2 Ecology of Public Administration NEW 1

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/356475395
Community Learning Resource in Ecology of Public Administration
Book · November 2021
CITATIONS READS
0 163
2 authors:
Arneil Garcia Gabriel Olive Chester Cuya Antonio

Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology
53 PUBLICATIONS 190 CITATIONS 12 PUBLICATIONS 12 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Effectiveness of the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Committees (BDRRMCs) in Flood-Prone Barangays in Cabanatuan City, Philippines View project
WRITE PA View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Arneil Garcia Gabriel on 23 November 2021.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT
General Tinio Street, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Community Learning Resource in

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
PA 221
2018
NEUST VISION
NEUST is a locally responsive and internationally relevant and recognized University of
Science and Technology.
PANANAW
Ang NEUST ay Pamantasan ng Agham at Teknolohiyang matugunin sa pambansang
pangangailangan, napapanahon, at kinikilala sa daigdig.
NEUST MISSION
To develop new knowledge and technologies and transform human resources into productive
citizenry to bring about development impact to local and international communities.
LAYON
Makalinang ng mga bagong kaalaman at teknolohiya, at baguhing-anyo ang yamang katauhan
upang maging mabungang mamamayan na mag dadala ng kaunlaran at pagbabago sa pambansa
at pandaigdigang pamayanan.
OBJECTIVES OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

1. To develop qualified individuals to be effective instrument in inquiry, extension service
and higher instruction and training in trade and industrial education, technology and
public, business and educational management;
2. To stimulate, encourage and maintain productive, functional research in all fields of
trade and industrial education and technology;
3. To promote extension services for dissemination/transfer of knowledge for the
advancement of the quality of life in the community;
4. To improve competence in teaching, supervision and management of educational
programs in trade and industrial education and technology;
5. To serve as the springboard for the enrichment, transmission and preservation of the
cultural heritage; and,
6. To enhance and enrich moral, spiritual and ethical values among the constituents of the
Graduate School in consonance with defined national thrusts and priorities.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
1. To strengthen the capabilities of students in leadership and governance;

2. To enhance competencies in the conceptualization and administration of holistic
development programs and projects for the local, regional, national and international
levels;
3. To deepen understanding of pertinent governmental policies, systems and procedures;
4. To provide further insights on ethics, values and accountability in public service;
5. To intensify researches in public administration that will contribute to efficient and
effect policy and program development and administration;
ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 1

Course Code: PA 221

Course Title: Ecology of Public Administration
Course Pre-requisite: None
Course Description:
The course provides learning and understanding of the internal and external
environments of the government and the bureaucracy including institutions
exercising both proprietary and governmental functions. The course highlights
theories and practices with regard to government operations as they are affected
by the internal and external environments. It deals with the analysis of the socio-
economic, political, technological, cultural, civilizational and international
influences on governance. The subject also discusses the impact of human
resources, administrative policies, organizational values and culture, and other
social groupings within the organization and how they affect the Philippine
Administrative System.
Program Outcomes:
A. High appreciation for the demands and challenges of public service
B. High ethical values for public service, accountability, nationalism, and
sustainability
C. Strong sense of duty to promote and protect public interest especially for the
depressed and marginalized communities
D. Adequate skills in management including planning, implementation, monitoring,
and human, material and resource management for government and civil society
organizations
E. Adequate ability to engage in scientific research and national decision-making
Course Outcomes:
Students should be able to:
a) Identify organization and management theories, approaches, and principles in
public administration
b) Appraise the different situations and their roles in government services,
administration, and program
c) Attribute character-building values and ethics applicable to organizational
behavior and group dynamics
d) Analyze the behaviors, cultures, and issues affecting organizations
e) Develop skills necessary for managing organizations or in fostering good
organizational environment
Classroom Rules and Regulations (For Regular Classes. Others are subject to
applicability to chosen learning modality)
Attendance (Part II, item G of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)

Prompt and regular attendance in all classes is required to all students
A student is considered late or tardy and shall receive a half-absence if
he arrives in class during the first third fraction of the scheduled class
time.
A student is held responsible for all assignment and for the entire content
of the course missed, regardless of the reasons for his absence.

Changing of Classes (Part II, item D of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)
Change of classes/sections shall be allowed subject to the approval of the
Dean upon recommendation of the faculty adviser concerned, and must be
done one week after the regular registration period.
Discontinuance of Studies (Part II, item F of the Approved NEUST Student

Handbook)
A certificate of transfer credential (Honorable Dismissal) should be
requested from the Registrar when circumstances render such a step
necessary. This certificate should be requested as soon as the student
decides to discontinue his studies at the university.
If the student discontinues his/her course or accumulates more than the

maximum number of allowable absences for that course without written
permission from his Dean, a mark of “dropped” is recorded from the
course.
Leave of Absence (Part II, item J of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)
Prolonged leave of absence shall require a written petition to the Dean or
equivalent official stating the reason for the level and shall specify the
period of the leave which shall not exceed one academic year.
Withdrawal from the University without formal leave of absence may

cause the curtailment or entire withdrawal of the registration.
Examination (Part II, item K of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)

A student will be allowed to take prelim, midterm, or final examination by
presenting his/her identification card and examination permit
Students will be given one hour to answer all questions per subject
Talking during examination, possession of textbooks or notes of any kind

(unless authorized), giving or receiving information, or any other attempts
at communication shall render the offender liable.
Students caught cheating or doing any similar acts in any examination,

test, or quiz shall be punished in accordance with pertinent provisions of
the Student Handbook
Instructors are not obliged to give a special or late test to any student who
fails to take examination at the regular time regardless of the reason,
except upon a written request approved by the Dean
Grading System (Part II, item L of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)
1.0 (Excellent); 1.1-1.5 (Superior); 1.6-2.0 (Very Good); 2.1-2.5 (Good); 2.6-3.0
(Fair/Passing); 5 (Failed); INC (incomplete requirements); D (Dropped)

Rubrics to be used for the activities

For essays, the following rubric will be used
Features 4 (Expert) 3 (Accomplished) 2 (Capable) 1 (Beginner)

Written in an
Written in an Writing had little Writing had no
interesting style
extraordinary style style or voice; style or voice; no
Quality of and voice;
and voice; very gives some new new information
Writing somewhat
informative and information but and very poorly
informative and
well-organized. poorly organized. organized.
organized.
So many spelling,
Virtually no A number of
punctuation, or
Grammar, spelling, Few spelling, spelling,
grammatical
Usage, and punctuation, or punctuation, or punctuation, or
errors that it
Mechanics grammatical grammatical errors. grammatical
interferes with the
errors. errors.
meaning.
For Distance learning modality,
Assignments/Discussions
Students will earn grades on Assignments by accomplishing and submitting the

assigned topic/academic activity on/before the deadline.
There are exercises at the end of each lesson/chapter that the students must
answer and submit on time.
Attendance
Physical attendance is not required for distance learning modality but students
will need to take part in activities for the course through the submission of
assignments and other academic works during schedule time periods.
Assignments and other works submitted after the scheduled time period will be
given due consideration but with corresponding deduction in score. Provided, that
the reason is valid and accompanied by letter from parent/guardian.
Engagements
The success of the flexible learning lies on the student’s willingness and efforts
to complete all assigned readings, assignments, and academic works. Students
are encouraged to communicate with their instructors or subject professors any
queries or concerns regarding the subjects and assigned tasks related to the
subject.
Other subject-specific instructions

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
NUMBER
Chapter 1 Course Orientation ………………………………………… 6
Theories and Approaches in

Management of Organization
Chapter 2 Meaning and Scope of

Governance ………………………………………… 18
Chapter 3 The Government, Non-

Governmental Organizations,
and Private Sectors and their
Role in Public Governance ………………………………………… 26
Chapter 4 The External Environments

of Governance ………………………………………… 35
Chapter 5 The Internal Environments of

Governance ………………………………………… 44
Chapter 6 Issues in the Environment of

Governance ………………………………………… 53

Name: Yr. & Section:

Lesson Title: References:
Ababa, A. (2014). Course Module on Principles of Management.
CCRDA-AMBO University Partnership Postgraduate Diploma
Program in Development Management
Brillantes, A. B., & Fernandez, M. T. (2011). Restoring trust and
building integrity in government: Issues and concerns in the
Philippines and areas for reform. International Public
Management Review, 12(2), 55–80.
Frede, D. (2003). Plato’s ethics: An overview. Stanford
encyclopedia of philosophy. University of Hamburg.
Godoi, A., Silva, L. F., & Cardoso, O. O. (2017). Ensaio teórico sobre
a burocracia em Weber, o conflito da agência e a governança
corporativa: Uma reflexão sobre a burocracia
profissionalizante [Theoretical essay on bureaucracy in
Weber, the agency conflict and corporate governance: A
Chapter 1 reflection on professional bureaucracy]. Revista de
Administração de Roraima UFRR, 7 (2), 426 447.
https://doi.org/10.18227/2237 8057rarr.v7i2.403 4
Groth, L. (2013, February 6). Overview Of Theories On Organization
Course Orientation And Management. (INF5890)
Hudson, J. R. (2015). Theories of management. Creative Commons
Attribution-Non Commercial Report, London, UK.
Kumar, R. (2016). Bureaucratic Theory by Max Weber – A Review
Theories and Study. Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied
Education, 12 (23), October-2016, ISSN 2230-7540
Approaches in Lægaard, J. & Blindsev, M. (2006). Organizational Theory. Jørgen
Lægaard, Mille Blindsev & Ventus Publishing ApS
Management of Lutzker, M.A. (1982). Max Weber and the Analysis of Modern
Bureaucratic Organization: Notes Toward a Theory of
Organization Appraisal. American Archivist,45 (2), Spring 119-130

Miles, J. (2012). Management and Organization Theory, Jossey-
Bass, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Olum, Y. (2004). Modern Management Theories and Practices: A
Critical Overview. A paper presented at the 15 th East African
Central Banking Course, held on 12th July 2004, at Kenya
School of Monetary Studies.
Schachter, Hindy. (2010). The role played by Frederick Taylor in the
rise of the academic management fields. Journal of
Management History. 16. 437-448.
10.1108/17511341011073924.
Serpa, S. & Ferreira, C. M. (2019). The Concept of Bureaucracy by
Max Weber. International Journal of Social Science Studies,
Redfame Publishing, 7 (2), 12-18, doi:10.11114/ijsss.v7i2.3979
Lesson Objectives: Lesson 1

After this lesson, the students should be able to:
1 Understand theories and approaches in management of organization.
2 Articulate on the different approaches in organization management.
3 Apply organization and management principles in different situations in an organization.
COURSE ORIENTATION (5 Minutes)

Welcome to this course Ecology of Public Administration where we will study about ecology and
its influence and relevance in Public Administration.
The study of ecology in science is the study of the interactions between the individuals and their
environment. Translating this into the concept of public administration, this course involves the
study of the relationship and interactions of different actors and environment in public
administration. How the interaction and internal and external environments influence or affect
governance. It means the influences of all political, economic, socio-cultural, religious, and other
significant factors within and outside the bureaucracy that in one way or another affects the
development of Public Administration, particularly in the Philippines. This course is very
interesting and will stimulate your critical thinking and analysis as you see the relationships of
various factors operating within the scope of public governance.

