 Angasfor Engineers tay Thus, the amplitude of the forced oscil lation will be 0.08 times the maximum amplitude, Now, tan or, 0 Therefore, the forced oscillation is (180° - 6°51") = 173°9" out of phase with the driving free Example 3.9. A harmonic oscillator consisting of « 50 em mass attached toa massless spring has a quality factor 200. If it ascillates with a amplitude of 2 em in resonance with & periodic force of frequency 20 c.p.s., calculate (i) the average energy stored in it and (i) the Fate of dissipation of energy: Soln, In-case’of resonant vibration, ‘The average energy stored in the’ oscillator = ‘maximum potential ener, l Now. the maximum potential energy is given by + a js the force constant aiid y' is the displacement of the oscillator, Since «= mw’, the maximum P.B.= 5, mw'y? Here m = $0-gm,w = 2am 2x x20 = 40x and y= z. the average energy absorbed o stored up in the oscillator x 50x (40x) x22Physig 130 : = 16 x 10x 158 x 10° eres: py definition, the quality Flor average energy stored meray dissipated per cycle energy dissipated per cycle average energy stored a ED 1.58108 200 = x 1.58 x 10" ergs. Since there are 20 cycles to the second, energy dissipated per second or the rate of dissipation of energy = 20x x 1.58 10° = 9.926 x 10° = 10° erg/see. ‘Example 3.10, A resisiance of 10 ohms is joined in series with ‘an inductance of 0.5 henry. What capacitance should he put in series with the combination to obtain measimum current ? Witat wil be the potential difference across:the resistance, inductance and capacitance ? The current js being supplied by a 200 volts and § eyeles A.C. mains. Soln, ‘The impedance in a series LCR circu For resonance or maximum current, 4 l Z=R: of, lp- a= or, bra Pfor Fngincers 1 Ip Therefore, C= Now l= 0.5 henry, p= 2an 2n x 80 100%, the required capacitance, 1 Co 0.5 «(100 ) = 20.27 x 10° farad 20.27 uF. The maximum current will obviously be ( Z= Rat resonance). Potential difference across the resistance, 0x 10 ia 00 volts. Also at resonance, Xi 1 Ly due to inductance = Xe = — due to,capacitance Le due to inductance = Xe = = due to capaci Hence potential difference across X, difference across Xe idCp 220 x0,5 x 100 x= 3142 volts, = potent or, io Lp