Centralized control for Islanded DC Microgrid

Final Year Project Thesis

Group Members
Majid Mehmood ELEN-18111036
Taha Ahmed ELEN-18111028
Ahmed Mustafa ELEN-18111030
Supervisor
Engr. Dr. Muhammad Umair Shahid

Department of Electrical Engineering

Khawaja Freed University of Engineering & Information
Technology
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES

Chapter 1
Microgrid
A microgrid is a decentralized group of sources and loads that normally operates, connected to and
synchronous with the traditional  microgrid, but is able to disconnect from the interconnected grid and to
function autonomously in "island mode" as technical or economic conditions dictate. In this way, misecurity
of supply within the microgrid cell, and can supply emergency power, changing bcrogrids improve the
etween island and connected modes.
Another use case is the off-grid application, it is called an autonomous, stand-alone or isolated microgrid.
These microgrids are best served by local energy sources where power transmission and distribution from a
major centralized energy source is too far and costly to execute.  They offer an option for rural
electrification in remote areas and on smaller geographical islands. As a controllable entity, a microgrid can
effectively integrate various sources of  (DG), especially "Renewable energy". Control and protection are
difficulties to microgrids, as all "Ancillary service" for system stabilization must be generated within the
microgrid and low short-circuit levels can be challenging for selective operation of the protection systems.
An important feature is also to provide multiple useful energy needs, such as heating and cooling besides
electricity, since this allows energy carrier substitution and increased energy efficiency due to waste heat
utilization for heating, domestic hot water, and cooling purposes (cross sectoral energy usage).
The United States Department of Microgrid Exchange Group defines a microgrid as a group of
interconnected loads and distributed energy resources (DERs) within clearly defined electrical boundaries
that acts as a single controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect and disconnect from
the grid to enable it to operate in both connected or island-mode.
A EU research project describes a microgrid as comprising Low-Voltage (LV) distribution systems with
distributed energy resources (DERs)(microturbines,fuel cells ,photovoltaics  (PV), etc.), storage devices
(batteries,flywheels ) energy storage system and flexible loads. Such systems can operate either connected or
disconnected from the main grid. The operation of microsources in the network can provide benefits to the
overall system performance, if managed and coordinated efficiently.
Electropedia defines a microgrid as a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources with
defined electrical boundaries, which form a local electric power system at distribution voltage levels,
meaning both low and medium voltage up to 35 kV. This cluster of associated consumer and producer nodes
acts as a single controllable entity and is able to operate in either grid-connected or island mode.

1.1 Types of microgrids

1.1.1 Campus environment/institutional microgrids

The focus of campus microgrids is aggregating existing on-site generation to support multiple loads located
in a tight geographical area where an owner can easily manage them.

1.1.2 Community microgrids

Community microgrids can serve thousands of customers and support the penetration of local energy
(electricity, heating, and cooling). In a community microgrid, some houses may have some renewable
sources that can supply their demand as well as that of their neighbors within the same community. The
community microgrid may also have a centralized or several distributed energy storages. Such microgrids
can be in the form of an ac and dc microgrid coupled together through a bi-directional power electronic
converter.

1
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES

1.1.3 Remote off-grid microgrids

These microgrids never connect to the "Electrical grid" and instead operate in an island mode at all times
because of economic issues or geographical position. Typically, an "off-grid" microgrid is built in areas that
are far distant from any transmission and distribution infrastructure and, therefore, have no connection to the
utility grid. Studies have demonstrated that operating a remote area or islands' off-grid microgrids, that are
dominated by renewable sources, will reduce the levelized cost of electricity production over the life of such
microgrid projects.
Large remote areas may be supplied by several independent microgrids, each with a different owner
(operator). Although such microgrids are traditionally designed to be energy self-sufficient, "Intermittent
power source" renewable sources and their unexpected and sharp variations can cause unexpected power
shortfall or excessive generation in those microgrids. This will immediately cause unacceptable voltage or
frequency deviation in the microgrids. To remedy such situations, it is possible to interconnect such
microgrids provisionally to a suitable neighboring microgrid to exchange power and improve the voltage
and frequency deviations. This can be achieved through a power electronics-based switch after a proper
synchronization or a back to back connection of two power electronic converters and after confirming the
stability of the new system. The determination of a need to interconnect neighboring microgrids and finding
the suitable microgrid to couple with can be achieved through optimization or decision making approaches.

