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A Reactive Trajectory Controller For Object Manipulation in Human Robot Interaction
A Reactive Trajectory Controller For Object Manipulation in Human Robot Interaction
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Abstract: This paper presents a reactive trajectory controller for manipulating objects in Human Robot Interaction (HRI)
context. The trajectories to be followed by the robot are provided by a human aware motion planner. The
controller is based on an online trajectory generator, which is capable of calculating a trajectory from an
arbitrary initial condition to a target within one control cycle. The controller is capable of switching to a
new trajectory each time the motion planner provides a new trajectory, changing the frame in which the input
trajectory is controlled and tracking a target or a trajectory in a frame, which moves with respect to the robot
frame. The controller chooses different control modes for different situations. Visual servoing by trajectory
generation is considered as one case of the control situations. Some results obtained with this controller are
presented to illustrate the potential of the approach.
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AReactiveTrajectoryControllerforObjectManipulationinHumanRobotInteraction
as LfD demands large set of data to learn, and the Given a system in which position is defined by a
learned control policies may have problem to cope set of coordinate X, a trajectory T is a function of
with a dynamic and unpredictable environment where time defined as:
a service robot works.
T : [tI ,tF ] −→ RN (1)
Our approach to build the controller capable of
controlling a complete manipulation tasks is based on t 7−→ T (t) = X(t)
Online Trajectory Generation. More results on tra- The trajectory is defined from the time interval
jectory generation for robot control can be found in [tI ,tF ] to RN where N is the dimension of the motion
(Liu, 2002), (Haschke et al., 2008), and (Kröger et al., space. The trajectory T (t) can be a direct function of
2006). The controller is capable of dealing with vari- time or the composition C (s(t)) of a path C (s) and a
ous data in HRI context. Compared to methods men- function s(t) describing the time evolution along this
tioned above, approaches based on OTG have the fol- path. The time evolution could be used in the con-
lowing advantages: troller to slow down or to accelerate when necessary
• The integration with a path planner is easy and (Broquère, 2011).
allows to comply with kinematic limits like the Our trajectory generator is capable of generating
type V trajectories defined by Kroger (Kröger, 2010)
one given by human safety and comfort. as satisfying:
• The path to grasp a complex moving object is de- X(tI ) ∈ R X(tF ) ∈ R |V (t)| 6 Vmax
fined in the object frame, making sure that the
V (tI ) ∈ R V (tF ) ∈ R |A(t)| 6 Amax (2)
grasping movement is collision free.
A(tI ) ∈ R A(tF ) ∈ R |J(t)| 6 Jmax
• The trajectory based method allows to create a
simple standard interface for different visual and Where X, V , A and J are respectively the position,
servo systems, easy plug-in modules can be cre- the velocity, the acceleration and the jerk.
ated. For a motion of dimension N, the algorithms find
a trajectory X(t), which satisfies:
The controller integrates various information from
high-level software. More information about human- 1. The initial conditions (IC): X(tI ) = XI , V (tI ) = VI
aware motion planning in the system can be found and A(tI ) = AI ;
in (Mainprice et al., 2011). More about geometri- 2. The final conditions (FC): X(t f ) = XF , V (t f ) =
cal reasoning can be found in (Sisbot et al., 2011), VF and A(t f ) = AF ;
(Mainprice et al., ), and (Sisbot et al., 2007a). Phys- 3. The continuity class of the trajectory is C 2 .
ical Human Robot Interaction is a dynamic research
area including various aspects, such as safety, control 4. The kinematics limits Vmax , Amax and Jmax .
architecture, planning, human intention recognition, The problem is solved by a series of 3rd degree
and more. Readers may refer to (De Santis et al., polynomial trajectories. Such a trajectory is com-
2008), (Sidobre et al., 2012), and (Strabala et al., posed of a vector of one-dimensional trajectories:
2013), among many others, for more information of T (t) = (1 Q(t), 2 Q(t), . . . , N Q(t))T for joint motions
this research field. or T (t) = (1 X(t), 2 X(t), . . . , N X(t))T in Cartesian
space.