PREVIEW (5 Minutes)
In this chapter we will dwell on the different approaches in managing an organization. This would
aid us in the analysis of interactions in the different environments of the bureaucracy. By
understanding how the people within the organization behave and how the organization is being
managed to achieve its goal, we could evaluate the status of the country’s administrative system.
This way we could see the ecology of public administration in a clearer view.
LEARNING IMPROVEMENT (5 Mins)

Instruction: In this activity, you will need to answer the BEFORE and after columns. The BEFORE
column will be answered NOW. The AFTER column will be answered later as you move on to the
discussion. The module will instruct you to answer the same. Let’s start, answer the BEFORE
column, now.
BEFORE QUESTION AFTER
What is the meaning of

Organization?
What is the concept of

Management?
READING/ DISCUSSION
1. Definition of Organization and Management
According to Plato’s work “The Republic”, state operates because of the people. When all the
people assigned to work or help to provide the needs of the others gathered in one place then
that can be called a state. The state clearly shows the division of labors or functions as dictated by
economic functions (Frede, 2003). As Frede (2003) cited Plato’s work, she mentioned that
everyone performs the task fit for them while they are ruled by the leadership of a philosopher-
king and queen. Humans are born with different abilities that bound them to do different tasks in
an ordered state, which leads to Plato’s argument, ‘one person one job’. So in order for a
government to operate, it is imperative to have a system that manages not only the public affairs
but also the people that are tasked to serve the public. Hence, organization and management play
significant roles in the ecology of public administration.
There is no one definition of organizations, however what is common to all is that organizations
have a structure and they accomplish specific goals through the coordination, work, and behaviour

of the people (Miles, 2012). Therefore, there is no individual in an organization, everyone is

assigned to accomplish common goals and a single person would not be able to reach that goal by
themselves. Organization is a formally established entity and a managed system functioning to
achieve its mission, vision, goals, and objectives (Miles, 2012).
Meanwhile, management plays a significant role in an organization. It is essential to ensure

coordination within the organization (Olum, 2004) and the direction to accomplish the goals. The
same with the organization, management also has various definitions. According to Miles (2012),
it has three definitions: “(1) the process that managers follow to accomplish organizational vision,
mission, strategies, and goals; (2) a specific body of knowledge that examines various methods
used by managers and organizations; and (3) the individuals in organizations who guide and direct
the actions of others to accomplish organizational goals.”
In general, management is the process of controlling and directing the organization’s resources to
achieve maximum output (Miles, 2012). It is the one in-charge of planning, organizing, directing,
and controlling the organization. With these responsibilities, managing is really not an easy task
to do. Each of the function of the managers has several things to consider. For instance, in
planning, it involves making analysis of the current situation, and with the organization’s mission
and vision in mind it needs to anticipate the future. The same with directing and controlling, the
management function involves motivation and monitoring of employees to perform well.
Therefore, managing is a key role in an organization.
Organization and management are very complex concepts that they became the focus of several
studies. These studies lead to the development of theories that have become helpful for the
managers to improve the performance of the organization. Some of these theories will be
discussed on the next topic.
2. Review of Theories and principles in organization management
The application of organization management is evident many centuries ago, however, the
development of management thought was only from the time of Henri Fayol (1916) in Europe and
F.W. Taylor (1911) in America (Hudson, 2015). Although the concept of organization theory
through the works of Max Weber (1904) have been considered as the earliest study in organization
and management (Groth, 2013). These works were followed by a lot more studies from Classical
to Modern Approaches in organization and management. The contributors to these approaches
range from sociologists, engineers, psychologists, social and behavioural scientists to politicians
and practicing managers who studied organization and management either as social phenomena
and generalized principle based on experience, or as a science.
Theories of organization management help explain the fast-changing nature of organizational

environments (Olum, 2004). The theories serve as guides of the present managers on dealing with
employees’ behaviour and the varying environment in their organizations.
The theories will only be discussed briefly in this course since you will encounter the in-depth
discussions of these topics on your other Public Administration courses.
2.1 Classical Approaches
2.1.1 Bureaucratic Management Theory
Maximilian Karl Emil Weber, a German sociologist, formulated this theory upon touring the states
of America in 1904. His talks with academics, public officials, social reformers, and business and
labor leaders throughout the United States led to his Bureaucratic theory (Lutzker, 1982).
Bureaucracy originated from the word bureau which used to cover writing desks of French
government officials. Now bureaucracy pertains to government systems and offices managed by

state officials, and most of the times it is associated with negative behaviour and performance of
public employees (Kumar, 2016).
Max Weber’s seminal writing made an impact in the characteristics and definition of bureaucracy.
He viewed that bureaucracy should be rational and efficient because it operates based on rational-
legal authority. It is actually the ideal and most efficient form of an organization. Weber developed
the following principles to describe the ideal bureaucracy (Ababa, 2014; Groth, 2013):
1 Hierarchical Management Structure - Officials are organized in a clearly defined hierarchy

of offices and authority. Offices and positions are accountable to the office or position
below them and are supervised by a higher office or position. Authority and
responsibilities are clearly defined for each position.
2 Employment and Promotion based on Qualifications – government employees are
selected and promoted on the basis of technical qualifications and on the basis of their
expertise through examinations, education or training.
3 Division of Labor - Each office has a distinct and separate area of competence. The limits
and rights of positions are clearly defined to prevent overlap of the functions and develop
the employees to be skilled by specializing in their function.
4 Impersonality – The relations and decisions made within the organization are purely
impersonal. Public officials subject to policies and authority only so far as their official
duties are concerned.
5 Rules-based Management – Public officials are guided by rules and policies. Rules and
policies promote efficiency and ensure continuity. Through these they facilitate orderly,
consistently, rational, and equal treatment of clients.
6 Written Rules and Documents - All decisions and administrative acts are formulated and
recorded on written documents. Written documents also ensure continuity.
7 Standard salary – Public officials are appointed full-time. Their job is their sole or main
occupation and they are paid with fixed salaries and are given personnel rights. The strict
rules prevent officials from receiving any form of compensation or rewards from other
entity to avoid corruption.
The way Weber see the bureaucracy, it was “envisioned as a large machine for attaining its goals
in the most efficient manner possible” (Olum, 2004). The rationality of the bureaucracy enables it
to achieve its objectives in a systematic and efficient way.
In the current era of public administration where uncertainty is huge given the ill-effects of
corruption, the principles of Weber’s bureaucracy are the standard and the most ideal form of
managing government offices. Its strict rules guide the public officials to follow the policies at the
same time separate personal things from professional works. The commission of activities beyond
what the law dictates and the omission or the failure to follow the policies entitles a public official
of violating the law. Moreover, incorporating personal matters, particularly personal gains, leads
to corruption which is one of the causes of public distrust to the government offices (Brillantes &
Fernandez, 2011). These are two of the several issues in public offices today that can be addressed
if an organization adheres to Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory. Formality and impersonality ensured
by rationality warrants that organizational objectives are not muddled with personal motivations
or other interests (Serpa & Ferreira, 2019; Godoi et al., 2017).
For Ababa (2014), there are advantages and disadvantages in Max Weber’s model:
Advantages
1. The distinct rules allow the organization to act with precision and sometimes
with speed. The hierarchical arrangements and the rules and regulations of
bureaucracies help them achieve greater degree of efficiency. Bureaucratic
organizations serve large number of persons in an orderly and systematic way
2. Bureaucratic organizations have high degree of predictability of outcomes. Since
bureaucracies operate on the basis of codified rules and policies, their decisions

are predictable and free from arbitrariness. It also prevents duplication of

efforts.
3. Bureaucratic organizations exhibit a high degree of impersonality. Both the
employees and clients of the organization are treated fairly
Disadvantages
1. Over-rigidity or inflexibility- deviation from established ways of doing things are
not accepted. This implies organization face difficulty to adapt changing
conditions and special circumstance. In other word bureaucratic organizations
do not easily adapt to the changing conditions and special circumstances.
2. One-way communication- in bureaucratic organization communication usually
flows from top to lower in organization hierarchy. Lower level employees face
difficulty to communicate with an administrator at the top sine his/her message
will be screened, diverted, or stopped somewhere along the chain of command.
(Ababa, 2014, pp. 24-25)
The work of Max Weber has laid the foundation for the development of organization and
management theories. It has identified important management process, skills, and principles that
are still applicable today. However, no matter how ideal a theory is, it is still subject to the dynamic
and complex conditions of current organizations. Although it is applicable to other government
system it may not be appropriate in some other settings.
2.1.2 Scientific Theory of Management
The ideas of Frederick W. Taylor played the key influence in the management thoughts regarding
the science of work which earned him the title Father of Scientific Management (Ababa, 2014).
This is why Taylorism, a term used by many, also refers to scientific management. “He argued that
it is in the best interests of both worker and manager to break tasks down into components which
will enable workers to use minimum energy while producing maximum output, thereby maximising
their earnings for the least possible effort” (Hudson, 2015). He analysed the physical movements
of the workers and then trained them to perform in the most efficient way. His study remained
important to many industries relying on time and motion studies or the management system on
the production-line.
The main objective of scientific management is to maximize profits and minimize the costs of
production by increasing the efficiency of the workers through the improvement of their
conditions. However, his study faced several resistances from the workers, particularly in the
United States, for it is misinterpreted as supporting authoritarian management (Hudson, 2015).
Taylor and his associates developed basic principles based on the time and motion study. It
includes the development of management of one best way to perform the tasks of the workers;
selection, and training and development of workers; and the division of responsibilities between
management and labor while ensuring their unity and cooperation. Generally, the scientific
management aims to benefit both the management and employees.
2.1.3 Classical Theory of Management
The classical theory of management, sometimes called administrative management theory, was
developed by Henri Fayol, a French engineer. In contrast with the scientific management, this
theory is more concerned with the upper levels of management and with organizational concept
rather than production techniques (Ababa, 2014). He believed in a centralized or hierarchical
model of relationship in an organization, wherein good managers ensure fair treatment of the
employees in return for their commitment to the goals of the organization (Hudson, 2015).
Basically, the theory suggests that right relationships between the management and the
employees are essential for the organization’s success.

Fayol was the first to identify management functions: planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating, and controlling. Likewise, he was well known for his fourteen management
principles (Hudson, 2015):
1) Division of labor – The same with the principle of Weber’s bureaucracy, it is the concept
of work specialization. It separates large tasks into smaller parts and assigning workers to
each part. It proposes that the more people specialize on their specific function, the more
efficiently they become it performing their job.
2) Authority- Fayol defined this as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.
Managers must provide directives because they have the responsibility to get things done.
3) Discipline – It reflects obedience, good behaviour, and respect to the rules of the
organization. Discipline results from good leadership, and penalties enforced judiciously
for non-compliance to organization’s rules and agreements.
4) Unity of command – Instructions for employees should come from only one person to
avoid conflicts in instructions and confusion of authority.
5) Unity of direction – The entire organization should be operating for the same set of
objectives and moving in one direction. It means that for the organization to move in one
direction, there should be only one manager.
6) Subordination of individual interest to the common (general). The interest of employees

should not take priority over the interest of the organization as a whole.
7) Remuneration – This refers to the compensation of the personnel in return for the services
rendered or the worker’s rate of pay.
8) Centralization – It is the process of focusing decision-making authority to the center or

from the higher authority down to its subordinates. Decreasing the role of subordinates
in decision-making is centralization while increasing them is decentralization. Fayol
stressed that final responsibility and decision should come from the management but
should give their subordinates enough freedom or authority to do their jobs.
9) Scalar of chain – Hierarchy possess a chain like authority ranging from the most authority,
who is the president or the top manager, down to the lowest supervisors.
10) Order – Materials and people inclined to a specific function should be in the right place at
the right time for efficiency and coordination. For instance, people who have the right
skills should have the jobs or positions they are best suited to.
11) Equity – All employees should be treated equally. The management should be fair, just,
and kind to their employees.
12) Stability of staff – The organization should provide the opportunity for tenure or the
permanent status of employees.
13) Initiative – Employees should be given the opportunity to conceive and carry out their
plans freely.
14) Esprit de corps – It is the sense of harmony and unity among the members of an
organization. The use of verbal communication instead of formal written instruction
whenever possible is highly suggested by Fayol to encourage good feelings and create
harmony within the organization.

2.2 Human Resources Approaches
Behavioral School in organization management was developed providing emphasis to the

interactions of people in the organization (Ababa, 2014). Due to the failure of the classical
approaches to improve efficiency and harmony in the organization, Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow,
Douglas McGregor, and other behaviourists, recognized the importance of behavioural processes
in the work place. The Human Resources approach is part of this movement.
Human Resources approaches started as a reaction against the principles and practices of
scientific management (Ababa, 2014). Elton Mayo triggered the interests of behavioural scientists
to develop different theories of motivation such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, Social Systems
theory, Herzberg’s Hygiene theory, and McGregor’s theory of motivation. It was because Mayo
and his colleagues found that motivations and punishments had significant effects on the
performance of the worker.
The approach focused on the human element in the work place. To improve efficiency and
productivity of the employees, the management should consider their relationship with their
workers and the workers with their co-workers. The workers are not just commodity to be utilized
but they form part of the work force of the organization. Their relationship with the other parts
of the organization influences their behaviour, morale, and productivity (Ababa, 2014).
Several studies were developed within the human relations school of management. They simply
replaced classical management approaches with alternative behaviour and psychological model
(Hudson, 2015). Contrary to the classical approaches which see communication as the
transmission of orders and communications from the top management to the employees, the
Human Resources approaches encourage the free flow of communication within the organization
both in formal and informal organization structure. The formal structure is the organization
management structure while the informal is the horizontal social relationship of the employees
with no hierarchy of positions.
2.3 Quantitative Approaches
Quantitative management approach utilizes quantitative or mathematical techniques to

management problems and decision-making situations. The approach uses statistical analysis,
linear programming, development models, production scheduling, and financial analysis before
implementing an idea and to deal with the management of the resources of the organization
(Ababa, 2014). Presented are the contributions and limitations of the quantitative management
approaches according to Ababa (2014).
Contributions
1) The development of sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in decision making
2) Application of models provides increased awareness and understanding of complex
process and situations
3) It has been very useful in planning and controlling.
Limitations
1) Cannot fully explain the behavior of people in organization.
2) Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other important skills
3) Models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions.
2.3.1 Operational Management
Operational management is a branch of quantitative approaches which is somewhat less

mathematical and statistically sophisticated than the other branches. It can be applied directly to
managerial situations. Basically, it is concerned with the efficient production of the organization
through its products or services (Ababa, 2014). It can be applied to a wide range of problems but
it did not address effectively the human relation of the organization.

