UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN

WRITING AND BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

THROUGH THE USE OF PERIODIC TABLE AT OTOO

MEMORIAL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL- BIBIANI

MAY, 2019

i
 UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

TOPIC:
IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN WRITING

AND BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS THROUGH THE

USE OF PERIODIC TABLE AT OTOO MEMORIAL SENIOR HIGH

SCHOOL ̶ BIBIANI

BY
AMEYAW JOHNSON NYAMEKYE
5151590004

AN ACTION RESEARCH PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

OF SCIENCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION,

WINNEBA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION.

MAY, 2019

ii
 DECLARATION

Students Declaration
I, hereby declare that except for references made to other people’s work which have

been duly cited and acknowledged, this long essay/project work is the result of my

own work and that it has neither in whole nor in part been presented elsewhere for

another degree.

Name: Ameyaw Johnson Nyamekye

Student’s Signature: ……………………

Date: ………………………………

SUPERVISOR᾿S DECLARATION
I, hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this action research was

supervised accordance with guidelines for supervision of action research laid down

by the University of Education, Winneba.

Supervisor’s Name: ……………………………….

Signature: …………………………………

Date: …………………………………..

i
 DEDICATION
I, firstly dedicate this piece of work to Almighty God for his Divine Grace and

protection upon my life and all my loved ones who took keen interest in my entire

education especially, my beloved mother Mrs Abena Dora.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises and thanks are rendered to Almighty God for his abundant Grace,

Strength, Courage, wisdom and acknowledge to successfully completing this long

essay/project work. My sincerest thanks go to my entire family especially to my

father, Mr Ameyaw Johnson and mother, Mrs Abena Dora for their financial and

spiritual support and the assistance given me to help make this project a success.

I wish to express my indelible and profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Arkoful

Sam of the Chemistry Department, University of Education, Winneba for his

valuable assistance, guidance, comments, and effective suggestions to the study,

thereby bringing it to a conclusive end. I finally express my heartfelt gratitude to the

headmaster, staff and students of Otoo Memorial Senior High School, Nketiah John

and Kwabena Offair Koranteng for their contributions made towards this project

work.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
DECLARATION.................................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION....................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
Overview.......................................................................................................................................1
Background to the study...............................................................................................................1
Statements to the Problem.............................................................................................................6
The Purpose of the study...............................................................................................................7
Objectives of the research.............................................................................................................8
Research questions........................................................................................................................8
Significance of the study...............................................................................................................8
Limitation to the study..................................................................................................................9
Delimitation to the study.............................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................11
Overview.....................................................................................................................................11
Students understanding of Chemical Symbols & Numbers........................................................11
Students’ writing of Chemical Formulae....................................................................................13
Chemical Equation and its meaning............................................................................................16
Conceptualisation of Balanced Chemical Equations..................................................................16
The need to balance chemical equation......................................................................................18
Difficulties encountered by teachers and students in teaching and learning chemical equations
.....................................................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER THREE:METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................21
Overview.....................................................................................................................................21
The Study Area...........................................................................................................................21
Design of the Study.....................................................................................................................21
Population of the Study...............................................................................................................22
Sample and Sampling Procedures...............................................................................................23
Research instrument....................................................................................................................23
Test..............................................................................................................................................23
iv
 Reliability of the test items.........................................................................................................24
Questionnaire..............................................................................................................................24
Validation of the instrument.......................................................................................................25
Intervention Design.....................................................................................................................25
Pre-interventional Stage..............................................................................................................26
Intervention Stage.......................................................................................................................26
Procedure and Administration of selected Conceptual Questions and Questionnaire................26
Activities for the Intervention.....................................................................................................27
ACTIVITY: 1..............................................................................................................................27
ACTIVITY: 2..............................................................................................................................27
ACTIVITY: 3..............................................................................................................................27
ACTIVITY: 4..............................................................................................................................28
ACTIVITY: 5..............................................................................................................................28
Data collection procedures..........................................................................................................29
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................30
Overview.....................................................................................................................................30
Data Analysis..............................................................................................................................30
Analysis related to research question one;..................................................................................30
What are students’ pre-conceptions in balancing chemical equations?......................................30
Discussion of Pre-Test Results...................................................................................................32
Analysis related to research question two (2);............................................................................33
What is the effect of using the periodic table to identify the step in the balancing chemical
equation?.....................................................................................................................................33
Discussion of post-test Result.....................................................................................................34
Analysis related to the research question three (3);....................................................................35
To what extend do student’s use different methods in writing and balancing of chemical
equations?...................................................................................................................................35
Discussion of the Pre-Test and Post-Test comparison................................................................36
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................38
Overview.....................................................................................................................................38
Summary of the Study.................................................................................................................38
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................38
Recommendations.......................................................................................................................39
Suggestion for further Studies.....................................................................................................40

v
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................41
APPENDIXES..................................................................................................................................47
APPENDIX A...................................................................................................................................47
APPENDIX B....................................................................................................................................48
APPENDIX C...................................................................................................................................49
APPENDIX D...................................................................................................................................52
APPENDIX E....................................................................................................................................53

LIST OF TABLE

vi
 Table Page

1.0: some elements and their oxidation states or numbers

2.0: Write correct symbols of each element in Table.

3.0: The Frequency and percentage distribution of students obtained in the Pre-Test scores

4.0: Frequency table showing the students’ performance in the Pre-Test Result

5.0 The Frequency and percentage distribution of students obtained in the Post-Test scores

6.0: Frequency Table showing for the students’ performance in the Post-Test Result

7.0: A frequency Table for comparing the Pre-Test Results to that of the Post-Test Results

LIST OF FIGURES

vii
 Figure Page

1.0: A bar chart showing students’ Pre-Test scores

2.0: A bar Chart Showing Students’ Post-Test scores

3.0: A bar chart showing the comparison of students’ Pre-Test and Post-Test scores

viii
 ABSTRACT
The main purpose of the study was to help Otoo Memorial General Science S. H. S.

three (3) Students to improve their performance on the writing and balancing

chemical equations of compounds using periodic table.

The major instruments for data collection were interviews, observation and

questionnaire. Pre-test and post-test exercises were also administered to elicit

student’s strength and weakness in the subject. After the intervention activities, the

pre-test and post-test results compared noticed that, the performance of students had

improved based on these result, I came up with the following findings that

 Continuous class exercises, home works and assignments given to students were not

enough to improve their learning

 Innovative use of the periodic table arise students’ interest in learning chemistry.

ix
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Overview
This chapter highlights the fundamental motivations and essence of the study as well

as the peculiar considerations that defined the study. It covers the Background to the

study, the Statement to the problem, Purpose of the study, Research objectives,

Research questions, the Significance of the study, Limitations and Delimitations of

the study.

Background to the study

The world being dynamic in nature has led to a lot of changes in the scope of

teaching and learning. As a result, the understanding by students have become

challenging among the many school disciplines, especially Science. The study of

Science begins when children realize that they can learn about the world and

construct their own interpretations of events through their actions and

experience.Science is a body of knowledge that carefully and systematically collect

data, verifies and predicts events about the natural world. Nzewi (2010) defined

science as the study of natural phenomena, while Miller and Levine as cited by

Mandor (2002) saw science as a body of knowledge with the goal to investigate and

understand nature, to explain events in nature and to use these explanations to make

useful predictions. In view of above definitions, science therefore solves man’s

problems and improves his or her welfare economically, medically, technologically,

etc. There are so many branches of science, such as Chemistry, Biology, Physics,

Mathematics, etc. The nature of chemistry is different from other subjects as

Johnstone, (2000) believed it exists in three levels which are difficult to understand

1
at the same time. The three levels the being microscopic, microscopic and the

representational. The macroscopic level which is the observed phenomenon has to be

explained through the microscopic level that involves movement, arrangement and

particles` behaviour. The macroscopic and the microscopic are then translated into

scientific notation which is now the representational level. The three levels are

intertwined and there is the need to understand how they are related. Chemistry as an

aspect of science studies the composition, properties and uses of matter (Ababio

2007). It probes into the changes that matter undergoes different conditions.

