6/25/2022

Research Methodology
Presented by Pr. Hamid BENTARZI

Learning objectives of this workshop include, to

• Understand basic terminology and fundamental concepts in research

and methodology of research,
• Understand basic flow of research process and formulate it for
individual research,
• Select and write problem formation in domain technology,
• Write research proposal for such technical problem,
• Analyze types of research methods and apply appropriate
methods for defined (formulated) problem,
• Define research methodology for selected problem.

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This workshop will enable the researcher to:

• Initiate and systematically continue research work in a procedural way,

• Define (formulate) the research problem and propose the hypothesis,

• Propose a research methodology for selected problem,

• Select and apply appropriate research methods (techniques, algorithm,

tools...) to the selected research problem.

Outline
1. General Introduction
2. Introduction to Methodology
2.1 Methodology definition
2.2 Methodology versus method
3. Introduction to research
3. 1 Research Definition
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Motivation behind research
3.4 Important ingredients of research
3.5 Types of research
3.6 Research process (steps)
3.7 Features of a Good Research Study
3.8 Inductive versus Conductive

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1. General Introduction

1. General Introduction

• Research contributes significantly to the progress of the nation as well

as an individual with commercial, social, and educational advantages.
• Research is an important parameter to judge the development of any nation.
• Research should always aim at providing efficient solutions to routine
problems.
• Researchers should carefully choose the appropriate research method
and follow a research process by referring to existing theories
(Methodology).
• Research differs from a traditional way of education, that is, learning
concepts and writing the examination or performing activity.

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2. Introduction to methodology
2.1 Methodology Definition

Methodology is the theory of organization of an activity.

Not all activities require being organized with application of methodology.
A human activity can be divided into:
1) imitative activity: it is a “cast,’’ a copy of an activity of another person or a
copy of one’s own activity based on accumulated experience. Evidently, such
activity needs no application of methodology.
2) productive activity: it aims at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively
new result. By definition, any scientific activity aims at an objectively new
result. This is exactly the case of the productive activity which requires
application of methodology.

2. Introduction to methodology
2.1 Methodology Definition

Methodology is the theory of organization of an activity.

What is an “organization’’ ?
According to the definition provided by Merriam-Webster dictionary, an
organization is:
1 The condition or manner of being organized;
2 The act or process of organizing or of being organized;
3 An administrative and functional structure (as a business or a political
party); also, the personnel of such a structure.

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2. Introduction to methodology
2.1 Methodology Definition

Definition of an organization.

2. Introduction to methodology
2.1 Methodology Definition

Nowadays, we apply the project-technological kind – the productive activity of a human being
(or an organization) is decomposed into separate completed cycles called projects.
The process of activity implementation is considered within the framework of a project
realized in a time sequence by phases, stages and steps. Furthermore, this sequence is
common for all kinds of activity. The completeness of an activity cycle (a project) is defined by
the following three phases:
– design phase, which yields the model of a created system (a scientific hypothesis as the
model of a created system of a new scientific knowledge) and the plan of its implementation;
– technological phase, which yields implementation of the system, i.e., verification of the
hypothesis;
– reflexive phase, which yields an estimate of the constructed system of a new scientific
knowledge and indicates the necessity of its further correction or “launching’’ of a new project
(i.e., generating and verifying a new hypothesis).

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2. Introduction to methodology
2.1 Methodology Definition
The methodology of scientific research occupies an “intermediate’’ position (serves as a
“bridge’’) in the following hierarchy:
– the philosophy of science;
– the methodology of scientific research;
– research design;
– a research technique.
 A research technique is a set of certain methods, tools, algorithms, etc. to perform a
specific research.
 Research design is the process of choosing a research technique .
 Research methodology deals with general laws and principles of organizing the research
activity – choosing an efficient (adequate, rational) research technique .
 Finally, the philosophy of science corresponds to overall universal framework for any
scientific activity.

2. Introduction to methodology
2.2 Project management framework

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2. Introduction to methodology
2.3 Research methodology versus method

Researcher should understand the difference between research method and research methodology.
Research methodology explains more about the research process whereas research methods aim at
finding answers to research questions.
However, all of the methods, approaches, processes and techniques used by researcher during
research process can be referred as research methods. It can be methods applied during dataset
creation, data preprocessing, and data collection to decide sufficiency of data.
Researcher has to use different analytical tools and techniques at the time of statistical analysis and
to check accuracy of obtained results.
In research methodology, researcher is expected to prepare plan of research from problem
definition, that is, methodology for research process. At the time of deciding on a specific
methodology, researchers should look at different available methods, analyse them and should
choose the appropriate one for his/her research.
In short, different research methods are part of research methodology.