2.4 Modern Approaches
There are several theories under modern approaches, but we will only dwell on the two well-
known modern management theories, the system approach and the contingency approach.
2.4.1 The System Approach
The system approach can be seen as the interaction of the complex elements. A system is
composed of different parts which are interdependent and are related to each other either
directly or indirectly (Groth, 2013). While the system has a clear boundary from its environment
all the parts or elements of the system functions as a whole. The system approach denotes that
the manager must understand the various systems composing the entire operation of the
organization (Ababa, 2014). The organization itself is the total system. A system has the following
characteristics: it exchanges information or material with its environment; can be nested inside
another system and overlap with other systems as well; it consists of processes that transforms
inputs into outputs; it is self-correcting through the feedbacks; and is composed of elements
seeking equilibrium (Groth, 2013).
Though the system has dynamic parts, the parts or the departments, contribute to a single
purpose. Therefore, managers need a broad perspective of the different functions and viewing
the organization as dynamic in order to address the problem of the organization (Ababa, 2014).
2.4.2 Contingency approach
Management theorists argued that there is no one best way of managing an organization because
the multifaceted behavior of people and situations would also require multifaceted responses
(Hudson, 2015). Instead of arguing which theory of management best works, developing
managers who are able to deal with any kind of situations are needed. The contingency approach
is based on the principle that the manager’s way of handling depends on the situation and its
variables (Ababa, 2014). General principles and solutions are not applicable to all organizations. It
matches different situations with different management approaches. The approach allows us to
understand the interdependence and interrelationship of people, tasks, and management.
Moreover, it enables people to choose the best way to intervene and keep the parts together by
suggesting different organizational and management approach to the specific situation. Since the
different parts of the organizations are unique, in contingency theory, manager may choose to
use all available and applicable techniques and theory to deal with the different parts. The
organization, its environment and its various sub-systems must be congruent to each other in
order to adjust to the dynamics of the organization.

CONCEPT MAPPING (5 Minutes)
Instruction: Based on the learning from your teacher and supplemental reading, create a
concept map of the lesson of the day. Make sure that each box will have at least three answers
each.
EXAMPLES DEFINITION ON OWN WORDS
Classical Management
Approaches
CHARACTERISTICS FACTS

Modern Management
Approaches
REFLECTIONS
Direction: Provide your insights and reflections by answering the following questions in
essay form.
1. Differentiate between the Classical, Human Resources, and Modern management

approaches. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of one over the other.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. As a public manager, what management approach would you use to address the
negative behaviour creeping in the government offices? Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
LEARNING IMPROVEMENT Cont’d (5 Minutes)

Instruction: Go back to the learning improvement and answer the AFTER column.
3-2-1 (5 minutes)
Instruction: Give answers to the following.
3 things you found out… 2 interesting things… 1 question you still have…


Alshoubaki W. (2020) Rethinking Public Administration Paradigms:
Toward a New Social Contract Paradigm. In: Farazmand A. (eds)
Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and
Governance. Springer, Cham
American Equal Employment Opportunities.
https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/sexual_harassment.cfm.
Brillantes AB, Fernandez MT (2011) Restoring trust and building
integrity in government: issues and concerns in the Philippines
and areas for reformGoogle Scholar
Camaya Y.I., Gabriel A.G. (2019) Professionalism and the Ethics in
Selected Local Governments in the Philippines. In: Farazmand A.
(eds) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public
Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_3685-2
Ford M (2018) The big questions facing public administration in 2018.
PATIMES. American Society for Public Administration. Retrieved
from https://patimes.org/big-questions-facing-public-
administration-2018/
Gabriel AG (2017) Transparency and accountability in local
government: levels of commitment of municipal councillors in
Bongabon in the Philippines. Asia Pac J Public Adm 39(3):217–
223. https://doi.org/10.1080/23276665.2017.1368902CrossR
efGoogle Scholar
Gabriel AG, Gutierrez MP (2017) Praxis in local legislative governance:
measure of organizational effectiveness of the component
cities in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Asia Pac J of Multidiscip Res
5(2):12Google Scholar
Gabriel, A. and Panahon, H. (2017) Drawing the Demarcation Line: An
Chapter 2 Analysis of Sexual Harassment in Selected Learning Institutions
in Nueva Ecija, Philippines Using Blumer’s Interactionism
Model. Open Access Library Journal, 4, 1-15. doi:
10.4236/oalib.1103328.
Meaning and Scope of Jos PH (2006) Social contract theory. Am Rev Public Adm 36(2):139–
155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074005282860CrossRefGoo
Governance gle Scholar

Kilpatrick AO (2006) A new social contract for the new millennium.
Public Adm Manag 4(2):165–183Google Scholar
Lewis J, Surrender R (2004) Welfare state change: towards a third way?
Oxford University Press, New YorkCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynda Boswell International Public Policy and Administration, &
Monitoring and Evaluation Expert, Stratton, CO,USA.
Mackin, N.C. (1981) Review of Sexual Harassment of Working Women.
https://www.google.com.ph/webhp?sourceid=chrome-
instant&ion=1
&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=review%20of%20sexual%20harassment
%20of%20working%20wo
Orlanda Diaz- Garcia University of Castilla-La Mancha, Talavera de la
Reina, Spain.
Robertson PB (2017) Ethics in the public sector. In: Farazmand A (ed)
Global encyclopedia of public administration, public policy, and
governance. Springer, ChamGoogle Scholar
Rose J (2017) Global ethics. In: Farazmand A (ed) Global encyclopedia
of public administration, public policy, and governance.
Springer, ChamGoogle Scholar
Samonte, E. (1995) Sexual Harassment: Perceptions of UP Students and
Faculty. Review of Womens’ Studies, 3, 101-145.
Vohlidalova, M. (2011) The Perception and Construction of Sexual
Harassment. Wellesley Centers for Women, Wellesely College
Stone Center.
http://www.soc.cas.cz/en/publication/perception-and-
construction
-sexual-harassment-university-students-case-czech-republic
1. Enumerate and understand the social forces of governance.

2. Describe the characteristics of good governance.


column, now.
What is the meaning and

scope of governance?
What are the four social

forces of governance?
What are the eight

characteristics of good
governance according to UN?
READING/ DISCUSSION
Meaning and Scope of Governance
The term governance is derived from the greek word “kubernao” which “means to steer”1
Matthews of “action aid” defines it as the art of steering societies and organizations . This concept
is present in all associations from simple to complex. The more complex the group structure and
frame work of decision making the more complicated governance is.
The World Bank, used this concept as “the exercise of political authority and the use of
institutional resources to manage society’s problems and affairs”. this definition focuses on the
institutions and the structures of society which exercise authority and how they act to distribute
society’s resources for the good of body polity. It involves decisions that define expectations,
grant of power, or verify performance.
It is a means to an end and sometimes an end in itself. The object of governance is to

achieve certain degree of efficiency and effectiveness in the realization of group goals. It involves
processes in politics and interaction between sectors of society. It uses politics and government
processes in the administration of society. As an interaction, it takes place within three networks
of relations: the interaction between the public and private networks; the use of market

mechanism to allocate resources and the bureaucracy. Governance has the moral purpose of
ensuring the pattern of good and avoiding bad or excesses in public office and in government
operation. It is usually associated with the concept of power and how it is exercised and the
structure that legitimizes the use of such power. Its main focus is on decision making, how it is
made and who made the decisions including its implications. It is associated with the term “good’
for the aim of all social associations is to achieve “goodness” in decision making and
implementation of a decision having multi effects on society.
Governance also involves management of the human, physical, technological resources of

society or the community. It is the management of socio-economic and political affairs at all levels.
It is synonymous to the term public administration because it is concerned more on the
management of public demands and delivery of basic social services to the community. It is
considered as the exercise of powers within the formal structure of government to manage the
multifarious affairs of society.
Governance is the business of government. As a process, its main concern is to improve

and develop governance of society. Its duty is to ensure the delivery of public services by
government entity more than private organization. In fact, the need for good governance is a
prerequisite for the United Nations and its subsidiary organizations to grant foreign aid or support
to countries of the world. As basis for the grant of foreign support, the United Nations and
perhaps other international entities, believe that good governance should be an important factor
to look into by all governments to become aid or “support” worthy. It includes; “the voice of the
people and accountability; political stability; lack of violence; government effectiveness;
regulatory quality; rule of law and control of corruption”6. The goal of governance is to achieve
good government thus, achieve its goal using universally acceptable norms or means or ethical
standards of doing things.
For Dr.R. Niuda of the World Bank, the term governance pertains to the operation of a country8.
It encourages a move from representative democracy to participatory politics. That there are two
approaches to solve the main issue.
There are four social forces of governance such as: Citizen-consumers, civil society, business and
government. The interaction between these social forces help shape governance.
Citizen Consumers – They are the people. In a democratic society, they are the source of all
government authority. From their collective demands and needs the government sponsors
programs and projects. Their support maintains political stability.
Business- generates jobs and opportunities. The stability of the political system sometimes is
dependent on their level of support. Economic growth and development of the business sector
are sometimes use as parameters to determine level of success in governance. Their collective
interests serve as input to economic planning and development.
Government- promotes and protects conducive political and legal environments. Regulates,
conduct and behavior of citizens through legislation and law enforcement. Government maintains
peace and order. Expands democratic space and institutionalize people power. It ensures
enjoyment and protection of civil liberties.
Civil Society - In the words of Professor Valdehuesa, “it consists of private voluntary organizations
committed to the task of socio -economic development. 14 They complement the inadequacy of
government services. It provides services, the government fails to render and, in many cases, civil
society implements programs that parallel existing programs of the government thereby making

it an alternative to the government. It works as a “watch dog” of the people vis-a-vis effects of
governmental decisions and programs and checks the abuses, and corruption in the government.
Through their resources, communities far from the seat of government is penetrated and social
support systems are provided. Their integrity and track records served as basis for foreign funding
intended to achieve local socio-economic development. They serve as conduit for foreign and
domestic support. Their support to political leaders helped create better governance.
Meanwhile, the United Nations identifies eight characteristics of good governance: 15
It is participatory - it means consultation and dialogue especially to the most vulnerable sector of
society which may be affected by governmental decision. Participation can be direct or through a
chosen representative. Participation also requires respect for the right of the people to organize
and expression of opinion;
Good governance requires observance of the principle equality before the law both in terms of
adjudication and enforcement;
Transparency as a characteristic of good governance means that that decision made is

implemented based on clear cut policies and guidelines and not on the whims and caprices of the
one who will implement. It also necessitates information dissemination to the affected sector and
ensure them of the free access to information that is simple and understandable to them;
Responsiveness simply means that services are available to the stakeholders when and where they
are needed;
Consensus oriented – good governance is guided by the principle of “the greatest good for the
greatest number” choosing from among alternatives what is beneficial and will promote common
good. It also involves intergenerational impact of decision made.
f) Equity and inclusiveness - this characteristic is exemplified by the principle of social justice. It
focuses on the members of the less privileged sector which are considered vulnerable to the
adverse effects of changes in decision and policies. Good governance encourages participation of
this sector.
g) Effectiveness and efficiency - Good governance ensures that desired results are achieved using
the least available resources.
h) Accountability - in good governance it requires responsibility on the part of the decision maker
for the outcome of his decision. Part of this concept is the principle of transparency and openness
of leaders.
For Professor Laquian, governance involves the following issues:
Peoples participation;
Access to decision making;
Accountability and authority of leaders;
Efficiency and effectiveness of delivery services; and
Sustainability of economic development goals.16
power in governance, the top down approach and the human rights based or people centered
approach.
Governance is a regularized management of the political, socio cultural, economic, technological,

demography, ecological, and institutional needs and interests of all social forces to ensure proper
distribution and allocation of resources of society from among members having diverse or
conflicting interests9.

Governance utilizes laws and processes to balance divergent interests of society and achieve
certain end material to prevent social tension.
Different political leaders define governance differently. Common to their definitions are
the presence of concepts related to the ideals of social management and delivery of public services
e.g. dedication to duty, commitment to serve, efficiency and effectiveness in the use of
government resources, thrift and innovativeness in program implementation and the like.
Professor Aprodicio Laquian in his paper “Governance of Mega Urban Centers” defines it as the
process by which authority structures are established and operated to carry out legitimate public
functions in a well-defined territory.10
Professors Ramon Dannug and Atty Marlo Campanilla, the authors of a book on Politics,
Governance and Government with Philippine Constitution defines governance as a regularized
management of the political, socio cultural, economic, technological, and institutional needs and
interests of all social forces to ensure balance and fairness in the realization of certain ends. 11


each.
FORCES OF
GOVERNANCE
CHARACTERISTICS CONTRIBUTION TO GOOD
GOVERNANCE
EXPLAIN THE LINKAGE BETWEEN DEFINITION OF GOOD GOVERNANCE IN

TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY YOUR OWN WORDS
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GOOD GOVERNANCE
HOW CAN THE PRINCIPLE OF EXPPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST

RESPONSIVENESS BE REFLECTED GOOD FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER
IN PUBLIC SERVICE?