1.1.4 Military base microgrids

These microgrids are being actively deployed with focus on both physical and cyber security for military
facilities in order to assure reliable power without relying on the "Electrical grid"

1.1.5 Commercial and industrial (C&I) microgrids

These types of microgrids are maturing quickly in North America and eastern Asia; however, the lack of
well-known standards for these types of microgrids limits them globally. Main reasons for the installation of
an industrial microgrid are power supply security and its reliability. There are many manufacturing
processes in which an interruption of the power supply may cause high revenue losses and long start-up
time. Industrial microgrids can be designed to supply "Circular economy" (near-) zero-emission industrial
processes, and can integrate combined heat and power (CHP) generation, being fed by both renewable
sources and waste processing; energy storage can be additionally used to optimize the operations of these
sub-systems.

1.2 Topologies of microgrids

Architectures are needed to manage the flow of energy from different types of sources into the electrical
grid. Thus, the microgrid can be classified into three topologies:
1.2.1 AC microgrid
Power sources with AC output are interfaced to AC bus through AC/AC converter which will transform the
AC variable frequency and voltage to AC waveform with another frequency at another voltage. Whilst
power sources with DC output use DC/AC converters for the connection to the AC bus.
1.2.2 DC microgrid
In DC microgrid topology, power sources with DC output are connected to DC bus directly or by DC/DC
converters. On the other hand, power sources with AC output are connected to the DC bus through AC/DC
converter.

2
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES

1.2.3 Hybrid microgrid

The hybrid microgrid has topology for both power source AC and DC output. In addition, AC and DC buses
are connected to each other through a bidirectional converter, allowing power to flow in both directions
between the two buses.

1.3 Basic components in microgrids

1.3.1 Local generation
A microgrid presents various types of generation sources that feed electricity, heating, and cooling to the
user. These sources are divided into two major groups – thermal energy sources (e.g,. natural gas
or "Biogas" generators or "Micro combined heat and power") and renewable generation sources (e.g. wind
turbines and solar).
1.3.2 Consumption
In a microgrid, consumption simply refers to elements that consume electricity, heat, and cooling, which
range from single devices to the lighting and heating systems of buildings, commercial centers, etc. In the
case of controllable loads, electricity consumption can be modified according to the demands of the
network.
1.3.3 Energy storage
In microgrid, "Energy storage" is able to perform multiple functions, such as ensuring power quality,
including frequency and voltage regulation, smoothing the output of renewable energy sources, providing
backup power for the system and playing a crucial role in cost optimization. It includes all of chemical,
electrical, pressure, gravitational, flywheel, and heat storage technologies. When multiple energy storages
with various capacities are available in a microgrid, it is preferred to coordinate their charging and
discharging such that a smaller energy storage does not discharge faster than those with larger capacities.
Likewise, it is preferred a smaller one does not get fully charged before those with larger capacities. This
can be achieved under a coordinated control of energy storages based on their state of charge. If multiple
energy storage systems (possibly working on different technologies) are used and they are controlled by a
unique supervising unit (an "Energy management system" - EMS), a hierarchical control based on a
master/slaves architecture can ensure best operations, particularly in the islanded mode.

1.3.4 Point of common coupling (PCC)

This is the point in the electric circuit where a microgrid is connected to a main grid. Microgrids that do not
have a PCC are called isolated microgrids which are usually present in remote sites (e.g., remote
communities or remote industrial sites) where an interconnection with the main grid is not feasible due to
either technical or economic constraints.

1.4 Microgrid control

In regards to the architecture of microgrid control, or any control problem, there are two different
approaches that can be identified: centralized and decentralized. A fully centralized control relies on a large
amount of information transmittance between involving units before a decision is made at a single point.
Implementation is difficult since interconnected power systems usually cover extended geographic locations
and involve an enormous number of units. On the other hand, in a fully decentralized control, each unit is
controlled by its local controller without knowing the situation of others. A compromise between those two
extreme control schemes can be achieved by means of a hierarchical control scheme consisting of three
control levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary

3
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES

1.4.1 Primary control

The primary control is designed to satisfy the following requirements:

 To stabilize the "Voltage" and "Utility frequency"