Chemistry focuses on the properties of substances around us. Most of the things you

can touch, taste or smells are chemicals. It is the explanation for everyday life, like

why laundry detergent woks better in hot water or how baking soda works or why

not all pain relievers work equally on a headache.

Chemist can make informed choices about every product that the use. The study of

chemistry is important in almost all fields of study but it is commonly seen in the

sciences and medicine. Chemists, Physicists, Biologists, and Engineers study

chemistry: doctors, nurses, dentist, pharmacists, physical therapists and veterinarians

all take chemistry courses: science teachers study chemistry. Fire fighters and people

who make fire-works learn chemistry. So do truck drivers, plumbers, artists, hair

dressers, etc. (Marie, 2011). Scientific and technological fields such as medicines,

pharmacy, biochemistry, agriculture, engineering and microbiology have chemistry

built into them. Student need sound background knowledge in chemistry at least up

to the school certificate level before undertaking courses in any of the fields

mentioned above. There are some topics in chemistry that are regarded as difficult

area to study in understanding chemistry. Such topics include writing and balancing

equations, chemical bonding and electrolysis (Usoro, 2007). One of the most

2
important means by which chemist can communicate information about a reaction is

through the writing of balanced chemical equations. These equations help chemist

from different countries to simply communicate with one another easily. Writing and

balancing of chemical equation is so fundamental that without mastery in it, students

find every other aspect of chemistry difficult.

Poor foundation in the teaching and learning of writing and balancing of chemical

equation makes the learning of chemistry not effective. When a student cannot write

and balance chemical equation correctly, he cannot communicate effectively within

the chemistry community. The medium of expression in chemistry is the chemical

equation because formulae show chemistry at a standstill while equation shows

chemistry in action. In his early study, Johnstone (1974) reported that the problem

areas in the subject chemistry, from the pupils` point of views, which persisted into

university education, were the mole, chemistry formulae and equation among others.

The problem of writing and balancing of chemistry equations appear to be persistent

up till now. Balancing chemical equation is a foundational skill for learning and

practicing of chemistry. Yet, equation balancing is typically taught via traditional

methods; namely, direct instruction, followed by drill and practice. As teachers we

provide our student with the definition of balanced equation, but often struggle when

it comes to supporting our student in non-algorithmic approaches to balancing.

A chemical equation is only a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction and

represents an expression of atoms, elements, compounds or ions. Such expressions

are generated based on balancing through reactants or product coefficient, as well as

through reactant or product molar masses. In fact, equilibrating the equations that

represent the stoichiometry of a reacting system is a matter of mathematics, since it

3
can be reduced to the problem of solving homogeneous linear system. Balancing

chemical equation is an important application of generalised inverses.

Writing and balancing of chemical equations are topics in chemistry usually

introduced to students at their first year of senior secondary education. They are

symbols used instead of words in describing chemical reaction. Writing and

balancing of chemical equations are very important topics in chemistry and are the

basic of understanding chemical language. They are one of the basic or fundamental

or stepping stone in understanding chemistry. Usoro (2007) defined chemical

equation as changes that take place when there is breaking and formation of bonds

during a chemical reaction. It is a statement in formulae which shows the relative

number of moles of a particle involved in a chemical reaction. Adigwe (2006)

defined a balanced chemical equation as a cognitive map of the motion of the

reactant of the product, their stoichiometric relationship, physical state an direction,

reversible or irreversible. A well-balanced chemical equation is important because it

carries a lot of information about chemical reactions.

E.g a simple reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium trioxocarbonate

(IV). 2HCl (aq) + MgCO3 (aq) MgCl2 (ag) + H2O (I) + CO2 (g)

This provides us with the information as: the chemical nature and radicals (or group)

involved in the equation; a mental picture of the movement of the elements and

radicals during the reaction; the stoichiometry of the reaction that is the relationship

of the mass of the reactants and the products in the terms of (a) the mole ratio and (b)

the mass ratio of the reactants and products involved in the equation, the direction of

their action and whether the reaction is reversible, the state of matter in which the

substances are present, etc. writing and balancing of chemical equations are the basis

4
for the operation of the chemical, pharmaceutical, food, textiles, polymer, plastics,

detergents, paper and pulp, and cement industries etc. Chemical process design

utilizes information provided by chemical equations. Chemical equations can be

defined as symbolic and quantitative representation of the changes that occur in the

process of chemical reactions, based on the principle that matter is neither created

nor destroyed during chemical reactions.

For example the chemical equation: xA+yBpC+qD shows that A and B are the

reactants while C and D are the products. Also x, y, p and q represent the relative

numbers of moles of the reactants and products that is stoichiometric coefficient. The

single-headed arrow indicates the direction of the reaction and also shows that the

reaction is irreversible one. The arrow “gives”, ”yields” or “forms” and the (+) sign

means ”and”. The West African Examination Council (WAEC) Chief examiners

(2002) report had consistently been reporting candidate`s poor performance in

writing and balancing of chemical equation. In 2005, the Chief Examiners report

stated that the candidate`s weaknesses included poor knowledge of symbols,

formulae and equation while in 2007, it was stated that candidate`s weaknesses

included their inability to correctly write balanced chemical equations. In 2010, it

was reported that candidates lost marks because of their inability to correctly write

balanced chemical equations. With these reports, it is clear that the writing and

balancing of chemical equation is a problem area, even though it is the basis of

stoichiometry, an important part of chemistry. According to Savoy, (1988) the

understanding of chemical equations and the ability to represent them in the balanced

form are very essential in the effective learning of chemistry. Studies conducted by

Savoy (1988) and Hines (1990) have shown that many students learning chemistry

have great difficulties both in acquiring and using the needed ability to write

5
balanced chemical equations. The findings from the research of Lazonby, Morris and

Waddington (1982), Schmidt (1984) and Bello (1988), has shown that students‘

persistent difficulties in solving stoichiometric problems are partly associated with

their inability to write chemical formulae and represent chemical equations correctly

A study similar to that by Lazonby, Morris and Waddington (1982).Schmidt (1984)

and Bello (1988), conducted by Anamuah-Mensah and Apafo (1986) indicated that

students in Ghanaian Senior High Schools have difficulty in learning certain

chemical concepts such as chemical combination. The major focus of this study is to

find the solution to these problems in our second cycle schools especially at Otoo

Memorial Senior High School, Bibiani in the western region of Ghana.

Statements to the Problem

Senior High School three (3) General Science students at Otoo Memorial Senior

High School have difficulties and misconceptions understanding of writing and

balancing of chemical equation concepts. Studies have shown that the ability

required to write chemical equations correctly is not a simple one. (Gower, 1997;

Suderji, 1983; Savoy, 1988). It is one that requires a functional understanding of the

requisite subordinate concepts of atoms and atomicity, molecules and molecular

formula, atomic structure and bonding, valency, use of brackets, radicals, subscript

and coefficient and molar ratio (Savoy, 1988).

Studies conducted by Savoy (1988) and Hines (1990) have reported that many

students learning chemistry have great difficulties, both in acquiring and using the

needed ability to balanced chemical equations.

Although, writing and balancing of chemical equations are very fundamental and

very important chemical skill in chemistry, most student in form three General

Science at Otoo Memorial Senior High School, Bibiani, are yet to achieve a high

6
level of proficiency in writing and balancing of chemical equations and in solving

problems related to the topics where the knowledge is applied. This weakness in

writing and balancing of chemical equations by Otoo Memorial Senior High School

form three General Science students was identified during the type test conducted

during the internship period in the school. The areas of difficulties included poor

knowledge of symbols, formulae and equation and inability to write correct balanced

equations.

In fact, responses and the performance on the pre-test administered by the researcher

led to the identification of these difficulties. Other difficulties that were not identified

with the aid of the pre-test came to the fore when some of the students were

interviewed. This helped exposed most misconceptions on the students’ minds to the

researcher. It can therefore be emphasized that the students had problems with the

basic concepts regarding on writing and balancing of chemical equation.

Similar problem has been reported by the teachers at post, teaching chemistry in the

school. The background of the students from the Junior High Schools in writing

chemical symbols and balancing chemical equations was poor.