For the discussion of the next sections, we de-
2 TRAJECTORY AND CONTROL fine Motion Condition as the position, velocity and
acceleration at time t of the trajectory: M(t) =
PRIMITIVES (X(t),V (t), A(t)). Once the trajectory is calculated,
the function M(t) = getMotion(t, T ) returns the Mo-
2.1 Online Trajectory Generation tion Condition on trajectory T at time t.
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ICINCO2013-10thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
Tm C P (t)
MHP Traj Seg
Controller
Figure 2: Frames for object exchange manipulation: Fw :
world frame; Fr : robot frame; Fc : camera frame; Fe : end
effector frame; Fo : object frame; Fh : human frame. The Figure 4: Input and output of the controller. Tm is the tra-
trajectory realizing a manipulation should be controlled in jectory computed by MHP, it is then segmented into control
different task frames. primitives (C P (t)). Traj Seg represents trajectory segmen-
tation. C (t) are the cost values. R represents the tranfor-
mation matrices, giving the position of the target and of the
Figure 2 shows the basic frames needed to define robot. Mt is the current state of the robot, Mt+T is desired
a task. The trajectory Tm defines the move that allows motion condition for the next control cycle. z−1 represents
the robot to do the task of grasping an object handed delay of a control cycle.
by the human.
Based on the cost values associated to each point a human hands over an object to the robot. During
of the trajectory, the trajectory is divided into seg- the manipulations, the human moves and the differ-
ments associated to a control strategy. The 3D cost ent frames defining the task move accordingly. Based
maps used are of different types: collision risk map on the change of cost values, we divide the trajectory
calculated based on the minimum distance between Tm in Figure 2 into three segments, as illustrated in
trajectory and the obstacles; visibility and reachabil- the configuration space in the left part of Figure 7.
ity map of a human (Sisbot et al., 2011) and safety In the figure, the points connecting the trajectory seg-
and comfort 3D map of a human, Figure 3 shows two ments are depicted by red dots. The first segment T1 ,
examples of cost maps. For example, when the risk which is defined in the robot frame, has a high risk
of collision with the robot base is high, the trajectory of auto-collision. When human or object moves, the
can be controlled in robot the frame. Similarly, in cost value of collision risk stays the same. Segment
the case where the human is handing an object to the T2 has a lower collision cost value, so modifying the
robot, the grasping must be controlled in the object trajectory inside this zone does not introduce high col-
frame. (Sidobre et al., 2012) details other aspects of lision risk. The end part, segment for grasping move-
the use of cost maps to plan manipulation tasks. ment Tg , has a high collision cost value. To ensure
To simplify the presentation, in the reminder of the grasping succeeds without collision this segment
the paper we focus on the manipulation tasks where of trajectory should be controlled in the moving ob-
ject frame.
We name task frame the frame in which the trajec-
tory must be controlled. We define a control primitive
C P by the combination of five elements: a segment
of trajectory, a cost function, a task frame, a control
mode, and a stop condition.
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AReactiveTrajectoryControllerforObjectManipulationinHumanRobotInteraction
3 REACTIVE TRAJECTORY
CONTROL
At the control level, a task is defined by a series of Figure 6: In the left, each circle represents the controller
control primitives, each defined by a quintuplet. The of a control primitive. The system can suspend or stop the
execution of a control primitive.
23
ICINCO2013-10thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
Object Object
obstacle v
obstacle
obstacle obstacle
3.2 Trajectory Control Modes in the object frame which is the task frame. The de-
tails of the algorithm is given in Algorithm 1 where:
Depending on the context defined by the control prim-
itives, different control strategies must be developed. T : duration of one control cycle.
Online trajectory generator gives a flexible solution Mr : current motion condition of the robot, so Mr =
to build these controllers, which can easily react to (Xr ,Vr , Ar ).
unforeseen sensor events and adapt the kinematic pa- δ: distance threshold to stop the tracking process.
rameters, mainly velocity, to the environment context. Mg (t): motion conditions at time t on trajectory Tg .
Switching to a new trajectory or a new frame in which MP2 : motion conditions of the target P2 on the main
the trajectory is controlled is also possible. trajectory, which is calculated by the planner.
The main idea of the controller is to compute and MaxLoop: the maximum times the loop repeats for
follow a trajectory while joining up the target trajec- the controller to track the target or the trajectory.
tory or a target point from the current state. Several Once the time exceeds the value, the trajectory
control modes are defined to solve the reactive HRI controller is suspended and a signal is sent to the
manipulation problem. supervisor, requiring the replanning of new task
or a new path to realize the task.