 To offer plug and play capability for DERs and properly share the active and reactive power among
them, preferably, without any communication links
 To mitigate circulating currents that can cause "Overcurrent" phenomenon in the power electronic
devices
The primary control provides the set points for a lower controller which are the voltage and current control
loops of DERs. These inner control loops are commonly referred to as zero-level control.
1.4.2 Secondary control
Secondary control has typically seconds to minutes sampling time (i.e. slower than the previous one) which
justifies the decoupled dynamics of the primary and the secondary control loops and facilitates their
individual designs. The set point of primary control is given by secondary control in which, as a centralized
controller, it restores the microgrid "Voltage" and "Utility frequency" and compensates for the deviations
caused by variations of loads or renewable sources. The secondary control can also be designed to satisfy
the "Power quality" requirements, e.g., voltage balancing at critical buses.
1.4.3 Tertiary control
Tertiary control is the last (and the slowest) control level, which considers economic concerns in the optimal
operation of the microgrid (sampling time is from minutes to hours), and manages the power flow between
microgrid and main grid. This level often involves the prediction of weather, grid tariff, and loads in the next
hours or day to design a generator dispatch plan that achieves economic savings. More advanced techniques
can also provide end to end control of a microgrid using "Machine learning" techniques such as "Deep
reinforcement learning"
In case of emergencies such as blackouts, tertiary control can manage a group of interconnected microgrids
to form what is called "microgrid clustering", acting as a virtual power plant to continue supplying critical
loads. During these situations the central controller should select one of the microgrids to be the slack (i.e.
master) and the rest as PV and load buses according to a predefined algorithm and the existing conditions of
the system (i.e. demand and generation). In this case, the control should be real time or at least at a high
sampling rate.
IEEE 2030.7
Framework is that from the "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers “the IEEE 2030.7. The concept
relies on 4 blocks: a) Device level control (e.g. voltage and frequency control), b) Local area control (e.g.
data communication), c) Supervisory (software) control (e.g. forward looking dispatch optimization of
generation and load resources), and d) Grid layers (e.g. communication with utility).
1.4.4 Elementary control
A wide variety of complex control algorithms exist, making it difficult for small microgrids and
residential "Distributed energy resource" (DER) users to implement energy management and control
systems. Communication upgrades and data information systems can be expensive. Some projects try to
simplify and reduce the expense of control via off-the-shelf products (e.g. using a Raspberry Pi)

1.5 Droop control

4
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
Droop speed control is a control mode used for AC electrical power generators, whereby the power output of
a generator reduces as the line frequency increases. It is commonly used as the speed control mode of
the "Governor (device)" of a "Power station" driving a "Synchronous generator” connected to an "Electrical
grid". It works by controlling the rate of power produced by the prime mover according to the grid
frequency. With droop speed control, when the grid is operating at maximum operating frequency, the prime
mover's power is reduced to zero, and when the grid is at minimum operating frequency, the power is set to
100%, and intermediate values at other operating frequencies.
This mode allows synchronous generators to run in parallel, so that loads are shared among generators with
the same droop curve in proportion to their power rating.
In practice, the droop curves that are used by generators on large electrical grids are not necessarily linear or
the same, and may be adjusted by operators. This permits the ratio of power used to vary depending on load,
so for example, "Base load" generators will generate a larger proportion at low demand. Stability requires
that over the operating frequency range the power output is a monotonically decreasing function of
frequency.
Droop speed control can also be used by grid storage systems. With droop speed control those systems will
remove energy from the grid at higher than average frequencies, and supply it at lower frequencies.