The Purpose of the study

This study is to identify and classify the learning difficulties encountered by

chemistry students in writing and balancing of chemical equations. Specifically, the

study is aimed at finding;

a. Students’ difficulties in writing chemical formula.

b. Students’ difficulties in writing chemical equation.

c. Students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equation.

7
Objectives of the research

The objectives of the Study were:

i. To evaluate students conceptions in balancing chemical equations (symbol

and formula of different compound).

ii. To identify the steps in balancing chemical equation using the periodic table.

iii. To determine the various methods to balance the chemical equations (at least

two, Inspection and algebraic method).

Research questions

The following research questions guided the research activities:

i. What are students’ pre-conceptions in balancing chemical equations?

ii. What is the effect of the periodic table in identifying the steps in balancing

chemical equation?

iii. To what extend do student’s use different methods in writing and balancing

of chemical equations?

Significance of the study

Concept of chemical formulae and chemical equation would enhance students

understanding of chemistry in general. The study, which is aimed at analysing the

students’ difficulties in writing and balancing of chemical equations, is significant in

a number of ways. In the first instance, knowledge of students’ difficulties in writing

and balancing of chemical equations will motivate the teachers in Otoo Memorial

Senior High School. The findings of the study will help the students to achieve

higher understanding in chemistry and promote retention in chemistry which will

8
make them have interest in science courses at higher levels of learning and also

appreciate environmental sustainability.

In all, when chemistry teaching is channelled towards solving the identified problems

encountered by students in writing and balancing of chemical equation, the students᾽

understanding of chemistry will be significantly enhanced. Also, knowledge of

students᾽ difficulties in the understanding of the writing and balancing of chemical

equations will be useful to authors and publishers of chemistry textbooks in

determining areas of emphasis in the course of revision of chemistry textbooks and

also in the publication of new ones.

To future researchers; the results of this study will serve as a base line data for future

researchers into other methods of solving problems related to writing and balancing

of chemical equations. It will also serve as a references material for future studies.

There should be a strong relationship between new teaching strategies and resources

materials used to enhance the study of writing and balancing of chemical equation by

the students.

Limitation to the study

During the test conducted, not all the students were present in the school at the time

the study was conducted and this reduces the generalizability of the findings.

In pursuing this research work, the researcher was confronted with lots of problems

notable among them were;

i. The researcher taught only the chemistry aspect which was allocated for two

periods per week, because there is no students in form one and form two. So

most of the days allocated on the timetable were only for the teachers who

taught different aspect for the form three and the researcher was given only a

9
 day with two periods to deal with the problem. This did not permit the

researcher to deal with the problem totally.

ii. This research was done during an internship programme and so the researcher

could not devote a lot of time for the research work since the researcher had

to combine learning and teaching with the research work.

iii. During the internship programme the researcher start with few students as

going ahead then the researcher realizes that the students were increasing in

number and that affect the performance of the students.

Delimitation to the study

The Study was limited to only Form three (3) General Science 3E students of Otoo

Memorial Senior High School, Bibiani since they have done chemistry for almost

two years and were in a position to share their views. The study was limited to time,

lesson preparation and delivery and marking of students exercises.

10
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
This chapter deals with the related literature review of the study. It comprises of

Students understanding of chemical symbols & numbers, Students writing of

Chemical Formulae, Chemical equation and it meaning, The need to balance

chemical equation, Difficulties encountered by teachers and students in teaching and

learning chemical equations.

Students understanding of Chemical Symbols & Numbers

Secondary school students in Ghana are introduced to study of chemistry at their

junior high school level education. It is at this stage that the knowledge of writing

and balancing chemical equations are introduced (Sanger & Phelps, 2007).

Report suggests that students lack understanding of basic chemistry concepts such as

oxidation numbers, ionic charge, atoms and atomic structure, which require

integration of the symbolic and sub microscopic levels of thinking (Savoy, 1988).

They have difficulties understanding formal rules for writing molecular formulae, as

well as meaning of subscript numbers and brackets and coefficients (Garforth,

Johnstone & Lazonby, 1976; Savoy, 1988). Students fail to associate the symbols

and numbers with substances and phenomena (Herron and Green Bowe, 1986;

Hinton & Nakhleh, 1999; Sanger & Phelps, 2007).

Students fail to associate the symbols and numbers with substances and phenomena

(Herron and Green Bowe, 1986; Hinton & Nakhleh, 1999; Nurrenbern & Pickering,

1987; Sanger & Phelps, 2007; Savoy, 1988; Yarroch, 1985). This is possibly because

student thinking about phenomena relies primarily on perceptual or sensory

11
information, while current pedagogical practices fail to establish links between this

mode of thinking (macro) and symbols (Ben-Zvi, Eylon, & Silberstein, 1988).

Students appear to struggle to construct the forms of mental model and conceptual

representations needed to understand and comprehend the actions of the

unobservable entities such as atoms and molecules which are involved in chemical

equations (as cited in Garnett, Oliver and Hackling, 2010). Nakled (1992) and Garnet

(1995) reiterated that teachers found that beginning chemistry students frequently

report difficulties which many students experience in developing an understanding of

chemical processes.

According to Usoro (2007), chemical equation is short-hand way of indicating the

changes that take place when there is breaking and formation of bonds during

chemical reactions. It is a statement in formula which shows the relative number of

moles of particles involved in a chemicals reaction. Chemical equations are

convenient standardized system for describing chemicals reactions (Wikibooks,

2010). A balanced chemical equation is a cognitive map of the motion of the

reactants and products, their stoichiometric relationships, physical states and

direction of the reaction (Reversible or irreversible) (Adigwe, 2006).Much of the

explanation and description of the processes involved chemical reactions is given in

terms of actions of the various sub microscopic particles representing atoms and

molecules. Students find it difficult in visualizing this sub microscopic world and its

components. This factor creates a major barrier to their development and

understanding of many chemistry concepts. Beginning chemistry students often

demonstrate a wide range of unusual conceptions about the molecular basis of

chemical reactions. Student also display limitations in their ability to write balanced

12
equations, to interpret the symbolic representations used in equations and to solve

problems based on equations (Ganett, Oliver and Hackling, 2010)

Anderson (1986) and Ben-Zvi (1987) found that many students hold a static rather

than dynamic view of chemical reactions. Students often failed to visualize chemical

reactions as dynamic processes in which particles and molecules react to produce

new particles and molecules.

Students’ writing of Chemical Formulae

Ababio (2007), Zumdahl and Zumdahl (2003) found that a symbol represents an

atom whereas a formula stands for a molecule. If a molecule has only one atom, the

symbol and formula are the same. When a molecule contains two or more atoms of

the same kind, a small subscript is used to indicate the number of atoms present. A

molecule of Chlorine containing two atoms of chlorine is written as Cl2; Hydrogen as

H2; Nitrogen as N2; while Ozone which contains three atoms of oxygen is written as

O3.

Formulae for compounds contain the symbols for the different elements that are

combined chemically to form the compound. The two or more atoms that are joined

together are represented by writing their symbols side by side. Thus, a magnesium

oxide molecule is MgO, Iron (II) sulphide is FeS, calcium oxide is CaO. There may

be few exceptions for example in H 2O2 where oxygen is -1. If more than one atom of

an element is present in a compound, a numeral is place after and below the symbol

to indicate the number of atoms of that element. Thus MgCl 2 means that a molecule

of magnesium chloride contains one magnesium (Mg) atom and two chlorine (Cl)

atoms. The formula KCl for potassium chloride indicates that one atom of potassium

and one atom of chlorine are present in the molecule. Again, the number 1 is

understood before the entire formula unless another numeral is used. Three

13
molecules of sodium chloride are thus represented by 3NaCl. (Gold, Hass, Duran and

Norman 2003).