2. Introduction to methodology
2.3 Research methodology versus method
Methods Methodology

The objective of methods is to find solution to The objective ofmethodology is to determine

the research problem. appropriateness of the methods applied with a
view to ascertain solution.

Methods are just behavior or tools used to Methodology is analysis of all the methods and
select a research technique. procedures of the investigation.

Methods are applied during the later stage of Methodologies are applied during the initial
the research study. stage of the research process.

It comprises different investigation techniques It is a systematic strategy to find solution to the

of the study. research problem.

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3. Introduction to research
3.1 Research definition

The word research is combination of “re” and “search,” which means a

systematic investigation to gain new knowledge from already existing facts.
 In other words, research is a scientific understanding of existing knowledge
and deriving new knowledge that may be applied for the better life and
mankind.
 According to Clifford Woody, “Research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating the hypothesis for suggested solutions, collecting,
organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusion and further testing the conclusion whether they fit into
formulating the hypothesis.”

3. Introduction to research
3.2 Obectives of research

The main purpose of research is to find solutions to unsolved problems using

scientific procedures and also to understand various phenomena scientifically. In
addition, one of the major objectives of research is to find out a hidden,
undiscovered truth. There are various objectives behind undertaking research by
individuals as well as various organizations. However, there are some identified
purposes for each research work. Some general objectives behind research
include:
• Propose and test certain hypotheses that provide causal relationships
between variables,
• Discover and establish the existence of relationship, association, and
independence between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
(Such studies are known as correlational studies),

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3. Introduction to research
3.2 Obectives of research

Some general objectives behind research include (Continue):

• Understand different phenomena and develop new perceptions about it,

• Study and describe accurately the characteristics of situations, problems,
phenomena, services, groups, or individuals. (This type of study/research is
known as descriptive study /research),
• Explain unexplored horizons of knowledge,
• Test reported findings and conclusions on new data and novel
conclusions on previously reported data,
• Study the frequency of research that is connected with unspecified study. (This
type of study/research is known as diagnostic study/research).

3. Introduction to research
3.3 Motivation behind research

• Research is a long process, so the main driving factor is motivation. For some researchers
and post-graduate students, the main objective behind the research is to earn a
degree. For organizations including defence and research laboratories, research is an
important aspect. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new
ideas and insights, whereas to intellectual people research may mean the development of
new styles and creative work. Irrespective of any domain, research demands passion.
• Initially the research is a random walk (research scholar is not sure about
topic/research problem), but one need to systematically continue to get the destination.
Failure is an inevitable step in the research phase, for example, failure in getting results,
publications, and so on. But the researcher’s passion and motivation helps in such
situations.

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3. Introduction to research
3.4 Important ingredients of research

 Creativity, good written and verbal communication skills and in-depth

knowledge of the subject are essential for successful completion of
research work.
 A researcher should have sound fundamental knowledge of the domain
to be undertaken.
 A inquiry attitude is one of the important factors. Anything and
everything is questionable; this questioning attitude is essence of
research and invention.

3. Introduction to research
3.4 Important ingredients of research

Ingredients for

a good researcher

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3. Introduction to research
3.4 Important ingredients of research

Scientific creativity is a source of innovation that is subdivided into four types,

listed here:
• Set a new idea for formulation, which opens up a new cognitive frame to a new
level of basic assumptions,
• A new empirical formula should be discovered, which stimulates a new theory
(for
example, Darwin’s theory of evolution),
• A new methodology should be developed to solve a theoretical problem that
can be
tested empirically,
• A novel technique/instrument should be designed, which can propose a
new
technique with new possibilities,

3. Introduction to research
3.4 Important ingredients of research

The componential theory of individual creativity has three essential

components of individual creativity:
• Expertise,
• Creative thinking skills,
• Intrinsic task motivation.
Creativity in a group includes working in a laboratory with respect
to organisational settings, which helps most scientific and artistic
innovation through joint conversations as well as thinking that emphasize
the importance of the social dimension of creativity.

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3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research

• Different research types are classified in various categories including

applicability, the mode of enquiry in conducting the study, and major objectives of
the study.
• Selection of research method depends on the discipline of the research,
objectives, and the expected outcomes.
• One research problem may use multiple research types.
• Main research types discussed in this course include :
basic research, applied research, descriptive research, analytical research,
correlational research, qualitative research, and quantitative research.