Control Mode 1: Target Tracking. If we suppose the
X, Q: input signal in Cartesian space and in joint
robot is in an area without risk of collision, the sys-
space for low-level controller.
tem can track the end point of the trajectory. In this
case, the controller generates iteratively a trajectory
to reach the end point and send the first step of this Algorithm 1: Control for target tracking (Control
trajectory to a low-level controller. In the special case Mode 1).
where the controller does target tracking with visual input : Target point P2 ;
system, it does visual servoing. while
Figure 8 shows the details of the trajectory con- (distance(P2 , Mr ) > δ) ∧ (Loop < MaxLoop)
trol mode for Target Tracking. The object is at posi- do
tion O at current time, and moves following the curve system time t = t + T , Loop = Loop + 1;
Tob j . This curve is obtained by a simple Kalman fil- Update perception data;
ter, building a movement model from the results of if Collision Detected then Emergency stop;
3D vision system. Fr is the robot base frame, Fc and if Suspend Events Occur then Suspend
Fo are camera frame and object frame, respectively. task;
Also, Rcr is the 4 × 4 transformation matrix from Fr to Coordinates transformations;
Fc and Roc the transformation matrix from Fc to Fo . Generate Type V control trajectory T (t),
They are all in dashed line and they change with time for which: IC = Mr , FC = MP2 ;
when the humans or objects move. Initially, the robot X = getMotion(t + T, T (t));
is at point Pe , since there is no risk of collision, the Inverse kinematics: X → Q;
controller can simply track point P2 , which is the end Q to the position servo system;
point of the segment. It is also possible for the robot end
to join up the trajectory at another point Pjoint defined
24
AReactiveTrajectoryControllerforObjectManipulationinHumanRobotInteraction
Control Mode 2: Trajectory tracking in Task Frame. Fig. 7). A new trajectory is computed and given
Once robot reaches point P2 , it starts the grasping to the controller that switches to the new trajectory.
movement, which corresponds to Tg in Figure 7. The While the controller is following the trajectory Tm ,
object is still moving, but as the robot is in the high an obstacle moves and invalidates the initial trajec-
cost zone, it should track the main trajectory in the tory. Then the system provides the controller with a
task frame. The details of the control mode is given new trajectory T 0 m beginning at time t1 in the future.
in Algorithm 2. The controller anticipates the switch, and when the
Figure 9 shows the details of the control mode, all robot reaches Pt1 at time t1 , the robot switches to the
the frames and object movements are the same as in new trajectory T 0 m . Because the new trajectory T 0 m
Figure 8, but the robot is at point Pe0 . The robot tracks is calculated using the state of the robot at time t1 as
Tg in the frame Fo , and will end up executing T 0 (t) its initial condition, the trajectory is switched without
in the robot frame. problem. The controller keeps the possibility of path
re-planning. In some cases, a new path is needed to
accomplish the task.
In this paper, we essentially solved the problem
of the task of grasping a moving object held by the
O human counterpart. For other tasks, like picking an
O'
object, giving an object to human or putting an object
on the table, the same functionalities can also be used.
For example, putting an object on a moving platform
would require the end segment of the main trajectory
to be controlled in the frame of the platform, which
moves in the robot frame. Likewise giving an ob-
ject to a moving human hand will require the manip-
Figure 9: Control Mode 2. Control mode. Object at time ulator to track the exchange point, normally planned
t1 is colored in light brown, and green at time t2 . It follows by a human-aware motion planner till the detection
a movement model given as the blue trajectory Tob j . The that human grasps the object successfully. Although
purple trajectory for grasping Tg stays unchanged in the ob-
ject frame. The robot tracks the trajectory Tg as it does the a general algorithm to decompose the tasks into con-
grasping movement. trol primitives is still to develop, the basic HRI tasks
can all be controlled by the control modes discussed
above.