Sometimes parenthesis are used in the formulae of some compounds, Fe 2 (SO4)3, Ca

(NO3)2etc. In such cases, the numerals outside the parenthesis are multipliers. The

show the number times that the ions within the parenthesis are to be broken. Thus the

compound calcium trioxonitrate (V), Ca (NO3)2 contains one calcium atom, two

nitrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. There are rules, which when followed by

students will enable them to write correct chemical formulae. These are shown below

if one cannot write chemical formulae, it will be difficult for one to balance a

chemical equation correctly. To enable us write chemical formulae, a system of a

small whole numbers, related to combining ratios of elements, has been developed

on the basis of arbitrary rules. Such numbers are called oxidation numbers or

oxidation states. (Ababio 2007) There are rules, which when followed by students

will enable them to write correct chemical formulae. Four of the arbitrary are:

 In a compound, the sum of the positive oxidation states and the negatives states is

zero.

 An uncombined elements has an oxidation state of zero examples are Na, Fe, Mg,

and H2

 In a compound, the more electronegative elements are assigned negative

oxidation states, and the more electropositive (or less electronegative elements)

are assigned positive states. Example, in a compound NaCl, Na is more

electropositive than Cl and is thus assigned an oxidation state of +1. Cl is

therefore assigned -1.

 In an ion, the sum of the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion.

14
An ion can be an atom that carries a charge or a group of atoms that carries a charge.

Such groups that carry either a positive or a negative charge are called radicals. An

acid radical is thus a small group or cluster of atoms carrying a negative charge that

keeps its identity, or keeps together, in many reactions. Here are some examples with

their oxidation numbers, (Bajah 1999; Chang, 2002).

Table 1.0: some elements and their oxidation states or numbers

Element Oxidation number

H +1 (but -1 in metal hydrides)

Cl -1

F -1

Na +1

O -2

CO3 -2

PO4 -3

NO2 -1

SO4 -2

When the symbols for elements and the oxidation numbers assigned to them are

known, one is more equipped to write the correct formulae for chemical compounds.

The following rules will help (Bajah, 1999; Onasanya, & Orowale, 2007).

 Write the symbols for the element and radicals

 Write the oxidation numbers above and to the right of the symbols

 Now write the symbol again, reversing oxidation numbers, omitting the sign, and

writing the numbers (but not 1) below and to the right of the symbols.

15
Chemical formula is the fundamental expressions or symbolic representations which

chemists use to designate pure substances (Chugh, 2008; Madan, & Bisht, (2004);

Saxena, 2000). Singh (2002) was also of the some view and defined a chemical

formula as a group of symbols which denote one molecule of an element or of a

compound and represents the elements which form that compound and the ratio of

their atoms.

It shows what kind of atoms, and how many of each, join together when a molecule

is formed. A small (subscript) number after a symbol shows the number of atoms of

that element that are present in a molecule of the compound. If there is no number, it

means that there is one atom of that element (Clark, n.d).

Chemical Equation and its meaning

According to Risteski, (2008), “chemical equation is only a symbolic representation

of a chemical reaction”. Actually, every chemical equation is the story of some

chemical reaction. A chemical equation describes what happens in a chemical

reaction. The equation identifies the reactant (starting materials) and product

(resulting material), the formulas of the participants, the phase of the participants

(solid, liquid and gas) and the amount of each substance.

A chemical equation is not only the shorthand writing of the chemist, but it should be

a mental picture of an actual reaction. They also tell you how much of each

substance is involved in the reaction. ToKatz (2004), “A chemical equation is a

chemist’s shorthand expression for describing a chemical change.

Conceptualisation of Balanced Chemical Equations

Balancing a chemical equation refers to establishing the mathematical relationship

between the quantity of reactants and products. The quantities are expressed as grams

16
or mole. Murry and Fay (2008) states that, “balanced equation is an equation in

which the numbers and kinds of atoms on both sides of the reaction are identical”

Helmenstine, (2010) defined chemical equation as “an equation for a chemical

reaction in which the number of atoms for each element in the reaction and the total

charge are the same for both the reactants and the products.

Writing and balancing of chemical equations form the bed rock upon which

chemistry education is built. Gagne (1977) in his theories of learning hierarchy and

learning prerequisite, posited that students can obtain the prerequisite knowledge of

concepts and principles only they have acquired the underline capabilities (in this

case, rules guiding the writing and balancing of chemical equations) which are

needed to practice and understand science.

In support of this learning theory, Nworji (2004), opined that students have difficulty

in writing chemical formula of compounds because they exhibit poor knowledge’s of

the rules guiding the writing of chemical formulae of compounds. If the students are

properly grounded on the rules guiding writing and balancing of chemical equations,

(which is the language of chemistry), it will not pose any difficulty to them.

Gagne᾽s theory also gives us insights into how learning occurs in the classroom.

According to him, the type of learning that occurs in the classroom requires students

to have the prerequisite knowledge to deal with certain levels of learning tasks. It is

important that teachers bear this in mind in their preparation of lessons. It will be

futile to expert students to engage in problem solving when they are not capable of

discrimination or formulating rules or principles. Before a student can write chemical

formulae and balance chemical equation of a reaction, he or she must have acquired

sufficient knowledge of the chemical symbols and rules guiding the writing of

17
chemical formulae, and then the writing and balancing of equations. Rules or

principles are better acquired through well organized and sequenced teaching rather

than being left for students to discover for themselves.

David Ausubel᾽s theory of reception learning or expository teaching is another theory

that gives support to this study. According to Ausubel, learning occurs mainly

through reception rather than through discovery. Concepts and principles are better

learned when they are presented and understood but are not discovered. Ausubel

called this method expository teaching with emphasis on meaningful reception

learning. Ausubel observed that information pre-packaged by a teacher is organizes

and can be easily connected with the students’ existing knowledge. He emphasized

prior knowledge as the key to understanding new materials or information. To

facilitate reception learning, the teacher structures the learning situation so that

meaningful learning can take place. Example, in writing and balancing chemical

equations, the teacher teaches the students chemical symbols, atomicity, valences of

elements and radicals followed by the rules guiding the writing of formulae and the

writing and balancing of chemical equations otherwise, no meaningful learning can

take place.

Ausubel᾽s findings are confirmed that if writing and balancing chemical equations

are not well handled, there will be difficulties in students understanding the concepts.

It is a common knowledge that where the foundation is weak, the entire structure on

it will be strong. If the students are not well grounded in the language of chemistry, it

will be difficult for them to understand chemistry generally.

The need to balance chemical equation

All the chemical equations must be balance because atoms are neither created nor

destroyed in chemical reactions. The numbers and kinds of atoms must be the same

18
in the products as in the reactants. A balance equation assures that the Conservation

Law of matter is obeyed. The total mass of the reactants must equal the total mass of

products. A balance equation is like recipe. It tells the student that the proportional

qualities of each substance involved. (Murry & Fay, 2008).

Chemical equations are important in describing chemical reactions. They contain the

following information about chemical reactions.

The type of reactants consumed and the products formed.

 The electrical charges on ions

 The physical states of each species (e.g. solid, liquid, gas).

 The reaction conditions (e.g. temperature, catalyst)

Chemical reactions also implicitly define the way the masses of reactants and

products are related. They are also important in pharmaceutical industries to know

the measurement/quantities of drug mixtures. Chemical equations are equally

important in chemical industries in knowing the mole ratio raw materials for

optimum yield of products. A balance chemical equation obeys the Law of

conservation of mass (Anthony, Dennis, Michael & Edward, 2002). An

understanding of the techniques of balancing chemical equation provides students

with an insight which enables them to interpret the characteristics of chemical

reactions (Adigwe, 2002). The skill and capability to balance chemical equations,

whether ionic, molecular or redox remains paramount in the learning of chemistry

and as such should be regarded as very important in the fulfilment of the objectives

of studying chemistry in schools and in technological applications of chemistry in

national development.

19
Difficulties encountered by teachers and students in teaching and learning
chemical equations
The balancing of chemical equations has been regarded as a difficult area of study in

chemistry and more so since it is not practically observable and demonstrable in the

chemical process (Adiwe, 2006). Chemical equations are abstract in nature. Teachers

and students sometimes find it difficult because of their inability to predict the

products of a reaction. Some in attempt to balance an equation may change the

formula of the element or compound in other to suit them. They usually come across

difficulty especially when they do not know the valence of the combining elements

which is one of the first steps in writing and balancing of chemical equations.