REFLECTION
essay form.
1. Discuss the roles of the four social forces of governance in shaping governance.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Discuss the roles of the eight characteristics of good governance of UN and their
relationship to proper governance.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3-2-1 (5 minutes)


Anyaegbunam, E. O. (2000) Assembly Handbook: A Legislator‟s
Companion. Lagos: FEF.
Ballano, V. (2016). History, Politics, Government, and the
Constitution in the Philippines: A Sociological-Juridical
Approach.
De Leon Hector C.(2007), “Textbook on the Philippine
Constitution” retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/coc../textbook in the Philippine
constitution-constitution
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2014). The Role of the
Private Sector in Supporting Economic Growth and Reducing
Poverty in the Indo-Pacific Region. Submission to the Joint
Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade,
Australian Government
Gabriel, A. G., & Gutierrez, M. P. (2017). Praxis in local legislative
governance: measure of organizational effectiveness of the
component cities in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Asia Pacific
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 5(2), 12-20.
Geyh, C. G. & Van Tassel, E. F. (1998). The Independence of the
Chapter 3
Judicial Branch in the New Republic. Chicago-Kent Law
Review, 74 (1).
Heywood, A. (2007). Politics (3rd Edition). New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
The Government, Non-

Isufaj, M. (2014). Decentralization and the Increased autonomy in
Local Governments. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,
109, 459-463.
Governmental Mendoza, D. J. (1999) “Basic Concepts, Structures and Functions of
Government”. In Yu-Jose, Lydia N., (eds) Politics and
Organizations, and Governance: Theory and Practice in the Philippine Context.
Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University Research and
Private Sectors, and Publications pp: 59-75.
Oni, S. O. (2013). Legislature-Executive Relations in the Presidential
their Role in Public System: A Study of Lagos and Ogun States, Nigeria, 1999-
2011. ["eprint_fieldopt_thesis_type_phd" not defined]
Governance thesis, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State.
Philippine Government (n.d.) Official Gazette of the Republic of the
Philippines, Available Online:
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/about/gov/
Powell, W. W., & Bromley, P. (Eds.). (2020). The nonprofit sector:
A research handbook. Stanford University Press.
Relacion, A. F. & Magalzo, G. C. (2014). System of Checks and
Balances in the Philippine Presidential Form of Government.
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3 (2), pp. 39-65, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v4i1.632
Republic Act 7160 (1991). The Local Government Code of 1991,
Retrieved from
https://www.senate.gov.ph/lisdata/82027399!.pdf
Sargentich, T. O. (1993) “The Presidential and Parliamentary
Models of National Government”. American University
Journal of International Law and Policy. Vol. 8. No. 2 and 3.
Webb, G. G. & Whittington, K. E. (2004). Judicial Independence,
the Power of the Purse, and Inherent Judicial Powers,
Judicature, 88 (1), July-August 2004
Werker, E. & Ahmed, F. Z. (2007). What Do Non-Governmental
Organizations Do?, Forthcoming: Journal of Economic
Perspectives.
3. Describe the roles of different institutions in public governance.

4. Articulate the influence of the different institutions to the public administrative system.

PREVIEW (10 Minutes)

This chapter will discuss the three branches of the government, the private sectors, and the non-
government sectors. Although you may have encountered these sectors in your other public
administration subjects, we will re-examine them again in this chapter, particularly their role and
influence in public governance. It would give us clearer picture of the different actors performing
in the ecology of public administration.

column, now.
What is the role of

government institutions in
public administration?
What is the role of non-

government institutions in
public administration?
What is the role of private

institutions in public
administration?
READING/ DISCUSSION
1. The Government
The role performed by the government is not only to provide security to its citizens but also to
look after their basic needs while ensuring their development (Oni, 2013; Gill, 2002). To attain
these objectives of the government, the formulation and enactment of laws are needed.
Moreover, to ensure that the rights of the people are protected, there should be enforcement of
the law to ensure compliance as well as the exercise of justice and equality to those who will
violate the rules and those who are at the disadvantage. Therefore, these objectives of the
government are accomplished through the division of its functions and powers.

The Philippines is a republic with a presidential form of government. The power in this form of
government is equally divided among its three branches: executive, legislative, and judiciary
(Philippine Government, n.d.). In this form of government, the principle of separation of powers
and a system of check and balance is adopted (Relacion & Magalzo, 2014). And the purpose of the
government is fulfilled through the contributions of these three arms of the government. The
doctrine of separation of powers and system of check and balance is designed to prevent tyranny
by preventing the concentration of the sovereign power of state in one body (Mendoza, 1999).
The 1987 Philippine Constitution stressed the division of these three departments. The executive
is headed by the president, the legislative consists of the Congress – a bicameral legislature, and
the judiciary is led by the Supreme Court (Oni, 2013).
Figure 1. The branches of the Philippine Government. Source: https://pia.gov.ph/branches-of-govt
The succeeding topics will discuss the different institutions in the government and the different
actors and their roles in governance.
1.1 The Executive
In a presidential form of government, the president is the head of the government and is elected
directly by the people with fixed term of office (Sargentich, 1993). All the offices under the
president belong to the executive branch. This branch is the core of the government (Heywood,
2007). Its function is vital as it is the one managing the public affairs. It is in charge of implementing
the policies and coordinate activities to the different departments of the state. The executive
branch is the one responsible for delivering the services to the people and is accountable for good
governance. Generally, this branch is concerned with formulating and then implementing various
policies for the benefit of the public or simply implementing the will of the state. It carries out and
executes the law as contained in the constitution, acts, orders, and all the policies of the land (Oni,
2013). Therefore officers, inspectors, collectors, commissioners, policemen, soldiers, and all
employees working in government offices are part of the executive branch.

1.1.1 Local Government Unit
Decentralization and local autonomy is a significant process for the democratic development of a
country (Isufaj, 2014). It is defined by the transfer of powers from the national to the local level
known as the Local Government Units (LGU). Decentralization made the LGU accountable for the
implementation of the government functions in their area of responsibility. It also increases
community participation in decision-making which is an integral part of democracy. As cited by
Gabriel & Gutierrez (2017), De Leon (2007) argues that the Local Government Unit is the political
unit closer to the public and has the ability to address the problems of its locality.
The LGUs are given power, authority, responsibilities, and resources to attain its full development
and be self-reliant partners of the national government in accomplishing government goals (R.A.
7160, 1991). Though LGUs are under the executive branch of the government, just as the national
government they have executive and legislative department to enact local policy. The executive
department is headed by the governors for the province, mayors for the cities and municipalities,
and barangay captain/chairperson for the barangays. Meanwhile, the legislative is presided by the
following: vice-governor and the Sangguniang Panliliwagan members for the province; vice-
mayors and Sanggunian members, the councillors, for cities and municipalities; and barangay
captain and the Sangguniang Barangay for the barangays.
It is the primary task of the LGU to promote local economy and achieve social development, since
fiscal and decision-making were already granted to it. Under Section 15 of the Local Government
Code of 1991, the LGUs are political and corporate in nature. In one hand, political means that
they also have the same governmental powers as the national government, the police power and
regulations, the eminent domain, and the power to collect taxes. On the other hand, the local
government also act as a corporate entity representing the citizens of its territory. It maintains
water systems, public markets, and is able to own or sell its properties. It may also enter into
contracts if needed.
Another power bestowed on the LGUs is the police power. The police power of the local
governments is merely aimed for efficient and effective governance as well as for the general
welfare of the public. The function to regulate is under the scope of the police power of the LGUs.
Some of the regulatory powers that LGUs implement are the following:
1) Reclassification of lands within the area of jurisdiction
2) Enforcement of environmental laws
3) Inspection of food products and sanitation
4) Enforcement of national building code
5) Processing and approval of subdivision plans
6) Regulate activities relative to the use of land, buildings and structures
Through the establishment of local government units, the principles of good governance are
experienced by the people. It has heightened the transparency, accountability, and citizens
participation by responding to the needs of community and involving them in the decision-making
process. These are just some of the benefits of decentralization and democratization that people
currently benefit from.
1.2 The Legislative
Across the world, the legislative department or legislature has been used in different terms. It is
termed Parliament in Britain, National Assembly in Nigeria, and Congress in the United States, and
in the Philippines. Despite its several names, it only has one purpose that is to articulate and
express the collective will of the people (Oni, 2013). This branch of the government consists of
elected representatives whose duties are to formulate laws, control or check the executive branch
activities, and safeguard the interest of the people. This branch is in charge of making, revising,
amending, and repealing laws for the development and the welfare of the citizenry that it
represents (Anyaegbunam, 2000).

As defined by the 1987 Philippine Constitution, legislative branch has the power to enact, amend,
or abolish law. The bicameral Congress of the Philippines consists of the Senate (upper house) and
House of Representatives (lower house). The 24 senators are elected at large with terms of six
years and are limited to not more than two consecutive terms. Meanwhile, the Members of the
House of Representatives have a maximum of 250 seats coming from the elected representatives
of legislative districts and sectoral representatives. The representatives have three-year term and
are limited to three consecutive terms. Aside from formulating laws, the Philippine Congress has
considerable powers. The Senate has the power to approve treaties whereas the House has
significant fiscal powers (Oni, 2013). Both the upper and lower house maintains committee
systems which allow them to focus on different concerns and enhance their influence in the
legislative and executive process.
Since separation of power exists and principle of check and balance is observed between the three
branches of the government, the Congress is empowered to question the executive activities, and
the President has the power to veto the policies coming from the Congress. Moreover, the
executive needs the support of the Congress in order to implement programs and policies.
Therefore, the executive and legislative branches have equal powers to prevent abuse of power
and promote the well-being of the people.
1.3 The Judiciary
The third and separate branch of the government is the judicial branch. It is the duty of this branch
to evaluate and interpret law, and guard the rights of the people from injustice. It protects the
constitution and laws from the abuse of power of the branches of the government. Just like the
other two branches, the judiciary has judicial independence in terms of making decisions and as
an institution (Geyh & Van Tassel, 1998). It can make impartial decisions on a specific case without
fear or favour. The judicial branch preserves the integrity of the legal system by upholding the
concept of justice. It has the power to decide if the law or the acts of the other branches of the
government is unconstitutional. And being an independent institution, it has the capacity to
remain autonomous so that it may serve its purpose against the excess of the government
branches.
Judicial power in the Philippines rests with the Supreme Court and the lower courts. It enjoys fiscal
autonomy such as its appropriation may not be reduced by the legislative branch below the
appropriated amount in the previous year (The Philippine Constitution, 1987). As Webb &
Whittington (2004) argues, the legislature holds the power of the purse or the control over the
government spending and taxation. It can be used against the other branches of the government.
Therefore, to limit this power, the judicial branch was given autonomy over its appropriation to
effectively perform judicial independence. However, the institutional independence of the
judiciary is not absolute. The Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President and
confirmed by the Senate and just like the case of the president, they are impeachable. This is the
case when the other branches may influence the independence of the other branches.
2. The Non-Governmental Organizations
When a calamity strikes in a country or in an area, aids would come from the public and private
sectors and individuals. Most of these organizations belong to Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs). Powell & Bromley (2020) described them as voluntary and social purpose organizations.
Meanwhile Werker & Ahmed (2007) cited World Bank’s definition that NGOs are private
organizations characterized by humanitarian or cooperative objectives rather than commercial,
that pursue wide array of social services activities. NGOs are subset of non-profit sector that
engage in relief activities, undertake community development, conduct environmental protection
activities, and they promote the interests of the poor. NGOs either work independently or
alongside bilateral aid agencies, private sector groups, other institutions or associations, and the
local governments (Werker & Ahmed, 2007). They vary in sizes, from an individual to a complex
and large organization.