3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research

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3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research

Basic (fundamental) research is pure or fundamental research; there is no

immediate need, but new theories can be added to the knowledge
cluster.
This type of research may solve problems but it may not have practical
applications. It has a broader scope compared to applied research.
Theories in basic (fundamental) sciences and mathematics are
examples of basic research.
Newton’s laws of motion is an example of basic research. This has been
applied in many product design and testing.

3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research

Applied research tries to solve an immediate specific problem faced by

industry or society. The obtained solution can be deployed to solve the problem.
The duration of applied research is shorter as a quick solution is expected.
An optimized search problem on the Internet is an example of applied research in
the computer engineering field.
An oscillation mitigation in the controlling system during the disturbance is an
example of applied research in the control engineering field.
“Analysis of cell/body organ behavior in cancer” is an example of hybrid research. A
researcher may use data analytics, image processing, algorithms, and knowledge of
the medical industry.
The outcome of applied research should either address the unsolved problem
or improve the existing solution.

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3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research
Descriptive research/study is generally used in business analysis or social problems. This
type of research does not have any control over the parameters or variables. It just tries
to represent or analyze the previous and or current facts.
Analytical research/study uses existing information to explain a complex
phenomenon or to perform a critical evaluation. The identified hypothesis can be
accepted or rejected depending on the analysis; from experience the hypothesis can be
redefined. Analytical research is observed in historical study, food, in the medical
domain, and so on.
Correlational research/study focuses on exploring the relationship or association
between incidences, variables, and so on. Examples of correlational research include “To
study the effect of a modern lifestyle on fatness” and “Analysis of the impact of
technology on employment.” in the last example, researchers need to study
“employment” and “availability of technology.” From the collected data, researchers
may come up with number of observations and analytics.

3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research
Qualitative research/study mainly deals with the quality or the types of the
parameters considered for the research. Here, it is assumed that the world is
unstable and differences in the parameter may occur with time. Research related to
human behaviour is an example of qualitative research. Everybody can react to the
situation differently and it is difficult to propose the predictive conclusions. This type
of research is more complicated and requires more guidance.

Quantitative research/study involves measurements of quantities of characteristics

that can be used as features for the research study. Unlike qualitative research
quantitative research assumes that world is stable and uses statistical analysis on
parameter values for conclusions. Statistical quantities that can be measured are
involved in quantitative research.

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3. Introduction to research
3.5 Types of research
Experimental research/study focuses on the fieldwork and experiments that can
control the independent variable. Study of the effect of the new drug on a specific
group of people or animal is an example of experimental research in medicine
domain. In computer engineering, “Analysing performance of algorithms on various
dataset” is an example of experimental result.
Explanatory research/study tries to analyze and justify the reason behind the
occurrence of particular phenomenon or association between the variables. It
basically answers the “Why” type of questions. It aims to explain why a relationship,
association, or interdependence exist.
Exploratory research/study generally explores the areas that have required meagre
attention or it is for checking the possibility of research in the particular domain
or area. A small-scale study is done to decide the further scope of advancement
in domain.

3. Introduction to research
3.6 Inductive versus Conductive

DEDUCTIVE THEORY
Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive- the conclusion must necessarily
follow from the reason given. These reasons are said to imply the conclusion and to represent a
proof. This is a much stronger and different bond between reasons and conclusion than is found
with induction.
For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true & valid –that is the reason given for the
conclusion must agree with he real world .
Deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the reason are true.

Ex- -Theory – Sum of all angles of any triangle is equal to 180 Degrees.
-Hypothesis: Sum of all angles of a triangle is equal to 180 Degrees.
Conclusion (confirmation by observation): In all measurements, it is found (observed)
that the sum of all angles of any triangle is equal to 180 Degrees.

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3. Introduction to research
3.6 Inductive versus Conductive

Deductive Research Approach

@ Deductive reasoning work
THEORY
From the more general to the
More specific.
HYPOTHESIS

@ Sometime this is
Informally called a
OBSERVATION
“Top-down” approach.

@ Conclusion follows
CONFIRMATION
Logically from available
Facts.

3. Introduction to research
3.6 Inductive versus Conductive

INDUCTIVE THEORY
Inductive argument is radically different. There is no such strength of relationship
between reasons and conclusions in induction. To induce is to draw a conclusion from
one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusion explains the facts,
and the facts support the conclusion.

ex- Conclusion- Light bulb has burned out.