The frequency of a synchronous generator is given by

Where

 F, frequency (in Hz),

 P, number of poles,
 N, speed of generator (in RPM)
The frequency (F) of a synchronous generator is directly proportional to its speed (N). When multiple
synchronous generators are connected in parallel to electrical grid, the frequency is fixed by the grid,
since individual power output of each generator will be small compared to the load on a large grid.
Synchronous generators connected to the grid run at various speeds but they all run at the same
frequency because they differ in the number of poles (P).
A speed reference as percentage of actual speed is set in this mode. As the generator is loaded from no
load to full load, the actual speed of the prime mover tends to decrease. In order to increase the power
output in this mode, the prime mover speed reference is increased. Because the actual prime mover
speed is fixed by the grid, this difference in speed reference and actual speed of the prime mover is used
to increase the flow of working fluid (fuel, steam, etc.) to the prime mover, and hence power output is
increased. The reverse will be true for decreasing power output. The prime mover speed reference is
always greater than actual speed of the prime mover. The actual speed of the prime mover is allowed to
"droop" or decrease with respect to the reference, and so the name.
For example, if the turbine is rated at 3000 rpm, and the machine speed reduces from 3000 rpm to 2880
rpm when it is loaded from no load to base load, then the droop % is given by
No load speed −full load speed
Droop % ¿
No load speed
= (3000 – 2880) / 3000
= 4%
In this case, speed reference will be 104% and actual speed will be 100%. For every 1% change in the
turbine speed reference, the power output of the turbine will change by 25% of rated for a unit with a 4%
droop setting. Droop is therefore expressed as the percentage change in (design) speed required for 100%
governor action.
As frequency is fixed on the grid, and so actual turbine speed is also fixed, the increase in turbine speed
reference will increase the error between reference and actual speed. As the difference increases, fuel flow is
increased to increase power output, and vice versa. This type of control is referred to as "straight

5
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
proportional" control. If the entire grid tends to be overloaded, the grid frequency and hence actual speed of
generator will decrease. All units will see an increase in the speed error, and so increase fuel flow to their
prime movers and power output. In this way droop speed control mode also helps to hold a stable grid
frequency. The amount of power produced is strictly proportional to the error between the actual turbine
speed and speed reference.
It can be mathematically shown that if all machines synchronized to a system have the same droop speed
control, they will share load proportionate to the machine ratings.
For example, how fuel flow is increased or decreased in a GE-design heavy duty gas turbine can be given by
the formula,
FSRN = (FSKRN2 * (TNR-TNH)) + FSKRN1
Where,
FSRN = Fuel Stroke Reference (Fuel supplied to Gas Turbine) for droop mode
TNR = Turbine Speed Reference
TNH = Actual Turbine Speed
FSKRN2 = Constant
FSKRN1 = Constant
The above formula is nothing but the equation of a straight line (y = mx + b).
Multiple synchronous generators having equal % droop setting connected to a grid will share the change in
grid load in proportion of their base load.
For stable operation of the "Electrical grid" of North America, power plants typically operate with a four or
five percent speed droop. By definition, with 5% droop the full-load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is
105%.
Normally the changes in speed are minor due to inertia of the total rotating mass of all generators and
motors running on the grid. Adjustments in power output for a particular prime mover and generator
combination are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a "Centrifugal
governor" or by an "Engine control unit" adjustment, or the analogous operation for an electronic speed
governor. All units to be connected to a grid should have the same droop setting, so that all plants respond in
the same way to the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication

1.6 Why we use centralized control

A typical microgrid is shown in Fig. 1. The proposed hierarchical control system architecture comprises the
following three control levels, shown in Fig. 2 [2]: 1) local microsource controllers (MC) and load
controllers (LC); 2) microgrid system central controller (MGCC); 3) distribution management system
(DMS). The MC takes advantage of the power electronic interface of the DG sources. It uses local
information to control the voltage and the frequency of the microgrid in transient conditions. MCs follow the
demands from the central controller, when connected to the power grid, and perform local optimization of
the DG active and reactive power production, and fast load tracking following an islanding situation. Local
microload controllers installed at the controllable loads provide load control capabilities following orders
from the MGCC for load management. The MGCC is responsible for the maximization of the microgrid’s
value and the optimization of its operation. It uses the market prices of electricity and gas and probably grid
security concerns to determine the amount of power that the microgrid should draw from the distribution
system, thus optimizing the local production capabilities. The defined optimized operating scenario is
achieved by sending control signals to the MCs and LCs. In this framework, noncritical, controllable loads
can be shed when necessary, subject to the DSB. This operation can be considered equivalent to the
secondary control of the larger power system. In market terms, the MGCC might represent the functions of
an aggregator or energy service provider, who acts in the interest of one or more microgrids. Conventional
approaches to DMSs need to be enhanced with new features related to the operation of microgrids connected
6
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
on the feeders. The issues of islanded and interconnected operation of the microgrids and the related
exchange of information with DSB are new important issues, falling outside the scope of this paper. The
information exchange within a typical microgrid is as follows: every m min, e.g., 15 min, each DG source
bids for the production for the next hour in m-min intervals. These bids are prepared according to the energy
prices in the open market, the operating costs of the DG units plus the profit of the DG owner, and other
needs for the installation facility, e.g., space heating. For example, if a DG owner has installed a CHP unit, it
may wish to provide heat demand locally at a certain period. For this period, the bids sent to the MGCC
should aim at maximizing this profit by participating in the electricity market. The MGCC optimizes the
microgrid operation according to the open market prices, the bids received by the DG sources, and the
forecasted loads, and sends signals to the MCs of the DG sources to be committed, and if applicable, to
determine the level of their production. In addition, consumers within the microgrid might bid for their loads
supply for the next hour in the same m-min intervals or might bid to curtail their loads. In this case, the
MGCC optimizes the operation based on DG sources and load bids, and sends dispatch signals to both the
MCs and LCs. Fig. 3 shows the information-exchange flow in a typical microgrid operating under such
conditions.