These difficulties have affect students᾽ achievement in chemistry examinations to

some extent. Any student who cannot overcome some of these difficulties is likely to

achieve poorly in chemistry examinations. In addition, teachers are also crucial factor

in students᾽ achievement in chemistry. Indeed, several educators and researchers

have shown that students᾽ academic achievement to a large extent depends on the

quality, adequacy and dedication of teachers. One of the reasons advanced for low

enrolment and achievement of students in chemistry and chemistry related course at

the secondary school level is poor teaching method used by teachers of chemistry

particularly, in teaching chemistry concepts classified by students as being difficult

(Ekpo, 2006)

20
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

Overview

This chapter aims at taking a look at the methodologies and instruments used in

acquiring information for the study. It consists of the study area, design of the study,

population, sample and sampling procedures, research instrument, and reliability of

test items, questionnaire and data collection procedure.

The Study Area

The study was carried out at Otoo Memorial Senior High School. The school is

located at Bibiani opposite G.K Korankye Company Limited. It is on the left side of

the road when heading to Sefwi Bekwai and on the right side when coming from

Sefwi Bekwai. The school is a day and boarding with both males and females

students. Programmed offered by the school are General Science, Agricultural

Science, General Arts, Business, and Home Economics. The school is walled and is

just by the road side and the name of the school is scribbled boldly on a sign post just

before the school's main gate.

Design of the Study

The research design employed in this study is educational action research. An

educational action research is the process by which the researcher encounters a

problem and attempt to solve the problem (or make an intervention) to improve their

own educational practice systematically using the techniques of research and

monitors the results. It involves systematic observations and data collection which

can then be used by the practitioners or researchers in reflection, decision- making

and development of more effective classroom strategies (Parsons & Brown, 2002).
21
This study was conducted at Otoo Memorial Senior High School to help students to

conveniently use the periodic table to write and balance chemical equations. Pre-test,

post-test, interviews, observations and questionnaires were used to collect data for

the study over twelve (12) periods of weeks. The first week was use for observation

of the teacher's method of teaching chemical symbols and formulae and the student

response. The pre-test was administrated in the second week so as to establish

baseline of students understanding on writing and balancing chemical equations. The

post-test was also done on the seventh week to determine whether students' interest

and understanding of the concept of writing and balancing chemical equation. The

result of the post-test was subjected to statistical analysis to evaluate the

effectiveness of the intervention on students' understanding of writing and balancing

of chemical equation. The questionnaire has fourteen items that determines student’s

difficulty, confidence and interest in writing chemical symbols and formulae.

Population of the Study

The target population for the study was the Form three (3) General Science students

at Otoo Memorial Senior High School, consisting of seventy (70) students at Bibiani.

The research used only the students of Form three (3) General Science classes within

the school since these were the classes that the researcher handled during the

internship period. This was because some of them were found to have problems with

the writing and balancing of chemical equation. The accessible population of the

study comprised of fifty (50) students. The average age of students was twenty-one

(21) years

22
Sample and Sampling Procedures
The research was limited to the Form three (3) General Science class. They were

seventy (70) students in the three science class at Otoo Memorial Senior High

School. However, only 50 students took part in the interview and the questionnaire

and test due to absenteeism.

Research instrument
The questionnaire was close-ended to prevent students from giving irrelevant answer.

Considering the topic and its purpose as well as the population under study, the

instrument used for the data collection were questionnaire, pre-test, post-test,

observation, and interviews on writing and balancing of chemical equation diagnostic

Test (WBCEDT) was developed by the researcher. The WBCEDT was formulated to

diagnose the various difficulties encountered by Senior High School students in the

writing chemical symbols, formulae and balancing of chemical equation.

Test
According to Fianu (2005), a test is a series of questions which serve as a measuring

tool used for collecting specific information from subjects to aid in finding solution

to a research problem.In action research, test can be used to diagnose the extent of a

problem and again to determine the effectiveness of an intervention that has been

designed to address the problem.

The researcher administered the test item to the sampled students. In the conduction

of the test item, the researcher strictly monitored and made sure that the test was

devoid of cheating. Two different tests were administered, pre-test and post-test. The

pre-test was as a diagnostic test to find out specifically the problem the students were

encountering in the writing and balancing of equations. The post test was conducted

at end of the intervention implementation and the results were analysed carefully to

23
enable conclusion to be made. The test consist of one section made of ten different

questions and the total score for either the pre-test or the post-test was ten marks with

a pass mark of five (5). Fifty students took part in the test, 5 of them scored less than

5. Only 45 students scored more than five marks. The test was primarily aimed at

finding common mistakes made by students. It showed that most of the students

made mistakes in translating chemical element and compounds into chemical

symbols and formulae and vice versa. Approximately, 90% of the students did fairly

good in writing chemical symbols and formulae.

Reliability of the test items

To make sure the selected instrument (test) is reliable, test and retest was used.

Students were tasked to answer the same question again after some period of time

under similar condition. The research used the same guidelines to question students

again after sometime under the same condition. The student’s responses were similar

as to the previous; hence the instruments were highly reliable.

Questionnaire
The questionnaire was close ended-to prevent teacher and students from giving

irrelevant answer. It was a set of written question on a giving problem in which the

respondent was required to answer in writing. Each individual was made to tick

against their agreement or otherwise that is agree [A], strongly agree [SA], disagree

[DA] and strongly disagree [SDA]. The items that checked the knowledge of student

on radical, atomic mass, writing and translating chemical symbols formulas and

equation, and confidence about writing chemical symbols and formulas seemed to be

poor. The questionnaire was designed to help the researcher to measure the

understanding level of the students and no data was collected on it.

24
Validation of the instrument

The type of validation done was face validation. The validation was done by two

experienced chemistry teachers in the Otoo Memorial Senior High School. During

validation the test items were scrutinized in terms of clarity, appropriateness of

language, ambiguity, relatedness to research questions and hypothesis, proper

technicality and relevance to difficulties encountered by Senior High School students

in writing and balancing chemical equation. After validation, the instrument was

completely rearranged and overhauled to reflect the specialist contributions in the

validation.

Intervention Design
The intervention design were grouped into pre-intervention stage, intervention stage

and post intervention stage which were planned, monitored and implemented over

time. I carried out the following activities at the pre-intervention stage to be certain

of the problems students faced on writing and balancing of chemical equation. The

researcher looked through students’ past work on the writing and balancing of

chemical equation to find out if the students had difficulties in comprehending the

writing and balancing of chemical equation. The researcher conducted a pre -test of

10 test items on the writing and balancing of chemical equation to find out if the

problem still exists and the researcher interviewed students who did not perform well

on the pre- test to get information on the causes of their poor performance.

25
Pre-interventional Stage
The pre-intervention activities were design to identify the student’s difficulty in

chemical formulae, chemical symbol and writing and balancing of chemical

equation. Selected conceptual questions and questionnaire were the main activities

adopted. The questions were based on chemical symbols, chemical formula and

writing and balancing of chemical equations.

Intervention Stage
After the conduction of the pretest, the researcher had enough evidence to support

the fact that students have difficulties in understanding how to write and balance

chemical equation. The topic was divided into for main parts with the use of the

remedial approach for the identification of names of element and their chemical

symbols on the periodic table, word equations, chemical equation and writing and

balancing of chemical equation. In the last day of every lesson 20 minutes was used

to go through all that was learnt and 60 minutes test was conducted. It should be

noted that after each day, assignment was given to reinforce what was taught.

Procedure and Administration of selected Conceptual Questions and

Questionnaire

 The researcher selected some students in each class and interviewed them on the

problems associated with the teaching and learning of matter which involve

chemical element

 The test items and questionnaires were administered and supervised by the

researcher and some other chemistry teachers in the school. Students were

allowed to answer the questions individually

26
Activities for the Intervention
The teaching and learning material (periodic table) was shown in appendix was use.

ACTIVITY: 1
Students were guided to identify the names of elements and their chemical symbols

of the first twenty elements and some common transition element e.g. copper how

the elements are grouped on the periodic table was pasted on chalkboard. Writing

and oral drill were used to help students identify the chemical names and symbols of

the elements. Table 2 show some common elements.

Table 2.0: Write correct symbols of each element in Table.