Reason 1.- The light should go on when the switch is on.
Reason 2.- If the bulb is burned out, the light will not function.

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3. Introduction to research
3.6 Inductive versus Conductive

Inductive Research Approach

THEORY
@ Moving from specific observations
to broader generalizations and
theories. TENTATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
@ Conclusion is likely based on
facts.
@ Involves a degree of uncertainty. PATTERN

@ This is like “Bottom up” approach.

OBSERVATION

3. Introduction to research
3.6 Inductive versus Conductive

• Induction is usually described as moving from the specific to the general, while
deduction begins with the general and ends with the specific.
• Arguments based on laws, rules and accepted principles are generally used for
Deductive reasoning,
• observation tend to be used for inductive Arguments.

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3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)

Efficient and well-planned activities (methodology) always see success. Therefore, one
need to efficiently plan a research activity, execute it precisely, and publish it for outside
world.
 General steps in the research process are shown in next Figure.

3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)

Steps of research

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3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)

General research process include:

• Selection of domain
• Formulating a research problem (rough) and identification of keywords
• Literature review
• Redefining research problem, objectives (final) and outcomes/formulating hypothesis
• Preparing research proposal
• Identifying variable/parameters
• Data collection and representation
• Testing of proposed design on collected data/hypothesis testing
• Writing and comparing results
• Research report writing

3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)

 Selection of research problem.

Identification or selection of research domain is a very initial stage in the process of research,
followed by formulating a tentative research problem. Selection of research guide can be
done at initially or at any intermediate stages of research problem selection. If the problem is
well-defined with research objectives initial phases can be combined and researcher can
directly start with literature survey. Literature survey can be revisited number of times during
research process. Researcher can switch from intermediate state to literature survey and
back to the same state.

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3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)

Steps of selection of
research problem

3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
And Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward

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STEP-1

DEFINITION
OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

 The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be

examined.

 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need

which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.

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HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A

RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behaviour or conditions
in the firm
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
 Company records and reports.

The first step in the research process – definition

of the problem involves two activities:

Identification / Selection of the Problem

Formulation of the Problem

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IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEM

 This step involves identification of a few

problems and selection of one out of them, after
evaluating the alternatives against certain selection
criteria.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

 Reading
 Academic Experience
 Daily Experience
 Exposure to Field Situations
 Consultations
 Research
 Intuition

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CRITERIA OF SELECTION
The selection of one appropriate researchable
problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain
criteria. They are:

 Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,

Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors – Research ability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.

DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Formulation is the process of refining the research

ideas into research questions and objectives.

 Formulation means translating and transforming the

selected research problem/topic/idea into a
scientifically researchable question. It is concerned
with specifying exactly what the research problem is.

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 Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear,

precise and statement of the question or issue that is to
be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or
solution.

 There are two ways of stating a problem:

1) Posting question / questions
2) Making declarative statement / statements

PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROBLEM

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A GENERAL WAY.

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of PROBLEM

SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE

DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH DISCUSSIONS

REPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

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CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Clear and Unambiguous

 Empirical
 Verifiable
 Interesting
 Novel and Original
 Availability of Guidance

Defining Problem, Results in

Clear Cut Research Objectives..

Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation

Problem Definition

Statement of
Research Objectives

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ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

 Research Objectives are the specific components of the research

problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order to
answer the overall research problem.
- Churchill, 2001

 The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the

study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the
expected results / outcome of the study.

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist

in answering the research problem.

 The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or

questions.

 Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For
example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

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STEP-2

REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the

published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of
specific interest to the researcher.

 The aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that
need further investigation.

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 Itis an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of
investigation.

 Itgives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field
of study and how they have done so.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

 To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them
and to formulate researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring
concepts and techniques of analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.

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How to conduct the Literature

Survey?

 Identify the relevant sources.

 Extract and Record relevant information.

 Write-up the Literature Review.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

 Books and Journals

 Electronic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Abstract Databases
Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis

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Points to be kept in mind while

reviewing literature..

 Read relevant literature.

 Refer original works.
 Read with comprehension.
 Read in time.
 Index the literature.

STEP-3

FORMULATION
OF
HYPOTHESIS

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VARIABLES
 Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

 A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation,

Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note: The values can differ at various times for the same object or person
(or) at the same time for different objects or persons.

Variable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an

attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).