1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of microgrids

1.7.1 Advantages
A microgrid is capable of operating in grid-connected and stand-alone modes and of handling the transition
between the two. In the grid-connected mode, "Ancillary services (electric power)" can be provided by
trading activity between the microgrid and the main grid. Other possible revenue streams exist. In the
islanded mode, the real and reactive power generated within the microgrid, including that provided by the
energy storage system, should be in balance with the demand of local loads. Microgrids offer an option to
balance the need to reduce carbon emissions with continuing to provide reliable electric energy in periods of
time when renewable sources of power are not available. Microgrids also offer the security of being
hardened from severe weather and natural disasters by not having large assets and miles of above-ground
wires and other electric infrastructure that need to be maintained or repaired following such events
A microgrid may transition between these two modes because of scheduled maintenance, degraded power
quality or a shortage in the host grid, faults in the local grid, or for economical reasons. By means of
modifying energy flow through microgrid components, microgrids facilitate the integration of renewable
energy, such as photovoltaic, wind and fuel cell generations, without requiring re-design of the national
distribution system Modern optimization methods can also be incorporated into the microgrid energy
management system to improve efficiency, economics, and resiliency.
 A microgrid improves electric reliability
Among microgrid benefits, electric reliability has gotten the most attention since 2012 when Superstorm
Sandy knocked out power to about eight million electric customers in 15 states and the District of Columbia.
Some outages lasted two weeks or more. Some people suffering in the darkness noticed that neighboring
buildings still had their lights. Those were facilities with microgrids.
Power outages aren’t only an inconvenience, they can be dangerous. When a Manhattan hospital’s back-up
generators failed during the storm, medical personnel had to evacuate ill babies by carrying them down long,
dark flights of stairs, as they manually pumped air into their lungs.
Microgrids keep the power flowing by disconnecting – or islanding – from the central grid when it begins to
fail. The microgrid’s generators, and possibly batteries, then serve the microgrid’s customers until power is
restored on the central grid.

 A microgrid enhances resilience/recovery

Closely related to electric reliability is the idea of energy resilience. While reliability is about keeping the
power on, resilience describes the ability to avoid power outages in the first place or to recover quickly if
they do occur.
Resilience is also among the microgrid benefits that came to the fore following Superstorm Sandy. Its
importance has been underscored in a series of lesser storms since.

7
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
In some cases, a microgrid immediately restores power to an entire building or operation, leaving occupants
barely aware a disturbance occurred.
In other cases, a microgrid is programmed to restore only critical services within a facility. So a college
campus, for example, might configure its microgrid to restore power to research labs and dining halls, but
perhaps not swimming pools or peripheral academic offices. With critical operations up and running, the
university can maintain a minimal and crucial level of service. Once the central grid is repaired, the facility
can resume normal operations more quickly because it did not have to shut down completely.
Utilities are now investigating installing microgrids for their central headquarters, so that they can restore
power faster to their customer during a massive outage. The utilities would coordinate workers and
information from these electrified command centers.