Just like the Civil Societies, this sector plays an important role in the facilitation and interaction
among the key players of governance. Some NGOs act as watchdog of the government, while
others try to provide services to areas not reached by the government. With their strong
advocacies they are able to influence people’s mindsets and attitudes toward an issue. In general,
they either act as the extension of public service delivery or as a watchman of the government’s
inactivity and abuse of powers. They are instrumental to citizens participation and empowerment
which are important principles of good governance.
3. The Private Sector
The Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2014) stressed that, “the
private sector is the engine of growth. Successful businesses drive growth, create jobs and pay the
taxes that finance services and investment.” Certainly, the private sector has significant
contributions in the economic development of the country. Not only it generates jobs and income
but it also assists the government in its development plan, particularly in the local level.
Though the private sector is vital to economic growth as well as in development and reducing
poverty, it needs encouragement to do its part. The government plays the central role of providing
good policies, strong institutions, and efficient public service delivery to ensure that the private
sector can thrive while the needs of the public are well provided (Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade, 2014). Basically, the government needs to create an enabling environment to
encourage the private sector to invest and support the government to its objectives and goal. It
needs to develop policies which promote growth, and oversee and regulate policies that commit
to develop and sustain different institutions. The government’s policy and decisions determine
the scale and economic growth of the area as well as the private sector’s role in this development
(Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2014). This ensures not only development but it elicits
active engagement of the different sector of the community.

each.
BRANCHES OF THE
GOVERNMENT

NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
REFLECTION
essay form.
3. Discuss the roles of the government, non-government, and the private sectors in
public governance. Site examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. How does the current administration ensure the active participation and
engagements of the different actors that has significant contributions in
governance?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Our synthesis: Write the synthesis of the lesson on this space.

3-2-1 (5 minutes)


Ababa, A. (2014). Course Module on Principles of Management.
CCRDA-AMBO University Partnership Postgraduate
Diploma Program in Development Management.
Bartle, J. R., & Leuenberger, D. (2006). The idea of sustainable
development in public administration.
Batalli, M. (2016). Factors affecting the transformation of public
administration. Acta Universitas Danubius Juridica, 12 (3)
Brillantes, A. & Fernandez, M. (2008). ‘Is There a Philippine
Public Administration? Or Better Still, For Whom Is
Philippine Public Administration?’. Philippine Journal of
Public Administration. 52.
Brillantes Jr, A. B., & Fernandez, M. T. (2011). RESTORING TRUST
AND BUILDING INTEGRITY IN GOVERNMENT: ISSUES AND
Chapter 4 CONCERNS IN THE PHILIPPINES AND AREAS FOR REFORM.
International Public Management Review, 12(2).
Dwivedi, O. P. (2005). Administrative culture and values:
Approaches. Administrative culture in a global context, 19-
The External 36.
Kurt Zorn, C. (1998) The economic perspective on public
Environments of administration,
Administration,
International
21:6-8,
Journal of
1119-1136,
Public
DOI:
Governance 10.1080/01900699808525338
Malandrino, O., Sica, D., & Supino, S. (2019). The Role of Public
Administration in Sustainable Urban Development:
Evidence from Italy. Smart Cities. 2. 82-95.
10.3390/smartcities2010006.
Maserumule, M. H., & Mashigo, P. (2010). Public Administration
and Economics: Twin-Sciences That [Should] Go Together
for Rounded-Knowledge?. Journal of Management and
Marketing Research, 3, 1.
School of Management Science (2012). Ecology of Public
Administration, National Open University of Nigeria
Tahmasebi, R., & Musavi, S. M. M. (2011). Politics-
Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate.
Administration & Public Management Review, 17.
1. Identify the external environments that affects governance

2. Define the importance and impact of external environments in public administration

We have discussed the theories and the key actors in the ecology of public administration. The
first two chapters are the core of this course. How the government operates is generally based on
the foundation and the key actors of public administration. What we will encounter in this chapter
are the external environments that influence the decision-making and performance of every
element in the system of public administration.

column, now.

What are the external

environments of
governance?
What are the significant

contributions of the external
environment of public
administration?
READING/ DISCUSSION
Public Administration, through its complex and dynamic nature has evolved its definition and
scope. Not only does it involve the activities of the branches of the government but also its
interaction within and outside of its system. Since every element within and outside the system
of public administration in one way or another affects the governance process. It is affected by
new reforms and developments because public administration is a discipline, an art, and a science,
and it evolves through new experiences.
Due to the changing circumstances surrounding public administration, it is better to understand

the external elements that can cause changes in the system. The succeeding discussions are some
of the external environments of governance: the political, socio-cultural, economic, technological,
and ecological.
1. Political Environment
The politics-administration dichotomy has long been an issue in public administration. Several
scholars have defined politics and administration to see the demarcation between the two. In the
classic public administration era, Wilson (1966) argues that “Public administration is detailed and
systematic execution of public law…The broad plans of governmental action are not
administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative.” After the classical era, the
dichotomy was denounced as false for many believe that administrators should actively
participate in policy-making (Tahmasebi & Musavi, 2011).
However, in the era of Reinventing Government and the New Public Management, the dichotomy
returns. The principle of rowing and steering emphasized the policy making and implementation
and distinguishing policy and management. Policy-makers are the one making policy and then
delegating its implementation to public managers. Therefore, the public administrators are the
one accountable for the execution of the policies and program.
Political environment is defined by Ababa (2014) as the influence of political and legal forces on
people and organizations. Nowadays, there is just a distinct line separating politics and public
administration. They are currently seen as complementary rather than dichotomous (Tahmasebi
& Musavi, 2011). Public administrators provide policy advice to elected politicians and public

officials also work under the management of the elected politician. Hence, there would always be
interaction between politics and administration. The development thrusts of the government
depend on the politicians, but the execution of the plans is the function of the administrators.
It consists of the political system the type of regime and the way it operates and observed. In the
Philippines where democratic system reigns, it involves the manner on which the State operates
on the principles on which civil liberties, individual freedom and the rule of law are promoted and
protected to provide wider democratic space to citizen’s participation. Political environment also
affects governance as it involves the distribution of political powers among branches of
government which maintains political balance and check on the actions of the different branches.
Legal environment refers to the changes that are taking place in the legal arena where new
legislations, bills intended to regulate individual exercise of political rights and the efficiency of
law enforcement and the speedy disposition of cases in court. All these variables affect the
management of organization and the way it must be managed.
The diagram below shows the environments and key variables affecting governance.
Environments and Key Variables in

Governance
Politico-legal Socio-cultural-
Political environment demography Cultural
system Environment orientation,
Democratic national,
space, census, level
distribution of of education,
GOVERNANCE Increase in
Peoples Emerging threat in
‘participation Institution higher level population, inter
Political al of political social Cultural
Strength, participation, orientation,
Peace Efficiency and social national, census,
Laws,
and order Effectiveness mobilizatio
legislation,, bills level of education,
n
,regulations, Increase in
population, trust in
implementation Freedom from government,
of laws and poverty
efficiency in Fulfilled
Economic and Technological

Environment
(1) Information technology
(2) unemployment
(3) Technology, R&D
(4) Economic factors of supply and
demand; import-export; FDI; fiscal
Adopted from Gabriel (2014) Politics and Governance
2. Socio-Cultural environment
This environment of governance affects the capacity of government to plan

for development. Any changes in these variables affect future
development directions of the organization. The government responding
only to the demands of its citizens which in turn influenced by the increase
and decrease in demography. This environment includes changes in
cultural orientation, population, level of education inter- ethnic conflicts
and also understanding, evolving cultural orientation as it may be affected

by foreign influences and intercountry migration due to economic reason.

The socio-cultural demography of any country is always considered in the
management of government and of a community.
The government system has been in mayhem due to the effects of negative bureaucratic
behaviour. The gap between theories and practices in public administration has not been sealed.
As development continues, the more factors emerge that somehow affects the public
administration process and practices. One of the complex and dynamic elements affecting public
administration is the socio-cultural environment.
Ababa (2014) mentioned that socio-cultural environment is the aspects of a culture that guide the
influence relationship among values, needs, and standards of behaviour of people involved in the
public administration. The behaviour of people within an organization has a significant
contribution in its operation. Remember that the performance of the whole government not only
depends on the top management but on the employees as well. The culture and approaches of
governance are vital to understand how a country function (Dwivedi, 2005).
In the works of Brillantes & Fernandez (2008), they have asked if there is really a Philippine Public
Administration, and the paper highlighted that there is a basic public administration structures
and processes in the country patterned from the different countries. But the country has different
socio-cultural values and ethics, and these elements affect the public administration system in the
country. The best practices of other countries may be replicated, as far as public administration is
concerned, but they should be further mainstreamed (Brillantes & Fernandez, 2008). Some of the
reasons on the declining trust of the public to the Philippine government were issues of the system
and the negative bureaucratic behaviour. In order to address these, Brillantes Jr & Fernandez
(2011) proposed reforms in four areas, these are:
1) Reforms in institutions and structures, including reforms in organizations,
processes and procedures;
2) Reforms in mindsets, paradigms and behaviour;
3) Reforms in leadership at various levels; and
4) Reforms among citizens, i.e., citizen engagement and/or citizen participation.
Socio-cultural environment is key to understanding the government system in a country. It is

therefore imperative to draw from the local customs, culture, and traditions whenever public
sector reform is imposed (Dwiveldi, 2005).
3. Economic Environment
A government aims to deliver the public’s basic services with this it will require resources. It
implies that a government will not function without economic resources. With the increasing
demand of the people, the more resources are required to make the government responsive. This
alone depicts the importance of economic environment in governance.
Economic environment are “the forces that affect the availability, production and distribution of
society‘s resources among competing users” (Ababa, 2014). Economics is important in every sector
and facets of human activity and interaction. In public administration, public managers provide
direction in terms of spending, saving, earning, and distributing resources. Therefore, public
managers and policy makers need a sound knowledge of the fundamentals of economics to
effectively manage the business of the government (Maserumule & Mashigo, 2010; Kurt Zorn,
1998).
Basic understanding of economics is important in understanding different phenomena that have

impact on human needs Maserumule & Mashigo, 2010), and this is essential in policy-making and
development planning in a government system. Some of the examples of the use of economics in
public administration include: the handling of the state deficit, solutions to airway and airport
congestion, poverty reduction, housing programs, dealings with international trading partners,

proposed solutions to debt crisis, resolution of the climate change or pandemic crisis (Kurt Zorn,
1998).
Economic environment of governance refers to the changing factors involving the
economy that ensures observance of economic principles under a free market setting. The
law of supply and demand and how it ensures the market freedom from government
control and monopoly. The economic factors of supply and demand, the condition of the
Balance of Trade fiscal and monetary policies and the unemployment situation. These
factors affect governance considering that favorable conditions along these areas ensure
political stability and proper management of government free from poverty inequality
and imbalanced development.
4. Technological Environment
Technological environment involves the degree of investment in Information

Communications Technology and research and development spending. The development
in these areas constantly demands changes in the public setting cope with fast
development in information technology. Example of this is the law requiring local
government units to have their own websites to promote e government and e services.
Current developments and reforms in public administration are seen as a result of new
technologies (Batalli, 2016). For instance, the E-Government practice comes about due to the
technological advancement in Information and Communications Technology (ICT). Computer and
wireless technologies are now applied in the government administrative activities introducing the
government e-services, or electronic services. It is somehow instrumental to an increased level of
efficiency and effectiveness in public administration. Not to mention, a decrease in person to
person contact transaction also addresses corruption practices. Moreover, a paperless transaction
decreases the use of other resources such as paper, and ink.
For the past several years, the evolution of technology affected the lives of the people and all the
sectors of the community. However, development is inevitable. Every individual needs to adapt
to the change to make their life easier. All of the sectors, particularly the private, have responded
to this technological advancement, and the government should also act in order to address the
concerns brought by the old systems and procedures.
Technology is a resource for renovating and reengineering government that allows drastic but
quality transformations, improving the delivery of public, and public administration’s
effectiveness (Batalli, 2016). Through technology, the services of the government are brought
closer to the people. It addresses accessibility, as well as transparency and accountability issues.
5. Ecological Environment
The government commitment to improve environmental and energy performance is essential for
sustainable development (Malandrino et al., 2019). Environmental management and preserving
ecological resources while acquiring progress are significant in public policy and administration. It
is the perspective of sustainable development to consider the future consequences of the current
behaviour (Bartle & Leuenberger, 2006).
Due to the drastic loss of lives and property caused by the global phenomena Climate Change, the
responsibility to take care of the environment has been passed on to every nation and individuals.
Basically, what the people do to their environment has negative effects on ecological balance
which returns to the community as a hazard. In one hand, the development activities of the
government require the disturbance of the natural ecological landscape of the area, thus, resulting
to flooding, liquefaction, and landslide. On the other hand, the release of pollutions through
industrialization, like use of coal and vehicles, causes global warming which is a factor of climate
variability that eventually leads to strong typhoons and drought. Moreover, the increase in
population causes increase in waste pollutions that the government needs to address.