For example;
 The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male and Female.
 The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – Strongly Agree, Agree,
Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
 The variable NUMBER has many – one, two, three, four, ………….

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Types of Variables
 Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

 Dependant vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the
dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.

HYPOTHESIS

 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that

relates an independent variable to a dependant
variable.
Hypothesis must contain at least one independent
variable and one dependant variable.

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HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the

problem.

 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete

terms what you expect to happen in the study.

 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.

 It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.

HYPOTHESIS

 A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables.

 Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between

two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of

associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the
research study.

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HYPO – under or below

Thesis- a reasoned theory or rational
It is defined as a proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional
conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of
established facts.
Hypothesis is a summary temporary and imaginary related to subject of study.
by- George Caswell
Hypothesis is an attempt at explanation a provisional supposition made in order to explain
scientifically some fact or phenomenon.

PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right

or wrong.

 A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can

be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
 Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.

 Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.

 Consistency -
It should be consistent with the objectives of research & with
most known facts.

 Testability - It should be capable of being tested.

 Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

 Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.

 Objectivity -
It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any
moral preaching.

 Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a substantial body of

established or known facts or existing theory.

 Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should be available for

testing the proposed hypothesis.

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SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and
objectives in seeking a solution.
 Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.

 Review of similar studies.

 Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

 Logical deduction from the existing theory.

 Continuity of research.

 Intuition and personal experience.

 Researcher’s own thought, views, imagination, sentiments

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

 Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the characteristics
(such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation
or event.

Examples:
 “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized
planning”.

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 Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one
variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The
first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is
the dependant variable.

 Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship
between two variables. The relationship suggested may be
positive, negative or causal relationship.
Examples:
 “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.
 “Foreign goods are perceived by Indian consumers to be of
better quality than domestic goods.”

Testing of Hypothesis

The Testing of hypothesis is a branch of statistics which helps in arriving

at the criterion for a decision making.

The theory of testing of hypothesis was initiated by J. Neyman & E.S.

Pearson and employs statistical techniques to arrive at decisions in certain
situation where there is an element of uncertainty on the basis of a sample
whose size is fixed in advance.

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Statistical Hypothesis
A statistical Hypothesis is some assumption or statement,
which may or may not be true, about a population or
about the probability distribution, which we want to test
on the basis of the evidence from a random sample.
1. If the hypothesis completely specifies the population,
then it is simple Hypothesis
2. Otherwise it is known as composite Hypothesis.

A test of statistical hypothesis is a two-action decision after

observing a random sample from the given population
acceptance or rejection.

 Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null

hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’
hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between
the parameter and statistic being compared to or no
relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection

under the assumption this it is true.
It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example:
 H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation.

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Types of Errors in testing of Hypothesis

In any test procedure, the four possible outcome –
1. Reject Ho when actually it is not true.
2. Accept Ho when it is true.
3. Reject Ho when it is true.
4. Accept Ho when it is false.
Thus in testing of hypothesis we are likely to commit two
types of errors.
1.Type I Error- the error of rejecting Ho when Ho is true . It
means by rejecting a true null hypothesis.
2.Type II Error- the error of accepting Ho when Ho is false
(i.e. H1 is true). It means by accepting a wrong null
hypothesis.

 Alternate Hypothesis
It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s
prediction that, there exist a relationship between two
variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is
represented as HA or H1.

Example:
HA: There is a definite relationship between family’s
income and expenditure on recreation.

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FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS
Vs DIRECTIONAL
NON-
DIRECTIONAL
• If X goes up, Y …
or
• There IS a
• As X increases, Y…
relationship
between X & Y • X = Independent variable
• Y = Dependent variable
• X….linked….Y

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-
“X” causes “Y” to change

• If X changes
(increases
decreases)
then
• Y will ______
(increase or
decrease)
• a causal link

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DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

• If X increases, Y increases
A POSITIVE relationship
• If X increase, Y decreases
A NEGATIVE or INVERSE relationship
• As X changes, Y does NOT change..
No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIP

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES
- the weakest form

• There Is
a relationship
between X & Y
– non-causal
– correlational statement
– X…..Y

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CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Positive correlation
70
When the values of 60
TWO variables 50 Hr
work
“go together” 40
Earnin
or 30 gs

values on X & Y 20

change in SAME 10

DIRECTION 0

Negative Correlation
120

• When the values of two 100

variables CO-VARY
80
Hrs
in Opposite direction work
60
Earnin
40 gs
(as one goes up,
20
the other goes down)
0

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Qualities of good HYPOTHESIS

 It gives a definite point to the investigation and

provides direction to the study.
 It determines the data needs.
 It specifies the sources of data.
 It suggests which type of research is likely to be more
appropriate.
 It determines the most appropriate technique of
analysis.
 It contributes to the development of theory.