Element Symbol

Neon

Magnesium

Argon

Chlorine

Potassium

Calcium

ACTIVITY: 2
It was established that compounds were formed when the oxidation number of the

individual atoms involved were electrically neutral. Students were guided to write

chemical formulae of some compounds.

ACTIVITY: 3
Students were guided to write the chemical formulae of inorganic compounds using

the "criss cross method”. Using the "criss cross" methods students were taught how

compounds were formed, where the charges on the atom were neglected and rather

used as the number of atoms. They were guided to cross over the numerical charge of

27
each of the ion and used as a subscript for the other ion and hence the signs of the

numbers were dropped. These numbers are crossed to the bottomed of the element it

is reacting with, to form the formula of compounds.

ACTIVITY: 4
A miniature periodic table was photocopied for students to use to guide them in their

studies. Students discussed the electronic configuration of element especially the first

twenty elements. The electronic configuration was discussed with students why the

elements on the periodic table have been classified as group 1-8. Also discussed with

the students show to write the valance of the element and explaining to them when an

element gains, lose or share electrons to obtain a table valence shell electronic

configuration. Element in group 1, 2, and 3 with oxidation numbers of +1, +2 and +3

may lose one, two or more electrons respectively to obtain table outer electronic

configuration. E.g Na+, O2-, Al3+ etc. Group 4 and 5 element share electron pairs

mostly to become stable. E.g C4+, Si4-, P3-etc.

ACTIVITY: 5
Students were guided to identify unbalanced equation and balanced equation. It was

discovered that any equation which does not indicate the quantity of the reactants

needed to give a product is known as unbalanced equation. They also realized that

some equations are already balanced whilst other are not balanced when the reactant

and the product were written. The students discovered that the number of oxygen

atoms on the reactant (left) side of the equation was more than the product (right)

side. Does this obey the Law of the conservation of mass? Students follow the steps

bellow to balance an equation. Students determine the correct formula for all the

reactant and product in the reactant using what they know about element and

compounds. Students write the formulae for the reactant on the left and formulae for

the product on the right with a yield side ( ) in between.

28
If two or more reactant or product were involved, separate their formulae with plus

sign to have a skeleton equation.

Count the number of each element of the reactant and the product and also notice that

polyatomic ion appearing unchanged on both side of the equation is counted as a

single unit. Balance the elements one at a time by using coefficients by beginning the

balancing operation with the element that appears only once on each side of the

equation. Do not attempt to balance an equation by changing the subscript in the

chemical formula substance. Check each atom or polyatomic ion to be sure that the

equation was balanced. Finally, make sure the coefficients were in the lowest

possible ratio that is balanced. Students used the above steps to balance the formation

of water from hydrogen and oxygen.

Data collection procedures

Information about students in Form Three (3) General Science in Otoo Memorial

Senior High School was guided to ascertain their difficulty level and the problem

they have in writing and balancing chemical equation. Student were tasted, interview

and observed occasionally, on their performance level. Students were made to

respond to the item on the questionnaire the very day it given to them.

29
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Overview

This chapter is about the presentation and discussion of the findings. It involves the

analysis and interpretation of data obtained from the pre-test and post-test and

discussion of the research questions that were administered in the tabular form. The

main instrument for the data collection was set of questions.

Data Analysis
The data collected from both the Pre-test and the Post-test where carefully examined

for consistency and accuracy by reading through all the responses provided by the

students. They were analysed statistically by organizing them into statistical tables

and converted into percentages.

Analysis related to research question one;

What are students’ pre-conceptions in balancing chemical equations?
The basis for balancing chemical formulae of inorganic compounds helped students

to use the "criss cross approach" to identify the charges on the various atom, neglect

them and rather used them as the number of atoms. With this, they were able to enjoy

and understood the basis of balancing chemical eqautions and they performed

creditably.

30
Table 3.0: The Frequency and percentage distribution of students obtained in
the Pre-Test scores
Marks of students Number of F(X) Percentage

obtained in the Students (f) of students

test (x) (%)

0 3 0 6

1 7 7 14

2 10 20 20

3 7 21 14

4 8 32 16

5 7 35 14

6 3 18 6

7 3 21 6

8 1 8 2

9 1 9 2

10 0 0 0

∑f=50 ∑fx=171 ∑100

Mean (x) = ∑ (fx)/∑f = 171/50 = 3.42

Table 4.0: Frequency table showing the students’ performance in the Pre-Test
Result
CATEGORY NO. OF STUDENTS PERCENTAGE (%)

Above average 2 4

Average 13 26

Below average 35 70

31
 80

70

60

50

40 Pre-test

30

20

10

0
Below average Average Above average

Figure 1.0: A bar chart showing students’ Pre-Test scores

Discussion of Pre-Test Results

The total mark of the test was ten (10) and five (5) was the pass mark, whereas

scores below five (5) was considered as "below average”. From the Table 4, it was

notice that the pre-test performance of the students was very poor because most of

them scored below 5 which was the pass mark. The mean score was calculated to be

3.42, which was below the pass mark of 5. From Table 4 and Figure 1.0, it is noticed

that 35 students representing 70% scored below the pass mark of 5, which implies

that 70% of the students failed the test. Also, 13 students representing 26% scored in

the range of 5 to 7 and therefore fell within the average group or class. Surprisingly,

only 2 students representing 4% scored in the range of 8 to 10, which implies that

32
 only 2 students fell within the above average group. The above statistics means that,

only 15 students representing 30% passed, whiles 70% failed the test. The statistics

also indicated that student’s performance in the concept of writing and balancing of

chemical equations was obvious and therefore needed an intervention.

Analysis related to research question two (2);

What is the effect of using the periodic table to identify the step in the balancing
chemical equation?
The use of the periodic table helped students to identify the chemical names and

symbols of the first twenty elements. Written and oral drills were used to help

identify the chemical names and symbols of elements. It also helped them to write

the valence and oxidation numbers of the elements. Students who has difficulty in the

writing of chemical names and symbols of elements in the pre-test were able to write

them correctly in the post-test.

Table 5.0 The Frequency and percentage distribution of students obtained in

the Post-Test scores
Marks of students Number of students (f) F(x) Percentage (%)
obtained in test (x)
0 0 0 0
Mean
1 0 0 0
(x) = 2 2 4 4
3 1 3 2
∑
4 2 8 4

(fx)/∑ 5 10 50 20
6 8 48 16
(f) = 7 8 56 16
8 6 48 12
340/50
9 7 63 14
= 6.80 10 6 60 12
∑f=50 ∑fx=340 ∑=100

Table 6.0: Frequency Table showing for the students’ performance in the Post-
Test Result
CATEGORY NO. OF STUDENTS PERCENTAGE (%)

33
Above average 19 38

Average 26 52

Below average 5 10

50

45

40

35

30

25
Post test
20

15

10

0
Below average Average Above average

Figure 2.0: A bar Chart Showing Students’ Post-Test scores

Discussion of post-test Result

From the Table 6, the mean score was computed to be 6.80, which was above the

pass mark of 5. From table 6 and Figure 2.0, it is noticed that only 5 students

representing 10% scored below the pass mark of 5, which implies that 10% of the

students failed the test. Also, 26 students representing 52% scored in the range of 5 to

7 and therefore fell within the average group or class. Furthermore, 19 students

34
representing 38% scored in the range of 8 to 10, which implies that as many as 19

students fell within the above average group. The above statistics means that, only 5

students representing 10% failed, whiles as many as 45 students representing 90%

passed the test. The statistics also indicated that students’ performance in the concept

of writing and balancing of chemical equation generally increased after the

implementation of the intervention strategy.

Analysis related to the research question three (3);

To what extend do student’s use different methods in writing and balancing of
chemical equations?
The use of different methods has totally improved the performance of students in the

writing and balancing of chemical equations. The use of models and remedial

approach methods during the intervention activities proved very successful in the

writing and balancing of chemical equations. The models demonstrated a physical

representation of the compound formation so students were able to visualize the

concept of writing and balancing chemical equations. Students who were unable to

write and balance chemical equations in the pre-test were able to write them correctly

in the post-test.