It is therefore a responsibility of the government to carefully and responsibly manage the

environment by implementing laws and policies. It is also a power of the government to regulate
the use of land and natural resources, which is essential to attaining sustainable development. If
the environment is taken care of, it can still be utilized by the future generations.
Summary
These overarching variables in governance affecting government operation affect the
internal and external stability of a country and the population. That is why, leaders in the
government must always provide enough time, effort and resources to cope with the
changes in these variables. The government as the largest organization existing in society
is almost always affected by these environments and key variables. The fate of political
leadership and how its responds to these variables spells its success or failure.
There are parameters to measure how a particular governance responds to these

environments such as: internal peace and stability in government, economic security of
the population, higher level of political participation and mobilization which are all signs
of efficiency and effectiveness in governance.

each.
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENTS OF
CHARACTERISTICS
GOVERNANCE FACTS

REFLECTION
essay form.
1. Discuss the external environments of public administration. Describe its role and
impact in public governance.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What other external environments can you think of that has significant influence
in public administration? Explain and cite examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________


3-2-1 (5 minutes)


Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and
predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
Asci, M. S., Cemberci, M., Civelek, M. E. & Gunel, D. (2015) Groups
and their Effects in Organizations, European Scientific
Journal, 11 (32), pp. 12 - 34
Bækgaard, M. (2010). The Impact of Formal Organizational
Structure on Politico-Administrative Interaction: Evidence
from a Natural Experiment. Public Administration. 89. 1063
- 1080. 10.1111/j.1467-9299.2010.01872.x.
Boe, O., & Kvalvik, Ø. (2015). Effective use of resources in the public
management sector in Norway. Procedia Economics and
Finance, 26, 869-874.
Hillestad, T. (2003). Lederskapets dilemma nar hierarkiene faller.
Chapter 5 Utfordringer og refleksjoner basert pa erfaringer fra offentlig
sector (Leadership dilemma when hierarchies fall.
Challenges and reflections based on experiences from the
public sector). Magma – tidsskrift for økonomi og ledelse, nr.
The Internal 2, 80-88.
Norcross, E. (2011). Public-Sector Unionism: A Review.
Environments of Pangil, F., Yahya, K., Johanim, J., Isa, M. & Daud, Z. (2011). THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND
Governance JOB SATISFACTION: THE CASE OF A GOVERNMENT AGENCY
IN MALAYSIA. International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science. 1. 152-160.
Public Sector Unionism, (n. d.). Civil Service Commission, Available
online http://www.csc.gov.ph/2014-02-21-08-16-56/2014-
02-21-08-19-02/2014-06-10-05-45-53.html
Sarlak, M. A., & Salamzadeh, Y. (2014). Analyzing the impacts of
informal organizations on formal routines in a networked
organization. Journal of Asian Scientific Research, 4(12), 768.
Vigoda, E. (2000). Internal Politics in Public Administration
Systems: An Empirical Examination of Its Relationship With
Job Congruence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and In-
Role Performance. Public Personnel Management, 29 (2), pp.
185-210

After this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Recognize the internal environments of governance.
2. Articulate the role and impact of internal environments in public administration

The government system is not only affected by the elements outside the organization but mostly
within the organizations. We have discussed the different theories in organization and
management in the earlier chapters. This time we will have a closer look to the actors within the
organization and the internal environments that affects public governance system.

column, now.

What are the internal

environments of
governance?
How do the internal

environments affect public
administration?
READING/ DISCUSSION
1. Employee Organizations
The public sector employee organization is more commonly known as public sector unions. The
public sector union movement links to the history and structure of private sector unions, since it
is was the first to be established. However, public and private sector unionism are also distinct
from each other, they have different origins, goals, approaches to bargaining, philosophies, and
effects (Norcross, 2011).
Public sector union has the ability to affect the institutions’ fiscal and budgetary policy by exerting
influence through the collective negotiation process. Likewise, through political activity by gaining
the support and backing of officials likely to support the union‘s agenda (Norcross, 2011). In the
public sector unionism, “the creation of harmonious working atmosphere between a management
and an employee’s organization which mutually respect each other’s rights, is the objective of the
government” (Public Sector Unionism, n. d.).
The 1987 Philippine Constitution provides that the government “shall guarantee the rights of all
workers to self-organization, collective bargaining and negotiations”. Not only do the public sector
unions function to gain benefits through negotiations, but it also serves as a watchman to the
institutions’ implementation of policies. The public sector union exists to ensure the rights of the
public sector employees, particularly those in the lower level. Though security of tenure is enjoyed
in public offices, there are still large populations of job orders and contractual employees. At the
same time, public employees with lower salaries are significant population that needs
representation to the management. It is one of the vital functions of public sector unions, to
ensure representation of employees in the policy and decision-making process.
2. The material resources
The government does not only implement development and address the welfare of the citizens.
It is also responsible for managing all its resources, financial, human, material and other forms of
resources. With the rise of different era in public administration, New Public Management and
Reinventing Government, the government is drawn towards increasing its efficiency and

effectiveness. The goal of the government then is to efficiently utilize the government’s total
resources (Hillestad, 2003).
Through the use of material resources, the government is able to perform its administrative
functions. An effective use of material resources is when the institution is able to perform its
function in a cost-effective way. The setting of budgets and limitations for the use of resources in
the public sector is governed by laws, and policies (Boe & Kvalvik, 2015). With the limited
resources it has, the government needs to find the optimal way of consuming the resources and
still achieve the maximum output.
In the public sector, resource utilizations are significantly controlled. This is due to the several
programs, projects, and activities to be allotted with funds including the debt payment of the
country. The whole country relies on the limited resources of the government. Therefore, it is the
public administrators’ duty to take care of the resources of the public. Being responsible of the
public resources would address the issue of self-interest which is the root of corruption.
3. The organizational climate
Pangil et al. (2011) cited the definition of organizational climate by (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), it is
an “individual’s perception of his work environment, and individual perceptions is often argued as
to affect individual behaviour”. Based on this argument it can be assumed that if the employees
have positive perceptions of their work environment, then it affects their behaviour and
performance in the organization.
Work environment has been a source of influence on the employees’ individual behaviour. In the
public administration system, the performance of the government relies on the performance of
the public officials, as they are the one implementing and executing the programs and policies to
the people. The organizational climate in public offices is different form the organizational climate
of the private. There are a lot of factors affecting the performance of functions of government
employees.
In the seminal book of Michael Lipsky (1980), he discussed the dilemma faced by the frontline
workers of the government particularly in health services, schools, and police service. Public
employees deliver services to the people, they interact with the citizens. With the pressures they
face daily, they tend to apply personal discretion on the services they provide, thus affecting how
the public perceive public employees. In the government service, part of the work environment is
the engagement with the citizens, since they are the clients.
Some of the dimensions of organizational climate include structure of the organization, the
responsibility, rewards and benefits, support provided, standards, and all the things within the
organization that could lead to positive employees’ outcomes (Pangil et al., 2011). All of these
dimensions, if not most, are provided in the government offices. However, what the public
employees need to remember is that government offices are service-oriented and not profit-
oriented. Therefore, the work environment would be different and sometimes hard, so it will take
a committed employee to have a positive perception on a public office.
4. Formal group in Organization
Public offices adapt scalar chain and division of labour mainly to observe the concepts of unity of
command and specialization. This is the reason why government offices have several
departments, sub-divisions, and units under them. The hierarchical structure of the public sector
consists the formal group within the organization. Formal group is defined as the group formed
by the organization wherein the limits of the subjects and the objectives to be achieved are
determined (Asci et al., 2015). In the public sector, the head of the organization is the president
and the public managers composed of the employees of the organization. The president as the

chief executive officer is the person in charge of the administrative part of the organization
(Bækgaard, 2010).
Generally, this formal group in the organization of public sectors are the one ensuring that the
government is functioning. It is their function to carry out the objectives, and implement the
policies, programs, and activities of the government in the service of the people. Therefore, these
formal groups are vital to the government services, and they are the reason why the Civil Service
Commission, the central Human Resource of the government, was established.
5. Informal groupings in organization
Informal groups in an organization are the groups formed in order to meet the social needs of the
employees, and their goals are not determined (Sarlak & Salamzadeh, 2014). Since it is informal,
it can be easily formed and dissolves once the gathering or the meeting is finished. In an
organization, an informal group may either support the objectives of the formal group or interfere
towards achieving the goal (Sarlak & Salamzadeh, 2014).
A person needs socialization to survive, this is why informal groupings continue to appear and
disappear in an organization. An important strategy to address informal groupings and align them
towards the objectives of the organization is to create a good relationship between the
management and the public managers or the administrators. The organization need to build a
team with unity within the organization. It is actually the purpose of team building in
organizations, to avoid the negative impacts of informal groupings. Another way of addressing the
undesirable impact of informal grouping is through suggestion system (Sarlak & Salamzadeh,
2014). One reason why informal group exist is because employees have concerns. These concerns
need to be addressed immediately so the employees would see that their welfare is important
and that motivates them to do their job.
6. The micro political relationship in the organization
Internal politics and power relations between members of the organization appeared to have
been one of the problems in the decline in organizational outcomes, both in the business and
public sector (Vigoda, 2000). Most likely it is because politics is regarded as negative by majority
of the people. The common perception for politics within the organization is the bad politics,
particularly in the public sector.
According to the findings of Vigoda (2000), internal politics in the organization functions as the
silent enemy. It is because they perceived politics in the negative way. Based on the result of
Vigoda (2000), in public sector, the absence of linkage between performance and compensation
may lead to neglect of job assignment and duties. However, the public sector union, which is an
example of micro political relationship in the organization, provide informal legitimacy for such
concerns and protect the employees of their rights.
Politics are common in any organizations. It mainly depends on how the people see it and how it
affects them. Politics can be an approach to understand the dynamics of organization which will
be helpful to comprehend the workplace activities.
7. Organizational ethics and values
Organizational ethics and values in public administration are generally about the adherence to
government rules, policies, and regulations of the public employees. Public officials are governed
by rules, even in the way they live their lives and how they carry themselves within and outside of
the workplace.

In the Philippines, Republic Act 6713 consists of the Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for
public officials and employees. It contains the manners on how public employees conduct
themselves in front of someone or not. It is mostly expected for public sector employees to
perform the eight norms of conduct mandated by the Act for them to exemplify ethical behaviour.
These values are not only expected within the workplace but even outside of their work
environment. The eight norms of conduct are the following:
Pursuant to R.A. 6713, Section 4, every public official and employee shall observe the following as
standards of personal conduct in the discharge and execution of official duties:
[1] Commitment to public interest. - Public officials and employees shall always uphold the
public interest over and above personal interest. All government resources and powers of their
respective offices must be employed and used efficiently, effectively, honestly and economically,
particularly to avoid wastage in public funds and revenues.
“Bayan Muna Bago ang Sarili”, “Mamamayan Muna Hindi Mamaya Na,” these are just two of the
known quotes addressing commitment to public interest. It simply highlights the prioritization of
public service over one’s personal interest. That, in every performance of a public official’s duty,
one shall consider, at all times, the optimal use of resources, such as time, equipment, fund, and
materials. A government employee must be a safe-keeper of the government’s resources at all
times.
[2] Professionalism. - Public officials and employees shall perform and discharge their duties
with the highest degree of excellence, professionalism, intelligence and skill. They shall enter
public service with utmost devotion and dedication to duty. They shall endeavor to discourage
wrong perceptions of their roles as dispensers or peddlers of undue patronage.
In words, actions, and thoughts, a public servant needs to perform his or her duties excellently.
Being professional is not only shown through appearances but most of all through words and
deeds. That is to do their job politely and with considerations of others’ time and effort, not relying
on the appearance of the clients.
[3] Justness and sincerity. - Public officials and employees shall remain true to the people at
all times. They must act with justness and sincerity and shall not discriminate against anyone,
especially the poor and the underprivileged. They shall at all times respect the rights of others,
and shall refrain from doing acts contrary to law, good morals, good customs, public policy, public
order, public safety and public interest. They shall not dispense or extend undue favors on account
of their office to their relatives whether by consanguinity or affinity except with respect to
appointments of such relatives to positions considered strictly confidential or as members of their
personal staff whose terms are coterminous with theirs.
The people have the right to be provided with fair and open judgment. This norm is somehow
related to the principles of good governance, transparency, and rule of law. Hence, ethical
management is related to good governance, and that must be personified by the government
employees.
[4] Political neutrality. - Public officials and employees shall provide service to everyone
without unfair discrimination and regardless of party affiliation or preference.
This norm is inter-related to the previous norm, Justness and Sincerity. In the delegations of his or
her duties, a public servant needs to be fair, and unbiased regardless of the appearance,
background or political affiliation of the client. It is also related to being professional at all times
and taking into account the spirit of equality.
[5] Responsiveness to the public. - Public officials and employees shall extend prompt,
courteous, and adequate service to the public. Unless otherwise provided by law or when required
by the public interest, public officials and employees shall provide information of their policies