STEP-4

Design
Research

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Design Research

What is Design Research in research process?

Research design refers to the framework of market research methods and

techniques that are chosen by a researcher. The design that is chosen by
the researchers allow them to utilize the methods that are suitable for the
study and to set up their studies successfully in the future as well.
It refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research. (Wikipedia)
Methods are incorporated in the design of a research study . (Wikipedia)

Design Research
What is purpose of research design?
The purpose of a research design is to provide a plan of study that
permits accurate assessment of cause and effect relationships between
independent and dependent variables. The classic controlled experiment
is an ideal example of good research design.

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Design Research
What are the elements of research design?
Although all types of research design have some common characteristics,
the key elements that every good research design have are:
1. Purpose statement.
2. Data collection techniques.
3. Methods of research data analysis.
4. Type of research methodologies.
5. Possible obstacles to the research.
6. Settings for research study.

Design Research
Based on the purpose and method, we could distinguish among 5
research design types:
1. Descriptive research design. (e.g., case-study, naturalistic
observation, survey)
2. Correlational research design. (e.g., case-control study, observational
study).
3. Experimental research design. (e.g., field experiment, controlled
experiment, quasi-experiment)
4. Diagnostic research design. Or Meta-analytic (meta-analysis)
5. Explanatory research design.
6. Review (literature review, systematic review)

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Design Research

Experimental research designs

In an experimental design, the researcher actively tries to change the situation,

circumstances, or experience of samples (manipulation), which may lead to a
change in behavior or outcomes for the participants of the study.

The researcher randomly assigns samples to different conditions, measures the

variables of interest, and tries to control for confounding variables. Therefore,
experiments are often highly fixed even before the data collection starts.

Design Research

What are characteristics of research design?

A good research design should always fulfill the following four

conditions; objectivity, reliability, validity and generalizability of the
findings.

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STEP-5

Collect
Data
(Execution)

Collect Data

What are the data collection method in research?

Here are the top six data collection methods:
1. Interviews. It is a method of collecting data by directly asking questions
from the respondents.
2. Questionnaires and surveys. As the name says, a questionnaire is a set of
questions that are directed towards a topic
3. Observations.
4. Documents and records. (Document Review)
5. Focus groups.
6. Oral histories.

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STEP-6

Analyse Data
(Test Hypothesis if any)

Analyse Data

What is analysis of data?

Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful
information, which can then be used to make informed decisions. "It is a
capital mistake to theorize before one has data.

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Analyse Data

How do you analyze data for a hypothesis test?

Start with specifying Null and Alternative Hypotheses about a

population parameter. Set the level of significance (α) Collect Sample
data and calculate the Test Statistic and P-value by running a Hypothesis
test that well suits our data. Make Conclusion: Reject or Fail to Reject
Null Hypothesis.

Analyse Data

What are the 7 steps in hypothesis testing?

1.2 - The 7 Step Process of Statistical Hypothesis Testing
Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis. ...
Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis. ...
Step 3: Set. ...
Step 4: Collect Data. ...
Step 5: Calculate a test statistic. ...
Step 6: Construct Acceptance / Rejection regions. ...
Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about.

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Data Analysis
What is the importance of hypothesis testing in research?
Hypothesis testing allows the researcher to determine whether the data
from the sample is statistically significant. Hypothesis testing is one of
the most important processes for measuring the validity and reliability
of outcomes in any systematic investigation.

3. Introduction to research
3.7 Research process (Steps)
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
And Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward

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STEP-7

Interpret
and
Report

Interpret

The interpretation should include: Statement of principal findings.

An analysis of those findings (for example, on what strength of the evidence, are
the review's conclusions being made?) The strengths and weaknesses of the
review.

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Report
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the research
processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation.
It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate
source of information.

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How do you write a research report?

How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

1. Understand the assignment.

2. Choose a research paper topic.
3. Conduct preliminary research.
4. Develop a thesis statement.
5. Create a research paper outline.
6. Write a first draft of the research paper.
7. Write the introduction.
8. Write a compelling body of text.

Writing a Research Report

If research was not “written up,” did it really occur?