Table 7.0: A frequency Table for comparing the Pre-Test Results to that of the
Post-Test Results
Test Below average Average Above average

Pre-Test (%) 70 26 4

Post-Test (%) 10 52 38

35
 80

70

60

50

40 Pre-Test
Post-Test
30

20

10

0
Below average Average Above average

Figure 3.0: A bar chart showing the comparison of students’ Pre-Test and Post-
Test scores
Discussion of the Pre-Test and Post-Test comparison
Comparing the Pre-Test and Post-Test scores from Table 7 and Figure 3.0, it was

noticed that 70% of the students scored below average in the Pre-Test, whereas it was

only 10% of the students who scored below average in the Post-Test. Also, a standard

test result must have majority of the students in the average group with few students

within the below average and the above average group. But, considering the Pre-Test

statistics, it is noticed that majority of the student were rather located in the below

average group, whiles in the Post-Test statistics most of the students were located in

the average group. This makes the Post-Test result more standard than the pre-test.

Moreover, only 4% of the students were able to score above 7 in the pre-test, but it

was 38% of the students who were able to score above 7 in the post-test. This means

that, the students’ performance was boosted after periodic table was used in teaching

36
the students the writing and balancing of chemical equations. Most of the

misconceptions they had prior to the intervention strategy were rectified.

Comparing the two results shows clearly that there has been a massive improvement

in the performance of students in the post-test as compared to that of the pre-test.

This implies that the interventional strategies implemented by the researcher was

very effective in solving students’ problem in understanding and improving their

performance on the concept of “writing and balancing of chemical equations”

37
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUGGESTIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATIONS
Overview
This chapter presents the summary of the study, conclusion, recommendations and

suggestion which have been made to teachers and students of Otoo Memorial Senior

High School in teaching and learning of writing and balancing of chemical equation.

Summary of the Study

This study aimed at enhancing Otoo Memorial Senior High School Three (3) General

Science students’ understanding of writing and balancing of chemical equations

using the activity method of teaching. In this study, unstructured interviews,

observations, pre-test and post-test were the instruments of data collection. The

results of the pre-test and post-test were analyzed using frequency distribution. As

part of addressing the perceived problem, an activity based intervention strategy was

adopted. The adopted strategy included methods such as hands-on activities,

demonstrations and discussion of project work. These methods were employed to

enhance the students’ understanding of writing and balancing of chemical equations.

Conclusion
Students’ performance on the writing and balancing of chemical equations can be

improved significantly if appropriate methods of teaching are used to teach the

concept of writing and balancing of chemical equations. Although the researcher has

shown some evidence of success in the writing and balancing of chemical equations

by the students in the class, this would not give the reader a false conclusion that all

students in the class were good at writing and balancing chemical equations.

38
Nevertheless, it is expected that when students are given the appropriate pedagogical

guidance in the topic, they can demonstrate good skills in the writing and balancing

of chemical equations.

It can also be concluded that the use of appropriate teaching and learning materials

(TLMs) plays significant roles by reinforcing students’ interest and makes the

teaching and learning of chemistry practically oriented and student centered.

Recommendations
Base on the findings of the study, the following are recommended:

1. Formative assessment should be encouraged by teachers to check on student’s

weakness and strengths.

2. Students should employ constant practice in learning how to write balanced

chemical equations. As they practice constantly, it will help them to get a better

understanding on writing and balancing of chemical equations as a concept.

3. Each student should get a copy of the periodic table in order to help them in their

day to day study of chemistry concepts involving the use of the periodic table.

4. Chemistry teachers should study the chemistry syllabus well to equip themselves

with the activities suggested for each topic in the textbooks and make the

necessary preparations to get the materials in advance in order to carry out the

prescribed activities.

5. There should be regular intervals in-service training for teachers in order to

ensure that the requisite skills needed by teachers in the field have been acquired.

6. Teachers should communicate at student level of understanding.

39
40
Suggestion for further Studies
In light of the findings to the study, the researcher used a small sample size of Fifty

(50). The researcher however suggests that, a larger sample size should be used in

further studies to help have a true picture of the problem.

For better achievement in chemistry and improvement of performance of students in

the Senior High Schools, there is the need to organize workshops for teachers to

constantly update their teaching techniques for effective lesson delivery.

Again further studies should be done using schools in both the rural and urban areas

to help obtain adequate information on the problem.

41
 REFERENCES
Ababio, O.Y. (2007). New School Chemistry; Senior Secondary Science Series,

Lagos Africana Feb Publishers Ltd.

Adigwe, J.C. (2002). Relationship between Gender and Achievement in chemistry:

The case of pre-NCE students, UIECEST, Bama, Kusugu Journal of

Education. I (3), 143-147.

Adigwe, J.C. (2006). Influence of Ethnicity, Formal reasoning and Cognitive Style

Students Achievement in Balancing Chemical Equations. Review of

Education. Institute of Educations Journal 17; 21-31

Anderson, I. K. (1986). Relevance of science education as seen by Ghanaian junior

secondary school students (Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of

Western Cape, Western Cape).

Anamuah –Mensah, J. & Apafo, N.T. (1986). Students perceived difficulties with

ordinary level chemistry topics. Chemistry and Industry Proceedings, I

(1), 38-39.

Anthony, C, Dennis. D, Michael and Edward L. (2002). Chemistry Addison Wesley,

Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper saddle river, New Jessey 07458.

Ausubel, D. P. (1968). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. New York:

Grune & Stratton.

Bajah, S.T., Teibo, B.O, Onwu, G, Obikwere, A. (1999). Senior Secondary

Chemistry I. Lagos: Longman.

Bello, O.O. (1988). An analysis of students’ error in stoichiometric problems.

Nigerian Education Forum. II (2), 181-186.

42
Ben-Zvi, C. (1987). Students’ visualisation of chemical Reactions. Education in

chemistry 24, 117-120.

Ben-Zvi, C., Eylon, J. & Silberstein, D. (1988). Teaching science at the Secondary

School: A methodological handbook. Ibadan: Polgraphics Ventures

Limited.

Chang, R. (2002). Williams College Chemistry (17th Ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill

Higher Education

Chugh, K. L., (2008). ICSE chemistry for Class IX (4th Ed.). Kalyani Publisher:

New Delhi India.

Clark, M. (n.d). Compound and Formula. Basics Ideas in Chemistry, 3-4.

Curriculum and Professional Support Division (2008). Leaning Science

through Environment for Class VII. Thimphu: Ministry of Education.

Ekpo, J. (2006). Tips on Teaching Deficient concept in Senior Secondary School

Chemistry. Review of Education. Institute of Education Journal, 17; 7-

11.

Fianu, J.N.K. (2005). Education Studies for Second Year Second Semester,

(Unpublished).

Gagné, R. (1997). The Condition of Learning (3rd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston.

Garnet, L. (1995). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since

the 1920. New York: Teachers College press.

43
Garnett. P. Oliver. R. & Hackling. (n.d) Designing interactive multimedia materials

to support concept development in beginning Chemistry classes.

Retrieved October 10, 2010 from

http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/docs/98/ICCE.pdf

Gower, D.M., Daniels, D.J & Lioyd, G. (1977). Hierarchies among the concepts

which underline the mole. School Science Review, 59 (2001), 2285-297.

Helmenstine, A.M. (n.d). Balancing chemical equation. Retrieved October 12,

2010 from

http://chemistry.about.com/cs/stoichiometry/a/aa042903a.htm

Herron J., & Greenbowe, J, (1986). Mega Trends. New York: Warner Books.

Hines, C. (1990). Students understanding of chemical equations in secondary schools

in Botswana. School Science Review, 72 (285), 138- 140

Johnstone, A. H. (1974). The development of chemistry teaching. Journal of

Chemical Education, 70(9), 701-705.

Johnstone, A. H. & Letton, K. M. (1990). Investigating undergraduate lab work.

Eaglewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Pages 28, 81-83.

Lazonby, J.N., Johnstone, P, & Garforth, J. K. (1976). Lives in education. New York:

St. Martin’s Press.

Lazonby, J.N., Morris, J.E. & Waddington, D.J. (1982). The muddle some mole.

Education in Chemistry, 19, 109-111.