 A microgrid can lower energy costs for consumers and businesses

Microgrids can both reduce costs and provide a revenue stream for their customers. They reduce costs
through the efficient management of energy supply. They supply revenue by selling energy and services
back to the grid. This gives consumers a new kind of control in energy markets. They no longer just
consume energy, but also can produce and control it through their microgrids. Such customers are
called consumers.
Microgrids can earn revenue by providing ancillary services to the central grid. Ancillary services provide
support functions for the grid, such as frequency control and spinning reserve.
Advanced microgrids also are adept at leveraging energy pricing. Electricity prices fluctuate throughout the
day based on expected and historical demand. An advanced microgrid controller, known as the brain of the
system, can leverage this fluctuation on its customer’s behalf. The microgrid does this by orchestrating the
play of its assets with the rise and fall of electric pricing on the grid. When demand for grid energy is high
and grid prices increase, the controller may signal the microgrid to use more of its own resources to avert
paying the higher prices. If the microgrid has excess capacity, it may sell it back to the grid.
Because it uses its assets to maximize value over time, then, the microgrid serves its customers with both
short and long-term pricing planning. The extent to which it can do this, however, will depend on the
sophistication of the microgrid controller and regional wholesale market rules.
Microgrids also can gain economic benefit by joining utility demand response programs, or by participating
in state and federal clean energy programs, such as state renewable portfolio standard initiatives or federal
production tax credits. Some states have grant programs specifically for microgrids.
In areas where electricity costs are high – such as the Northeast and California – microgrids may be able to
consistently provide energy at a lower cost. Microgrid customers then receive benefits, such as reliability
and cleaner energy, yet pay lower prices for energy.

Solar-Plus-Storage Microgrid

 A microgrid improves the environment and promotes clean energy

Many businesses and communities establish clean energy goals to conserve energy and reduce the
environmental impact of their power generation.
Microgrids can employ a wide range of green power production technologies. These include solar, wind,
fuel cells, combined heat and power (CHP) plants, and energy storage technologies. Natural gas generators,
used in many CHP plants, fall on the cleaner side of fossil fuels.

8
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
Microgrids integrate these renewables into the energy mix intelligently. They seamlessly balance the
variable output of renewable energy with traditional generation assets. In doing so, the microgrid overcomes
the downside of solar and wind energy – they only generate power when the wind blows or sun shines. Tithe
no human intervention — tap into other resources when renewable energy is unavailable.
Advanced microgrids can be programmed to achieve specific sustainability goals, such as use of lowest
carbon resources to the maximum extent possible.
A microgrid benefits even those outside its footprint

 A microgrid strengthens the central grid

In addition to serving its own customers, a microgrid benefits neighbors, as well, when it used to strengthen
the broader electric grid.
It does this in a few ways. One is by augmenting normal grid operation; for example, by participating in
demand response programs or providing ancillary services.
Microgrids also can help ease strain on the central grid during periods of peak demand. They act as an
additional resource grid operators can call upon during these periods.
Use of microgrids averts line loss – the dissipation of electricity as it travels over wires. Microgrids are built
close to the customers they serve, unlike large central power plants that may have to push their electricity
hundreds of miles to reach their customers. Less line loss means we use more of the electricity we produce.
In doing so, we avert the need to build more power plants and transmission lines to serve the central grid.
In fact, because microgrids can be less expensive to build and maintain than new grid substations,
transmission or other grid infrastructure, they can act as  ‘non-wires alternatives’  — a resource built to
improve reliability in lieu of more expensive grid repairs or upgrades.

 A microgrid bolsters cybersecurity

A massive ransom ware attack in May 2017 heightened worldwide concern about cybersecurity. Affecting
150 nations, the malware infected hundreds of thousands of businesses and institutions from British
hospitals to FedEx in the U.S.
The U.S. power grid has not been inflicted with a cyber-attack that causes loss of power, but many experts
are concerned about its vulnerability and are taking pro-active measures. Installing microgrids is among
them.
Military installations and utilities have taken keen notice of cybersecurity. For example, Ameren Illinois has
developed a 1.475 MW project that is one of the most technologically advanced utility-scale microgrids in
North America. Ameren is the first utility to install a military-grade cybersecure microgrid controller In
addition to advanced controls, the microgrid includes wind, solar, natural gas and energy storage.
The distributed architecture of a microgrid makes it more resistant to cyber-attack. Should one generator be
attacked, the microgrid has other power sources to rely on