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What do researchers Do?

Writing a Research Report

A research article, paper, or report generally takes a structure or form that seems difficult but is
intended to help make reading it or using it for research quick and efficient.
A research report has seven components:
1. Abstract or Summary
2. Introduction
3. Review of Literature
4. Methods
5. Results and Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. References
Note: Qualitative research reports will vary from what is presented here.

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
1. Abstract or Summary
The abstract or summary tells the reader very briefly what the
main points and findings of the paper are.
• This allows the reader to decide whether the paper is useful to
them.
• Get into the habit of reading only abstracts while searching for
papers that are relevant to your research.
• Read the body of a paper only when you think it will be useful to
you.

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
2. Introduction
The introduction tells the reader what the topic of the paper is in
general terms, why the topic is important, and what to expect in
the paper.
• Introductions should funnel from general ideas to the specific
topic of the paper
• Introductions are sometimes folded into literature reviews

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:

3. Review of Literature

The literature review tells the reader what other researchers have discovered about the paper’s
topic or tells the reader about other research that is relevant to the topic.

• A literature review should shape the way readers think about a topic—it educates readers about
what the community of scholars says about a topic and its surrounding issues.

• Often what students call a “research paper” is merely a review of literature.

• Along the way it states facts and ideas about the social world and supports those facts and ideas
with credit for where they came from.

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
3. Review of Literature
• If an idea cannot be substantiated by the community of scholars, the literature review
makes clear that the author is speculating, and the logic of the speculation is detailed.
• Irrelevant information is not discussed.
• The literature review has its own voice. The sources of information are not extensively
quoted or “copied and pasted.” Instead, the author puts facts and ideas into his or her
own words while pointing out where the information came from.

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:

3. Review of Literature

• Literature reviews have parenthetical citations running throughout. These are part of a
systematic way to document where facts and ideas came from, allowing the skeptical
reader to look up anything that is questionable.

• Each citation directs the reader to the references where complete details on sources can
be found.

• Citations consist of authors’ last names and the year of publication. One finds complete
information on sources by looking up last names and dates in references—so there’s no
need to put all that information in the text.

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
4. Methods
A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN:
• Descriptions of Data
• Think in terms of: “Who, What, When, Where, Why and How?”
• Target Population
• The Ways Data were Collected:
• Sampling
• Delivery Methods
• Response Rates
• Limitations of Data (Who is omitted, biases)
• Any analyses necessary to bolster claims the data are appropriate
• Sample sizes through various decisions

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
4. Methods
A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN:
• Descriptions of Variables
• Statement of dependent and independent variables
• Names for the variables—make them intuitive!
• Word for word description of the questions.
• The ways variables are coded

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
4. Methods
A METHODS SECTION MUST CONTAIN:
• Manipulations of the variables or data
• For example:
• recoding income from 23 uneven intervals to five equivalent categories
• removing non-citizens if studying voting patterns
• Reflection on Adequacy and strength of sample and variables for generalizing to the
target population
• The techniques that will be used to test your hypotheses or research questions

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:

5. Results and discussion

The results section chronicles the findings of the statistical analyses and assesses whether
your expectations (hypotheses) were correct.

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
5. Results and discussion
The results section includes:
• Professional tables showing descriptive and inferential statistics
• Narrative describing most relevant findings
• The narrative and tables are complementary.
• The narrative discusses ONLY VERY IMPORTANT findings and refers to where information can be
found in the tables as different facts are discussed.
• The tables contain almost all statistical information so that the author does not have to write a
narrative for every detail in the analysis.

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
5. Results and discussion
The results section includes:
• Evaluations of the hypotheses. Were the research hypotheses supported?
• Statements about new discoveries or surprises encountered in the
analyses

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
6. Conclusions
This section assesses how one’s research findings relate to what the
community of scholars knew already.
• You should summarize the most salient points of your research (tell the
reader what you found out about your topic).
• Give the general significance of your topic and findings.

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
6. Conclusions
• You should discuss the shortcomings of your study and what implications
these have for your findings.
• Discuss things future researchers should investigate about your topic.
• Leave the reader with the understanding he or she ought to have about the
topic you spent so much time exploring.

Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:
7. References
The references are just as important as any other part of your paper. They
are the link to the community of scholars that will permit your reader to
assess the worthiness of the claims you make in your paper. References also
make the research process much more efficient because they make it very
easy to look up sources of facts and ideas.