and procedures in clear and understandable language, ensure openness of information, public
consultations and hearings whenever appropriate, encourage suggestions, simplify and
systematize policy, rules and procedures, avoid red tape and develop an understanding and
appreciation of the socio-economic conditions prevailing in the country, especially in the
depressed rural and urban areas.
Another principle of good governance, it requires the public official to perform well and promptly,
providing the immediate needs of the person at the given moment. This has been one of the
objectives of the government policies such as Anti-Red Tape Act (ARTA) and Ease of Doing
Business. Aside from addressing corruption, it calls for the employees to act immediately on the
concerns of the public.
[6] Nationalism and patriotism. - Public officials and employees shall at all times be loyal to
the Republic and to the Filipino people, promote the use of locally produced goods, resources and
technology and encourage appreciation and pride of country and people. They shall endeavor to
maintain and defend Philippine sovereignty against foreign intrusion.
No matter where or when, a public official need to be loyal to his or her country. It includes not
only the use of the local products but in standing firm as well when it comes to defending our own
sovereignty and national pride. We are representatives of our country wherever we may be,
particularly in foreign countries. And our behaviors, and acts matter as it also reflects the values
that we have in our own country.
[7] Commitment to democracy. - Public officials and employees shall commit themselves to
the democratic way of life and values, maintain the principle of public accountability, and manifest
by deeds the supremacy of civilian authority over the military. They shall at all times uphold the
Constitution and put loyalty to country above loyalty to persons or party.
This norm of conduct relates the principles of rule of law and accountability. A government
employee must exercise diligence and obedience to the country’s policy. No matter if anyone sees
it or not, from wherever location we may be, public officials should be committed to complying to
what the Constitution and other national policies require.
[8] Simple living. - Public officials and employees and their families shall lead modest lives
appropriate to their positions and income. They shall not indulge in extravagant or ostentatious
display of wealth in any form.
What the public offices offer is the service to the people. Hence, government employees must be
vigilant, careful, and considerate in displaying our personal assets and wealth in any form. It must
be considered that our salaries are from the taxes of the people, and it will be most appropriate
if we become responsible and accountable of how we put into use our salaries. What we need to
highlight is our service to the people and not our personal interest.


each.
INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENTS OF
GOVERNANCE
REFLECTIONS
essay form.
1. Explain the internal environments of governance and its role in public

administration. Provide examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Among the internal environments discussed which has the most significant
influence in public administration? Discuss.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3-2-1 (5 minutes)


Alshoubaki W. (2020) Rethinking Public
Administration Paradigms: Toward a
New Social Contract Paradigm. In:
Farazmand A. (eds) Global
Encyclopedia of Public Administration,
Public Policy, and Governance.
Springer, Cham
American Equal Employment Opportunities.
https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/sex
ual_harassment.cfm.
Brillantes AB, Fernandez MT (2011) Restoring
trust and building integrity in
government: issues and concerns in the
Philippines and areas for reformGoogle
Scholar
Camaya Y.I., Gabriel A.G. (2019)
Professionalism and the Ethics in
Selected Local Governments in the
Philippines. In: Farazmand A. (eds)
Global Encyclopedia of Public
Administration, Public Policy, and
Governance. Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
31816-5_3685-2
Ford M (2018) The big questions facing public
administration in 2018. PATIMES.
American Society for Public
Administration. Retrieved
from https://patimes.org/big-
Chapter 6 questions-facing-public-
administration-2018/
Gabriel AG (2017) Transparency and
accountability in local government:
Issues in the Environments of levels of commitment of municipal
councillors in Bongabon in the
Governance Philippines. Asia Pac J Public Adm
39(3):217–
223. https://doi.org/10.1080/2327666
5.2017.1368902CrossRefGoogle
Scholar
Gabriel AG, Gutierrez MP (2017) Praxis in local
legislative governance: measure of
organizational effectiveness of the
component cities in Nueva Ecija,
Philippines. Asia Pac J of Multidiscip Res
5(2):12Google Scholar
Gabriel, A. and Panahon, H. (2017) Drawing
the Demarcation Line: An Analysis of
Sexual Harassment in Selected Learning
Institutions in Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Using Blumer’s Interactionism Model.
Open Access Library Journal, 4, 1-15.
doi: 10.4236/oalib.1103328.
Jos PH (2006) Social contract theory. Am Rev
Public Adm 36(2):139–
155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074
005282860CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilpatrick AO (2006) A new social contract for
the new millennium. Public Adm
Manag 4(2):165–183Google Scholar
Lewis J, Surrender R (2004) Welfare state
change: towards a third way? Oxford
University Press, New
YorkCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lynda Boswell International Public Policy and

Administration, & Monitoring and
Evaluation Expert, Stratton, CO,USA.
Mackin, N.C. (1981) Review of Sexual
Harassment of Working Women.
https://www.google.com.ph/webhp?s
ourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1
&espv=2&ie=UTF-
8#q=review%20of%20sexual%20haras
sment
%20of%20working%20wo
Orlanda Diaz- Garcia University of Castilla-La
Mancha, Talavera de la Reina, Spain.
Robertson PB (2017) Ethics in the public
sector. In: Farazmand A (ed) Global
encyclopedia of public administration,
public policy, and governance.
Springer, ChamGoogle Scholar
Rose J (2017) Global ethics. In: Farazmand A
(ed) Global encyclopedia of public
administration, public policy, and
governance. Springer, ChamGoogle
Scholar
Samonte, E. (1995) Sexual Harassment:
Perceptions of UP Students and Faculty.
Review of Womens’ Studies, 3, 101-
145.
Vohlidalova, M. (2011) The Perception and
Construction of Sexual Harassment.
Wellesley Centers for Women,
Wellesely College Stone Center.
http://www.soc.cas.cz/en/publication/
perception-and-construction
-sexual-harassment-university-
students-case-czech-republic
1. Understand the meaning and concept of politics.

2. Appreciate the role of politics as a subject and discipline.

According on your acquired understanding of Politics based on your previous learnings,
understand the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.

column, now.
What is the meaning of

Politics?
What is the concept of

Politics?

READING/ DISCUSSION
MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
1. Bureaucratization. Bureaucratization is derived from the root word bureaucracy. Bureaucracy

is the ideal organization for Max Weber. It has the following basic principles:
In practice, it is the tendency to manage an organization by adding more controls,

adherence to rigid procedures, and attention to every detail for its own sake
(http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/bureaucratization.html).
The practice of bureaucratization is generally perceived negatively by the common people.

It believes to unduly delays the processing and consummation of the transaction due to procedural
obsession. Scholars recommend debureaucratization in its many forms as the solution to the
problem of bureaucratization. It involves the harnessing of the private sector and non-
governmental organizations in the delivery of services through various modalities including
contracting out, private-public partnership, and joint ventures, among other things. This practice
becomes rampant among government offices resulting in the commission of other negative
bureaucratic behaviors.
2. Ethics and Professionalism. Professionalism is the application of moral and ethical standards
into the practice of the profession in the office, school, organization, and all entities, public or
private. It is also a state of being aware of norms of conduct and behavior and observing actual
adherence thereto while executing the duties and functions of a public office. Ethics is a set of rules,
regulations, or expectations accepted as the standard or at the very least acknowledged in a given
field (Henson 2016). It is a set of norms and conducts that govern the execution of functions in the
public office.
In the Philippines, the Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards is explicitly provided for in the
1987 Philippine Constitution. And as offshoot of the constitutional mandate, are several ethical
codes promulgated by different government agencies, the Philippine Civil Service Law; the Code of
Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees, also known as RA 6713; and the
Anti-Red Tape Law or RA 9485, in addition to institutional policies, rules, and regulations
promulgated and implemented in each government office, bureau, or corporation. Ethics as a
practice, is necessary for achieving a well-functioning public administration. It is a set of moral
principles that govern the public sector. The role of ethics in the organization is to enhance ethical
governance.
But despite the crafting of too many laws on ethics and values in public service, a few studies
on ethical standards and shared values linked to low level of ethics and professionalism in public
service.

3. Transparency and Accountability. As a practice, transparency is an act of allowing the internal

and external forces of governance to inquire into, have access to, and influence to a certain extent
the government operations. As a concept, transparency embraces accountability. It is linked to and
provides the enabling environment for greater accountability and is therefore presumed operating
in a continuum. The effectiveness of transparency is measured on the degree of accountability that
it would provide to government personnel. Transparency is a matter to open up government and
governance to public scrutiny and encourage greater citizens’ participation. The practice of
transparency and accountability in the government has been the call of the times. Many
government rules and regulations are in one way or the other linked to encouraging open system
of government operations. The websites of many government offices are now mandated to show
their willingness to place their operations via the use of media of communications, subject to the
scrutiny of the public. But despite of this, much is to be desired in terms of compliance to
transparency and accountability requirements.
Transparency and accountability are essentials to the operation of governments. They are
tools to prevent corruption. The importance of transparency and accountability in local governance
is correlated to local legislators’ commitment to governance principles to legislative performance
measured in terms of the number of ordinances and resolutions made. A study showed that (a) the
twin principles of transparency and accountability are necessary for local legislative operations; (b)
local legislators observed governance principles of transparency and accountability and; (c) actual
observance of transparency and accountability are associated to higher level of legislative
performance. To improve the observance of transparency and accountability, the use of
Information Communications Technology not only to monitor legislative duties but also to better
respond to public demands and produce the quality of services commensurate to the value of
public money.
4. Merging of Politics and Administration. The relationship between politics and public
administration was pioneered by Woodrow Wilson in his essay, “The Study of Administration.” In
that essay there was a serious claim that public administration should be a self-conscious,
professional field. Wilson suggested the distinction between politics and administration, i.e.,
administration should be politics-free and that “the field of administration is the field of business”
(Wilson 1953: 71). Thus, establishing what became known as the “politics-administration”
dichotomy.
Although Wilson set a demarcation line between politics and administration, Frank Goodnow
(1900), the “Father of American Public Administration,” presented a more meticulous examination
of politics administration dichotomy in his book, Politics and Administration, that “supplanted the
traditional concern with the separation of powers among the various branches of the government.”
(Shafritz and Hyde 1997: 2) Politics-administration dichotomy has provoked long-running debates
which persist until today. It may be argued though that, as far as the Philippine experience is
concerned, the dichotomy is artificial and that in practice, power and partisan politics have had a
disproportionate influence upon the workings of public administration in the country.
In most scholars the demarcation line between politics and administration in the Philippines
is rather vague. In most cases politics prevails over administration resulting to inconsistency in
governmental programs. The dominance of politics in most decision-making initiatives of the
government hinders sustainable development programs because they depend on the political
interests of leaders. Political leaders who dominate the bureaucratic landscape negates the
competent and efficient policy making efforts of experts and technical personnel of the
bureaucracy. Sometimes, it hinders an honest to goodness implementation of development plans
and programs of the bureaucrats. Although the dichotomy principle remains a never-ending debate
among public administration scholars and practitioners, the complementation of politics and public
administration is believed to be the ideal set up rather than a complete dichotomy.
5. Bureaucratic Red Tape. Red Tape as it is contextualized in the Philippine bureaucracy, refers to
paper works, unnecessary bureaucratic documents, requirements, forms, and procedural

obsession in the delivery of public service. In recent history, the term “red tape” denotes a ribbon
used to bind voluminous documents produced by retired American Civil Veterans as a prerequisite
for their retirement claims. The practice of red tape unreasonably delays the conduct of
government transactions to the detriment of public service delivery on the perception of the public
clienteles. To remedy the situation, the Congress of the Philippines passed upon the “The Anti-Red
Tape Act of 2007” It is the law passed by the Philippine Congress which articulates the
government’s call to improve efficiency in the delivery of public services by reducing bureaucratic
red tape, preventing graft and corruption, and providing penalties therefor. As of this time, the
government is firm in its commitment promote speedy, efficient and effective public services by
implementing laws, creating mechanisms and control to prevent graft and corruption.
6. Gender Equality and Public Administration
There is no standard mechanism in the world to genderize public administration. Some would
use the quota system while others merely use preferences. Some countries do not have policies
in action to increase female opportunities in public administration fields. Regardless of how a
country genderizes its government, the trend is to view women as partners in governance.
Genderizing the government is to provide balance and voice, good or bad, to allow public
administration to play out.
The image of women as nurturer, compassionate, less violent, and balance against male
stereotypes of aggression, selfishness, and egotism in public administration. Placing women in
public posts provides more balance than exclusion of women in public administration.
7. Work place harassment or bullying
There are several manifestations of workplace harassment. It affects the internal peace and
stability of the organization and unduly consumes workplace resources from human resource to
material resources, which could otherwise be used to achieve organizational goals. There are
several elements of workplace harassment. Garcia (2020) believes that workplace harassment in
public setting emanates from : (a) Inequality resulting from power imbalance(even among groups
of workers with identical training and academic qualifications), which is not justified by benefits
for human resources, productivity, or service to citizens (b) Elements that from a legal position are
subject to free will, away from justice and equity (c) Power of any superior body to require
obedience to any lower body and the obligation to obey it, endorsed by a disciplinary penalty
system without good management or concerns for public health (or both) (d) Lack of any rules for
working relationships or responsibilities in the workplace (which may prevent abuse of power);
there are therefore no consequences for inadequate management(Garcia 2020)”. Many studies
on workplace bullying showed that the academe is one of the several institutions in the public
sector having high risk of work place bullying. But despite rampant bullying in the academe,
especially university, it received scant attention of scholars. In fact, according to Braxton & Bayer,
it is” surprisingly, university-based researchers have paid relatively little attention to bullying in
their own backyards “. Workplace bullying is a phenomenon caused by multi- causalities. Among
which are: a) perception of injustice; b) social exclusion; c) leadership style d) prevailing cultural
orientation; e) organizational environments; f) organizational dynamism( Basic Education
Teachers and Workplace Bullying in the Philippines: An Organizational Prism AG Gabriel, JP
Gabriel - Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 2016)
8. Sexual Harassment in public setting
According to McKinnon [1], it is an unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in the context of