 A microgrid brings economic value to society

9
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
Microgrids offer economic value to society in several ways. First, they avert loss of product and work days
during a power outage. Second, they attract high quality employers to a region. Third, as local energy plants,
they keep jobs within the community.
By islanding from the grid during a power outage – and continuing to supply customers via onsite generators
– microgrids avert significant economic loss. Businesses do not have to close; workers can get to their jobs.
Power outages are costly, especially to research facilities, data centers, manufacturers and grocery stores that
lose product or services
The cost of outages to the U.S. economy ranges from $25 to $70 billion annually, depending on the number
of storms, according to a Congressional Research Service study. Just a 30-minute interruption could cost a
medium or large business or factory more than $15,000.
Given how expensive outages are to business, it is no surprise that enterprises dependent on premium power
are attracted to communities with microgrids. By offering reliable power, these communities can attract high
quality employers, like data centers and pharmaceutical manufacturers.
It’s also important to note that the construction and operation of the microgrid creates local jobs. The
community is not using power from a plant hundreds of miles away. As local energy, a microgrid benefits
the local economy directly.
For all of these reasons, some communities now make microgrids part of their economic planning.

 A microgrid improves community well-being

When a storm or other disaster knocks out power; at best it’s an inconvenience; at worst it’s a health and
safety threat, especially if critical facilities cannot operate. As a result, more and more communities are
installing microgrids to serve hospitals, police stations, fire departments, communications centers and
wastewater treatment plants.
The geographic region served by the microgrid becomes an island of power. Sometimes shelters and grocery
stores and gas stations are included within the microgrid’s service area. The neighborhood becomes a place
of refuge, where community members can come to buy food, get clean water, charge cell phones and gas up
cars.
Some communities provide microgrids for public housing where residents are restricted in their ability to
evacuate during an emergency. Others protect power supply to direct care providers such as homeless
shelters, nursing homes and medical satellite facilities.
Here are just three examples of how a microgrid benefits society:
 Solar microgrids in Africa and India provide rural electrification and economic development to areas
where no electric grid exists – or none with reliable power.
 Princeton University’s microgrid kept the lights and heat on while most of New Jersey was dark and
chilly during Superstorm Sandy. First responders came there to get warm and share a pot of coffee.
 Vested in sustainability, Seton Healthcare Family in Austin, Texas wanted to marry energy reliability
with its sustainability goals. To meet both needs, Seton chose to power their new medical facility with a
CHP plant microgrid that would not only provide power, but also sustainably capture waste heat from the
combustion process to provide district heating.

Conclusion
A microgrid benefits its customers and society in many ways. It keep the lights on when the central grid
fails. It offers a way to upgrade the distribution grid, harden infrastructure, and protect vulnerable
communities.  Through sophisticated, automated energy management, a microgrid can bolster clean energy
10
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
use and can create economic value for customers — as well as the broader grid. And finally using a
microgrid promotes local control, what some call the democratization of energy and the rise of the
consumer.

1.7.2 Disadvantages

 Resistance from Utilities 

As the number of distributed generation options expands, microgrids are becoming more complicated.
Before, there may have been a few backup generators hooked onto the main grid that kicked on in the case
of an outage. But power mostly flowed in one direction–from the utility to its customers. 
Thanks to distributed energy generation, there could now be renewable energy sources, batteries, and fuel
cells that decrease energy consumption and even add energy to the grid. Energy flows both ways. This
complexity can be managed due to IT advancements and the Internet of Things, but a tool or command
center capable of automatically managing various energy sources and storage vessels is essential for more
complex microgrids.
This complexity makes a partnership with the local utility company important, as microgrids are generally
hooked into the main power grid and sell excess power back to the utility. Depending on where you are,
utilities may still be resistant to the idea of microgrids. Some utilities still consider microgrids a threat since
they challenge their energy monopoly, so they try to block microgrids from being build. 

 Regulations  
Microgrids also come with a lot of regulatory issues, which may be more difficult to comply with than
people expect, as the laws are struggling to catch up to the technology. One large area to keep in mind is
cybersecurity. Regulations regarding cybersecurity and customers' personal information is still relatively lax,
but a global movement is underway that is forever changing that. On May 25, 2018 the General Data and
Protection Regulation was implemented throughout the EU and the UK, implementing a massive overhaul in
the way companies have to protect employee data. This is the first of what will be many legislative changes,
as consumers demand control of their information. 
If your microgrid services a community or town, you will be collecting information from individuals.
Addresses, email, the amount of energy consumed...if you are located in Europe, you may already have
pages of data security regulations that you have to comply with. If you are not located in Europe, most
experts agree that is is only a matter of time before these stricter data security measures spread to North
America and other parts of the globe. Regulatory issues are considered "the single most important barrier to
microgrid deployment." So don't make the mistake of thinking building a microgrid only involves power–it
also involved a slew of data that must be protected.