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Writing a Research Report

A research report has seven components:

7. References

Should be hanging indented, alphabetical on author’s last name (by increasing year within same author)
with information in order determined by type of source:

Article : Last Name, first name. Year. “Article title.” Journal Name Volume: 1st Page- Last Page.

Lee, James Daniel. 2005. “Do Girls Change More than Boys? Gender Differences and Similarities in
the Impact of New Relationships on Identities and Behaviors.” Self and Identity 4:131-47.

Chapter : Last Name, first name. Year. “Chapter Name.” Pages in the book in Book Name, edited by first
name last name. City of Publisher: Publisher.

Book: Last name, first name. Year. Book Name. City of Publisher: Publisher.

A website: Last Name (if available), first name. Year (if available). “Article or web page title.” Journal
or Report Name Volume (if available). http://address. Date accessed.

Writing a Research Report

Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism
What is it?
• All knowledge in your head has either been copied from some place or
originally discovered by you.
• Most knowledge was copied.
• This is true in most settings. General knowledge is copied. Most teachers’
lectures are copied knowledge.
• Humans are naturally copiers, but this is not what we would typically call
“plagiarism.”

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Writing a Research Report

The Elements of Style endorses imitation as a way for a writer to achieve his own style:
• The use of language begins with imitation . . . The imitative life continues long after the writer is on his
own in the language, for it is almost impossible to avoid imitating what one admires. Never imitate
consciously, but do not worry about being an imitator; take pains instead to admire what is good. Then
when you write in a way that comes naturally, you will echo the halloos that bear repeating.

Copied from: http://www.answers.com/topic/writing-style-1

Writing a Research Report

Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism
What is it?
• Among other things, plagiarism refers to taking others’ work and representing it as if it
were your own.

• In academics this is bad because with plagiarism:

• One cannot assess students’ development accurately
• The person who makes his or her livelihood by scholarly pursuit is being robbed of credit
• It masks the lineage of ideas and facts.

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Writing a Research Report

Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism
Lineage of Ideas:
• Original sources of research are all the proof we have for some facts. Without the “paper trail” of
academic thought:

• People could pass incorrect ideas off as facts

• We would have to keep “re-proving” things.

• The contexts that generated facts and ideas get lost.

• Research becomes highly inefficient as it becomes incredibly difficult to find “full information” on a topic.

Writing a Research Report

Finally…Avoiding Plagiarism
• To avoid plagiarism:
1. Document every source for information that is not “general knowledge”—this includes facts and
ideas.
2. Cite every time a fact or idea is used unless it is clear that one citation is referring to a group of facts
or ideas.
3. If you quote material, put quotation marks around the quoted stuff and include a page number within
the citation.
4. It is alright to paraphrase material, but you still have to cite from where the paraphrased material
came.
5. When in doubt, cite the source.

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3. Introduction to research
3.8 Features of a Good Research Study

Related state-of-the-art literature should be studied in depth to avoid

reinvention of wheel. Good research should clearly define the methodologies
used, which should be replicable. It should be time-bound and realistic. Good
research should have system atically chosen methodologies and datasets to
prove the proposed hypothesis. Validity and reliability of data should be
checked and researchers should consider an adequate amount of data. Good
research should be creative and valid in the longer term. Some of the
important features of good research are:
• Research purpose should be clearly defined,
• Procedure for the research (methodology) should be detailed sufficiently
which should help the other to continue the work by referencing our work ,

3. Introduction to research
3.8 Features of a Good Research Study

• Research work should be carefully planned to get the results in

related to the specified objectives,
• Reports should be created by a researcher stating that what was the
procedure (methodology) adopted for completing the work which should also
include errors in their findings,
• Conclusions should be confident to those justified by the data of research.
Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning. The logical process of
induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision
making. Good research is empirical when the research is related basically to
one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that
provides a basis for external validity to research results.

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3. Introduction to research
3.8 Features of a Good Research Study

• Good research is recreated when research results are verified by

studying the results and comparing the obtained results based on the
decision which is sound enough to justify the research.
• The research work should either form foundation for further
advancement in the domain, draw some concrete conclusions or it
should be beneficial from the social, commercial, or educational
point of view.
• Good research is systematic and logical (it depends on the adopted
methodology). The report should be well written and it should be
published through refereed journal.
• As, publications, copyrights, and patents help to reach the research to
all intended audience.

Questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the
difference between an experiment and a survey.

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Thank you for your attendance

Questions are wellcome

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