Algorithm 2: Control for trajectory tracking in a
moving work frame (Control Mode 2).
input : Trajectory segment Tg ; 4 MANIPULATION RESULTS
while
(distance(Pc , Mr ) > δ) ∧ (Loop < MaxLoop))
We focus on some results of how the controller is
do
integrated in a HRI manipulator. For the perfor-
system time t = t + T , Loop = Loop + 1;
mance of the trajectory generator, readers may refer
Update perception data and object
to (Broquère et al., 2008) and (Broquère, 2011).
movement model;
if Collision Detected then Emergency stop; The controller has been implemented on the robot
if Suspend Events Occur then Suspend Jido at LAAS-CNRS. Jido is a mobile manipulator ,
task; built up with a Neobotix mobile platform MP-L655
Coordinates transformations; and a Kuka LWR-IV arm. Jido is equipped with one
MTg = getMotion(t + T, Tg ); pair of stereo cameras and an ASUS Xtion depth sen-
sor. The software architecture that we used for Jido
Mob ject = getMotion((t + T, Tob j ); is presented in 1.1. Note that the pan-tilt stereo head
X = MTg + Mob ject ; may move during manipulations, then the transforma-
Inverse kinematics: X → Q; tion matrix from robot frame to camera frame is up-
Q to the position servo system; dated at the same frequency as the controller. The
end stereovision system uses marks glued on manipulated
objects for localization. Unfortunately, the localiza-
Control Mode 3: Path re-planning and trajectory tion of these marks is highly sensible to lighting con-
switch: during the execution, a path can be re- ditions and the estimated position of the object O in
planned, for example when an obstacle moves (see the robot frame Fr is very noisy and unstable. Figure
25
ICINCO2013-10thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
1.0
0.8
0.6
Axis x in
0.4
0.2
0.0
(m)
0.4
0.2
Axis y in
0.0
-0.2
0.8
(m)
0.6
Axis z in
0.4
Figure 11: Results of robot tracking a target: position (in
0.2
m), velocity (in m/s) and acceleration (in m/s2 ) during the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
tracking for 25 seconds. The black dashed line is the tar- time in s
get position, with noise of the 3D vision, and the red line Figure 13: Real position of the robot arm end effector in the
is the position of the robot, which tracks the target with a robot frame. The motion starts at time a; Between a and
delay. The positions of the robot are calculated from mea- b: the controller tracks the first trajectory segment T1 in Fr ;
sured joint values and the kinematic model, while velocity From b to c and d to e: target tracking; From c to d: the
and acceleration are estimated. The velocity, acceleration task is suspended; From e to end: the grasping movement
and jerk are always limited, maintaining a smooth tracking controlled in Fo .
process.
Figure 11 shows the results of the target tracking Firstly, we can see that the controller produces robust
by the trajectory controller, as in Case 2, over 25 sec- behavior to the noise in the visual system. Secondly,
onds. For simplicity, only axis X is shown. The black the velocity and acceleration of the robot are saturated
dashed line is the position of the target, generated by as type V trajectories and calculated.
the 3D vision system. The red line is the position of Finally, we show the behavior of the controller for
the robot. The two bottom diagrams show the veloc- a complete manipulation task. Figure 12 shows the
ity and acceleration of the robot in the same period. scenario of the manipulation and Figure 13 shows the
26
AReactiveTrajectoryControllerforObjectManipulationinHumanRobotInteraction
real position of the robot end effector in the robot tory controller and the concept of control primitives to
frame (see figure 2 for the axes assignment of the manage forces, to handle events based on force sens-
robot base). The high-level task planner plans a task ing and to control dual arm manipulators.
to receive the object. When the robot sees the ob-
ject held by the human, the grasp planner calculates
a valid grasp and the path planner with the trajectory
generator plans the main trajectory for the robot to
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
take the object.
This work has been supported by the European Com-
The trajectory is divided into three segments by
munity’s Seventh Framework Program FP7/2007-
the controller, and different control modes are chosen.
2013 “SAPHARI” under grant agreement no. 287513
As we as seen above, each control primitive is asso-
and by the French National Research Agency
ciated to a trajectory segment. In this case, we obtain
project ANR-07-ROBO-0011 “ASSIST” and ANR-
three segments, the first one is controlled in the robot
10-CORD-0025 “ICARO”.
frame, the second is defined as the tracking of the en-
try point of the third segment and the third segment is
a trajectory defined in the object frame.
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