 A New Concept
While microgrids are technically not a new invention, they are being used today in ways they never have
been before. They are powering towns and communities, providing energy security to hospitals and
businesses, and increasing the resilience of our power grid against Mother Nature. The innovation and
progress is astounding. 
However, as with all new things, the fact that this has never been done before means many companies are
fumbling their way in the dark. There aren't a lot of trained experts in microgrids and smart grids yet,
through that trend will change over the coming decade. We've seen an explosion of companies offering to
install solar and sell microturbines, but the vast majority of these are startups who are not yet established,
because the entire industry is not yet established! This is not necessarily a con, it just means you need to
tread carefully and find someone you trust to build your microgrid.

11
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES

1.8 Challenges

Microgrids, and the integration of DER units in general, introduce a number of operational challenges that
need to be addressed in the design of control and protection systems, in order to ensure that the present
levels of reliability are not significantly affected, and the potential benefits of Distributed Generation (DG)
units are fully harnessed. Some of these challenges arise from assumptions typically applied to conventional
distribution systems that are no longer valid, while others are the result of stability issues formerly observed
only at a transmission system level. The most relevant challenges in microgrid protection and control
include:

 Bidirectional power flows: The presence of "Distributed generation" (DG) units in the network at
low voltage levels can cause reverse power flows that may lead to complications in protection
coordination, undesirable power flow patterns, "Fault (power engineering)" distribution,
and "Voltage" control.
 Stability issues: Interactions between control systems of DG units may create local oscillations,
requiring a thorough small-disturbance stability analysis. Moreover, transition activities between the
grid-connected and "Islanding" (stand-alone) modes of operation in a microgrid can create transient
instability. Recent studies have shown that direct-current (DC) microgrid interface can result in a
significantly simpler control structure, more energy efficient distribution and higher current carrying
capacity for the same line ratings.
 Modeling: Many characteristics of traditional schemes such as the prevalence of three-phase
balanced conditions, primarily inductive transmission lines, and constant-power loads, do not
necessarily hold true for microgrids, and consequently, models need to be revised.
 Low inertia: Microgrids exhibit a low-inertia characteristic that makes them different to bulk power
systems, where a large number of "Alternator" ensures a relatively large inertia. This phenomenon is
more evident if there is a significant proportion of power electronic-interfaced DG units in the
microgrid. The low inertia in the system can lead to severe frequency deviations in island mode
operation if a proper control mechanism is not implemented. Synchronous generators run at the same
frequency as the grid, thus providing a natural damping effect on sudden frequency
variations. "Synchronverter" are inverters which mimic synchronous generators to provide frequency
control. Other options include controlling battery energy storage or a flywheel to balance the
frequency.
 Uncertainty: The operation of microgrids involves addressing much uncertainty, which is something
the economical and reliable operation of microgrids relies on. Load profile and weather are two
uncertainties that make this coordination more challenging in isolated microgrids, where the critical
demand-supply balance and typically higher component failure rates require solving a strongly
coupled problem over an extended time horizon. This uncertainty is higher than those in bulk power
systems, due to the reduced number of loads and highly correlated variations of available energy
resources (the averaging effect is much more limited).

1.9 Modelling tools

To plan and install microgrids correctly, engineering modelling is needed. Multiple simulation tools and
optimization tools exist to model the economic and electric effects of microgrids. A widely used economic
optimization tool is the Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model (DER-CAM)
from "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory". Another is Homer Energy, originally designed by
the "National Renewable Energy Laboratory". There are also some power flow and electrical design tools
guiding microgrid developers. They designed the publicly available GridLAB-D tool and the "Electric

12
 MICROGRID & ITS TYPES
Power Research Institute" (EPRI) designed OpenDSS. A European tool that can be used for electrical,
cooling, heating, and process heat demand simulation is Energy PLAN from "Aalborg University" in
Denmark. The "Open source" grid planning tool "Open energy system models" has been deployed to
investigate microgrids using a three-tier analysis beginning with settlement archetypes.

1.10 Outcomes
• To control the load variations we interconnected the whole microgrid using centralized control
• To increase the Efficiency of the whole system we manages the sources intelligently
• To help and cope with the energy crisis globally
• To achieving the “United Nations Sustainable Development Goals” (Goals 7, 9 &13)

13