Madam, R.D., & Bisht, B.S., (2004). ISC Chemistry for class XI. Ram Nagar: New

Delhi India.

44
Mandor, A.K. (2002). Effects of Constructivist Based Instructional Model on

Acquisition of Science process Skills among Junior Secondary.

(Unpublished M.Ed Thesis) Department of science of Education,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Marie, R. (2011). What chemistry is, what chemistry do, why study chemistry (on

line) Available @ chemistry. About com/od/chemistry 101/9/basics.htm,

McMurry, J.E., & Fay, R.C. (2008). Chemistry (5th ed.). Cornell University: Dorling

Kindersley, India.

Nakhleh, M. B, (1992). Why Some Students Don’t Learn Chemistry: Chemical

Misconceptions, Journal of Chemical Education, 69 (3), 191-196.

Nakhleh, M. B. & Hinton, D. (1999). Students’ models of matter in the context of

acid-base chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 71(6), 495-499

Nakhleh, M. B. (1992). The relevance of education. New York: Norton & Company.

National Statistical Bureau. (2010). Population and Development Indicators- Bhutan

(2010) Data.

Norman, P. A., Gold, M., Duran, W. & Hass, J. (2003). Simulations for teaching

chemical equilibrium. Journal of Chemical Education, 77 (7), 920-926

Nurrenbern, B., & Pickering, D. (1987). Educational Psychology. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin

Nworji, I. (2004). Difficulties Encountered by Senior Secondary Chemistry Students

in the understanding of mole concept: Unpublished M.ED Thesis UNN.

45
Nzewi, U.M. (2010). It’s all in Brain of Gender and Achievement in Science and

Technology Education. 51 stInauggural lecture of the University of

Nigeria, Nsukka.18 32.

Onsanya J., & Orowale, J, (2007). Learning strategies. London: Routledge.

Parson, D. B. & Brown, R. N. (2002). Curriculum and instruction: an introduction to

methods of teaching. London: Macmillan publication

Risteski. (nd). A New Generalized Matrix Inverse Method for balancing Chemical

Equations and their Stability. Retrieve October 10, 2010 from

htt://www.bsqm.org.mx/PDFS/V2/N3/2Ice%20B%20Risteski.pdf

Sanger, M. & Phelps, T. (2007). The good research guide for small scale social

research projects (3rd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Saxena, V.P., (2004). A Complete course in I.S.C Chemistry Vol. I (7th ed.). Vdyog

Nagar, Rohtak Road Industrial Area: New Delhi India.

Sayor, L.G. (1998). Balancing Chemical Equations. School Science Review, 69

(249), 713-720.

Schmidt, H. J. (1984). A label as a hidden persuader: chemists’ neutralization

concept. International Journal of Science Education, 13(4), pg. 459-471

Singh, N. (2002). Building the structural concepts of chemistry: some

considerations from educational research. Chemistry Education:

Research and Practice in Europe, 2(2), 123- 158

Suderji, J. (1983). The personal responses in science: Cambridge University Press

Tokatz, P. (2004). Gender gap in National curriculum. Physics World, 3 (1), 11-19.

46
Usoro, E. (2007). Strategies for writing and balancing chemical equations: effective

methods of teaching difficult concepts in chemistry. Journal of the

Science Teachers᾽ Association of Nigeria, Nsukka. 38 (1&2) 31-34.

West Africa Examination Council (2005), Chief Examiners᾽ Report, SSSCE, Nov-

Dec, Accra.

Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia. (2010). Constructionism (learning theory) [on

line] available @ http:enwikipedia.org/wiki/constructivism (learning

theory)

Yarrock, R. (1985). Technology and restructuring education: Constructing a context.

Educational Technology, 34 (2), 24 28.

Zumdahl SS, Zumdahl A.Z. (2003) Chemistry (6 th Ed), New York: Houghnton

Company.

47
 APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
PERIODIC TABLE

48
49
50
 APPENDIX B
PRE-TEST QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS

FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS BELLOW

Write the atomic numbers for the following element

1. Nitrogen =………………..

2. Calcium =…………………

Write the chemical symbols for the following elements

3. Carbon =………………….

4. Aluminium =…………….

Write the chemical name for the following pair of elements

5. Sodium and chlorine =………..

6. Lithium and oxygen =…………

Write the chemical formula for the following compounds

7. Ammonium Chloride =…………………

8. Hydrochloric acid =……………………

Write and balanced the following chemical equations below

9. Na2CO3 (aq) + HCl (aq)

10. H2SO4 (aq) + NaCl (s)

51
 APPENDIX C
POST TEST QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS

READ AND FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS TO ANSWER THE

QUESTION BELLOW

Write the chemical symbols for the following elements

1. Sulphur =…………………

2. Barium =…………………

Write the atomic numbers for the following elements

3. Neon =…………………………..

4. Magnesium =…………………….

Write the chemical name for the following pair of elements

5. Calcium and chlorine =………………….

6. Calcium and sulphur =………………….

Write the chemical formulae for the following compounds

7. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid =…………………

8. Trioxocarbonate (IV) acid =………………….

Write and balance the following chemical equations

9. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)

10. 2HNO3 (aq) + Sr(OH)2 (aq)

52
MARKING SCHEME FOR THE APENDIX B: - PRE-TEST QUESTIONS

1. 7 ½ mark

2. 20 ½ mark

3. C ½ mark

4. Al ½ mark

5. Sodium chloride 1mark

6. Lithium oxide 1mark

7. NH4Cl 1mark

8. HCl 1mark

9. Na2CO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) 2marks

10. H2SO4 (aq) + NaCl (s) HCl (aq) + NaSO4 (aq) 2marks

53
MARKING SCHEME FOR THE APENDIX C: - POST-TEST QUESTIONS

1. S ½ mark

2. Ba ½ mark

3. 10 ½ mark

4. 12 ½ mark

5. Calcium chloride 1 mark

6. Calcium sulphide 1 mark

7. H2SO4 1 mark

8. H2CO3 1 mark

9. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) 2 marks

10. 2HNO3 (aq) + Sr(OH)2 (aq) Sr(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) 2 marks

54
 APPENDIX D
QUESTIONAIR FOR TEACHERS

Please tick for the item, the response that is best in your view.

Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

Highest academic qualification is …….Degree [ ] A᾿ Level [ ] O᾽ Level [ ]

Area of specialization is ……. Chemistry [ ] Physics [ ] Biology [ ] Mathematics [ ]

1. Teaching of chemistry is difficult………Strongly Agree [ ] Agree [ ]

Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ]

2. Teaching of writing and balancing of chemical equation is difficult…….

Strongly Agree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ]

3. Tour students performed better in chemistry…….Strongly Agree [ ] Agree [ ]

Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ]

4. Using models for teaching and learning of writing and balancing chemical

equation is …….. Strongly Agree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Disagree [ ] Disagree [ ]

5. There are enough detailed textbooks on how to write balanced chemical

equations correctly….. Strongly Agree [ ] Agree [ ] Strongly Disagree [ ]

Disagree [ ]

55
 APPENDIX E
Questionnaire for students

Table 5 is a questionnaire intended to acquire data for the analysis of improving the
performance of students in writing and balancing of chemical equations
through the use of periodic table

The data will be solely used for academic purpose and its confidentiality was highly
assured.

Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

Age: ……..

Programme of study: …………………………………………………………

Table 5.0: Please tick [ ] the appropriate box. SA [ ] Strongly Agree, A [ ] Agree,
SDA [ ] Strongly Disagree and DA [ ] Disagree Agree

Item Item SA A SDA DA

no
1 I know about element
and compound
2 I know what valency is

3 I know at least the first

20 elements in the
periodic table

4 I know what radicals

are
5 I can write chemical
symbols confidently
6 I feel easy to write
chemical symbols
7 I can write 10 chemical
symbols and formulae
8 I feel easy to write
chemical formulae
9 I know what atomic
mass is

56
10 I am interested in
learning chemical
formulae
11 I am interested in
learning chemical
symbols
12 I can write
chemical equations
using chemical
symbols and
formulae
13 I can write chemical
formulae confidently
14 It is easy to
translate elements
and compounds
into chemical
symbols

57