a relationship of unequal power. Accordingly, Katz defines sexual harassment as “one aspect of
social sexual behavior characterized by repetitiveness, unwelcome, and in inherently coercive
acts” [2]. Meanwhile, the American Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines
sexual harassment in the context of a workplace as an “unwelcome social advances, requests, for
sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment
when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual’s employment, unreasonably
interferes with an individuals’ work performance or creates an intimidating hostile or offensive
work environment” [3] . The lack of universally applicable definition [4] and the multidisciplinary
nature of sexual harassment made the issue difficult to combat. The socio-cultural differences in
most jurisdictions affect the efficacy of borrowed foreign models and features of behavior
considered as sexual harassment. Though, legal parameters, elements and circumstances for the
commission are already set by law, the problem of interpretation as to what act falls under it
remains dependent on the interaction between social psychological and cultural context. The
study argued that the use of legal approach to solve the problem is inadequate. It is punitive rather
than preventive. Thus, appropriate intervention is necessary. There are two types of intervention;
1) the psycho- social and lay approaches where prevention is the main focus; and 2) legal approach
where the end goal is to prosecute and punish violators.
9. Ethics and Professionalism in Public Service
Professionalism is considered as a superior form of governance when done in accord with

technical know-how and in conformity to standard of behavior of doing things as determined by
one’s profession. This concept of professionalism sometimes invites ethical source of tension
when working with the bureaucracy where cost-efficiency associated with the concept of
“managerialism” is the bench mark of performance. Professionalism, in contrast to managerialism,
is a prescribed code of conduct and standards of doing things to generate positive outcomes to
the public clients. Its virtues are the bases of actions and not solely efficiency and effectiveness in
the distribution of public resources as suggested by managerialism of the NPM Era.
Professionalism has also the potential to improve bureaucracy and the delivery of services to the
public, because it discourages exercise of discretion of street-level agents and execute functions
of office based on set of standard of behaviors instead Professionalism is a component of
bureaucratic competence when public administrator strikes the delicate balance between
professionalism and delivery of public needs separate from personal relations, e.g., loyalty to
political powers
Meanwhile, the need for ethics in public service is universally recognized. Ethics is a set of norms
and work standards that govern the conduct of government personnel contextualized in the
different political territories all around the world. For instance, in the United States, the American
Society of Public Administration drafted and implemented the Professional Standards and Ethics
in 1994; in Canada, the Values and Ethics Code was written in 2012; in the United Kingdom, the
Civil Service Code was promulgated in 1996. In the Philippines, the Code of Conduct and Ethical
Standards is explicitly provided for in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. And as offshoot of the
constitutional mandate, several ethical codes were formed, the Philippine Civil Service Law; the
Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees, also known as RA 6713;
and the Anti-Red Tape Law or RA 9485, in addition to institutional policies, rules, and regulations
promulgated and implemented in each government office, bureau, or corporation. According to
Rose (2017), ethics as a practice, is necessary for achieving a well-functioning public
administration. It is a set of moral principles that govern the public sector. The role of ethics in the
organization is to enhance ethical governance. But despite the crafting of too many laws on ethics
and values in public service, a few studies on ethical standards and shared values linked to
transparency and accountability in the Philippines show that among government personnel, more
actions are being essential to ensure its reflection in high level of actual adherence(Gabriel 2017;
and Gabriel and Gutierrez 2017).

In the Philippines, the exact opposite of professionalism is mistakenly perceived in the operation
of the bureaucracy, thereby creating distrust of the public to the public institution (Brillantes and
Fernandez 2011). The perceived unethical bureaucracy, being the nexus of democracy and the
people and as legally prescribed by principal agent theory, paints an ugly picture of the system.
Consequently, the public is conditioned to settle for substandard government services committed
by unethical leaders and government personnel, alongside to this is the inconsistent
implementation of the laws on ethics. The prime law governing conduct and behavior of
government officials is Republic Act 6713 also known as Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards
for Public Officials and Employees (RA 6713) it contains guidelines on public ethos which should
be observed by government employees and officers, to wit; (a) commitment to public service, (b)
justness and sincerity, (c) political neutrality, (d) responsiveness to the public, (f) nationalism and
patriotism, (f) commitment to democracy, and (g) simple living.
From governance paradigm to social contract paradigm in public administration
There is a need to move away from governance paradigm to social contract paradigm.
According to Alshoubaki (2020) the present paradigm in public administration fails to realize the
purpose for which it is conceptualized. The governance paradigm prevailing the teaching and
practice of public administration encourages “technological globalization and political
transformation, global warming, immigration waves, poverty and famine, income inequality,
and corruption rather than social inclusion, social equity, and citizen representation and social
protection approach. . Marketization and governance principles focused on competition rather
than social protection. It can be fixed through a new social contract paradigm. It corrects the
use of reinventing government and entrepreneurship concepts.
The New Social Contract Paradigm are applied to deal with the challenges of
contemporary public administration (Jos 2006), as proven by the fact that government has
managed through different philosophies to accomplish economy, efficiency, and effectiveness.
Ford (2018) discussed the big questions of public administration by shedding light on the lack
of trust in bureaucracy, the absence of accountability for elected officials, the gap between
researchers and practitioners, and the corrosive politics. In looking into all these issues, it is
crucial to create a new social contract that aims to bridge the gap between politics and
bureaucracy, to rebuild the relationship between managers and their employees, to restore the
trust between citizens and their government, and to redefine economic development through
the lens of social protection. The new social contract covers the whole social structure, social
inequality in terms of income inequality, gender inequality, and minority inequality. To put it
simply, the new social contract will rearrange states’ priorities and reframe the relationship of
trust between trustees and policy makers in way that accomplishes the well-being of the people.
This philosophy corresponds with the welfare philosophy and the third way to reconcile
economic premises and social policies: to promote a social democratic movement and to pursue
an egalitarian society (Lewis and Surrender 2004). In essence, the third way is committed to
certain core values and predilections for certain types of public policy.
In this context, the new social contract will rebuild politics and administration under the arch of
social democracy with a focus on forming social protection policies that are directed toward
social welfare. Public administration is headed toward new paradigm, which considers both
social protection and democracy as major pillars of people welfare. This more contractual and
an egalitarian approach basically depends on bridging the gap between politics and social
welfare.
FILIPINO VALUES THAT HINDER PAS DEVELOPMENT
There are several Filipino cultures and values that affect the development of PAS. Authors have
identified three main traits that specifically actually affect the Philippine administrative system.

These traits normally are common to Filipino behavior and decision-making. These traits are
Personalism, Familism, and Popularism (Jocano, 1981, Varela, 1996, Andres and Ilada-Andres,
1987).
Personalism. According to the authors, this trait is about Filipinos giving emphasis to interpersonal
relations or to face-to-face encounters. Since Filipinos are personal, they are visual and intimate
individuals. Filipinos tend to prefer things done personally. According to Andres and Ilada-Andres
(1987), in terms of communication, there can be a difficulty in communicating things to be
accomplished unless the people involved directly participate. It is also noteworthy to mention that
decision making of Filipinos is largely affected by interpersonal relationships. The same authors
also mentioned that “Problem-solving is effective if handled thoroughly good personal relations
rather than group deliberation, debate, and collegial reasoning.”
Familism. According to authors, this trait basically explains that Filipinos may tend to emphasize
the welfare and interest of the family over the welfare and interest of the community and society.
To a Filipino, ties are very important and that the primary difference to a degree of relationship
between Filipinos is construed on the basis of their ties or closeness – family or non-family. This
closeness is not just applied to a family but also can be applied to a neighbor or a friend. This is
because of the phrase “hindi ka na iba” in which Filipinos tend to treat those who are “hindi na iba”
as a member of a family, again because of the basis and degree of their ties. In this trait comes
many problems in such as nepotism.
Popularism. This last trait is one of the most common to Filipinos. According to Jocano (1981), “To
be popular is the highest compliment one can receive from kinsmen, neighbour and friends.”
Because of this trait, Filipinos are obliged to abide with the norms of a larger group and do his best
to please the members of the community. According to Andres and Ilada-Andres (1987), in
preserving ties with the community a Filipino might do everything including compromising and
cheating for the sake of gratifying community norms.
All these traits evolved from the cultural values Filipinos value most such as pakikisama, hiya, utang
na loob, amor propio and delicadeza.


each.
FILIPINO VALUES THAT

HINDER PAS DEVELOPMENT
INDEPENDENT PRACTICE (10 Minutes)

Answer the questions below. Explain your answers thoroughly. Use the back of this page for
additional space.
1. Explain the FILIPINO VALUES THAT HINDER PAS DEVELOPMENT.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

THINK-PAIR-SHARE (10 Minutes)

Instruction: Students will have to find a buddy to help in answering questions written below. In
this activity the goal of the pair is to synthesize their understanding of today’s lesson into one
concrete idea.
Find a buddy to discuss the question/s below. Your buddy shall write his/her answer on your
module and you to his/her. Use today’s reading and teacher’s discussion for your answers. After
answering, write the synthesis of you and your buddy inside the scroll below.
For me, the importance of understanding the major problem areas of PAS is...
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
My buddy’s answer:
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Our synthesis

3-2-1 (5 minutes)

View publication stats

2 Ecology of Public Administration NEW 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 Ecology of Public Administration NEW 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Community Learning Resource in Ecology of Public Administration

Book · November 2021

Arneil Garcia Gabriel Olive Chester Cuya Antonio

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

WRITE PA View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Community Learning Resource in

OBJECTIVES OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

1. To strengthen the capabilities of students in leadership and governance;

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 1

Course Code: PA 221

Attendance (Part II, item G of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 2

Discontinuance of Studies (Part II, item F of the Approved NEUST Student

If the student discontinues his/her course or accumulates more than the

Withdrawal from the University without formal leave of absence may

Examination (Part II, item K of the Approved NEUST Student Handbook)

Talking during examination, possession of textbooks or notes of any kind

Students caught cheating or doing any similar acts in any examination,

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 3

Rubrics to be used for the activities

Features 4 (Expert) 3 (Accomplished) 2 (Capable) 1 (Beginner)

For Distance learning modality,

Students will earn grades on Assignments by accomplishing and submitting the

Other subject-specific instructions

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 4

Theories and Approaches in

Chapter 2 Meaning and Scope of

Chapter 3 The Government, Non-

Chapter 4 The External Environments

Chapter 5 The Internal Environments of

Chapter 6 Issues in the Environment of

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 5

Name: Yr. & Section:

Organization Appraisal. American Archivist,45 (2), Spring 119-130

Lesson Objectives: Lesson 1

COURSE ORIENTATION (5 Minutes)

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 6

LEARNING IMPROVEMENT (5 Mins)

BEFORE QUESTION AFTER

What is the meaning of

What is the concept of

1. Definition of Organization and Management

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 7

of the people (Miles, 2012). Therefore, there is no individual in an organization, everyone is

Meanwhile, management plays a significant role in an organization. It is essential to ensure

2. Review of Theories and principles in organization management

Theories of organization management help explain the fast-changing nature of organizational

2.1 Classical Approaches

2.1.1 Bureaucratic Management Theory

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 8

1 Hierarchical Management Structure - Officials are organized in a clearly defined hierarchy

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 9

are predictable and free from arbitrariness. It also prevents duplication of

2.1.2 Scientific Theory of Management

2.1.3 Classical Theory of Management

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 10

6) Subordination of individual interest to the common (general). The interest of employees

8) Centralization – It is the process of focusing decision-making authority to the center or

ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION | 11

2.2 Human Resources Approaches