Ed - 2022 - Chap 03

Chapter 3:
Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Construction
There are two types of transistors:
• pnp
• npn
The terminals are labeled:
• E - Emitter
• B - Base
• C - Collector
•The npn BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the

emitter region (n type), the base region (p type), and the collector
region (n type).
•The pnp BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the
emitter region (p type), the base region (n type), and the collector
region (p type).
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 10/e 2 Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
The transistor consists of two pn junctions, the emitter–base

junction (EBJ) and the collector–base junction (CBJ).
Emitter: The portion on one side of transistor that supplies charge
carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) to the other two portions.
The emitter is a heavily doped region.
Emitter of PNP transistor supplies hole charges to its junction with
the base. Similarly, the emitter of NPN transistor supplies free
electrons to its junction with the base.
Collector is the portion on the other side of the transistor (i.e. the
side opposite to the emitter) that collects the charge carriers (i.e.
electrons or holes).
The doping level of the collector is in between the heavily doping
of emitter and the light doping of the base.
Base: The middle portion which forms two PN junctions between

the emitter and the collector is called the base.
The base of transistor is thin, as compared to the emitter and is a
lightly doped portion.
The function of base is to control the flow of charge carrier.
BJT Modes Of Operation
There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor.
Each junction can be forward or reverse biased independently.
Thus there are different modes of operations:
Forward Active.
Cut off.
Saturation.
BJT Modes Of Operation
FORWARD ACTIVE
Emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base
junction is reverse biased.
The BJT can be used as an amplifier and in analog circuits.
CUTT OFF
When both junctions are reverse biased it is called cut off mode.
In this situation there is nearly zero current and transistor behaves
as an open switch.
SATURATION
In saturation mode both junctions are forward biased.
Large collector current flows with a small voltage across collector
base junction.
Transistor behaves as an closed switch.
Operation of pnp transistor in active mode
Forward-biased junction of Reverse-biased junction of

a pnp transistor. a pnp transistor
Operation of pnp transistor in active mode
With the external sources, VEE and VCC, connected as shown:
• The emitter-base junction is forward biased
• The base-collector junction is reverse biased
Currents in a Transistor
Emitter current is the sum of the
collector and base currents:
IE  IC  IB
The collector current is comprised of two currents:
IC  IC  I CO
majority m i n o r i t y
The minority current is called the leakage current and is given by

the symbol I CO (I C current with emitter terminal Open).
Common Base Configuration
The base is common to both

input (emitter–base) and
output (collector–base) of
the transistor.
Common-Base Configuration
Input Characteristics
This curve shows the relationship
between of input current (IE) to
input voltage (VBE) for three output
voltage (VCB) levels.
VBE=0.7 V
Output Characteristics
This graph demonstrates the output current (IC) to an output voltage
(VCB) for various levels of input current (IE).
Operating Regions
• Active – Operating range of the amplifier. It is noticed that IE
is approximately equal to IC (IC≈ IE ).
• Cutoff – the region where the collector current is
approximately 0A (IC=ICBO). The amplifier is basically off.
There is voltage, but little current.
• Saturation – Region to the left of VCB=0. Note the

exponential increase in collector current as the voltage VCB
increases toward 0 V. There is current but little voltage.
Approximations
Emitter and collector currents:
I I
C E
Base-emitter voltage:
VBE  0.7 V (for Silicon)
Alpha (a)
Alpha (a) is the ratio of I C to I E :
IC
αdc 
IE
IC  αI E  I CBO
Ideally: a = 1
In reality: a is between 0.9 and 0.998
Alpha (a) in the AC mode:
ΔIC
α ac 
ΔI E V
CB constant
Common–Emitter Configuration
•The emitter is common to both input (base-emitter) and output (collector-

emitter).
•The input is on the base and the output is on the collector.
Common-Emitter Characteristics
(a) collector characteristics; (b) base characteristics.
Common-Emitter Amplifier Currents
I C =  I E + I CBO where ICBO = minority collector current
ICBO is usually so small that it can be ignored, except in high
power transistors and in high temperature environments.
Since I E = I C + I B , I C =  (I C + I B ) + I CBO
 I B I CBO
IC  
1 1
For I B =0, and take   0.996,
 (0 A) I CBO I CBO I CBO
IC      250I CBO
1   1  0.996 1  0.996 0.004
If I CBO were 1  A, the resulting collector current with IB =0 A would
be 250(1  A) =0.25 mA, as reflected in the characterestics.
When I B = 0 A the transistor is in cutoff, but there is some
minority current flowing called I CEO. I
I CEO  CBO
I B 0 μA
1 α
Beta ()
 represents the amplification factor of a transistor. ( is sometimes
referred to as h fe, a term used in transistor modeling calculations)
IC
In DC mode: βdc 
IB
For practical devices  is typically 50 to over 400.
IC
In AC mode: ac  VCE constant
IB
Beta ()
Determining  from a Graph
(3.2 mA  2.2 mA)

β AC 
(30 μA  20 μA)
1 mA
 V  7.5
10 μA CE
 100
2.7 mA
β DC  VCE  7.5
25 A
 108
 ac and  dc are usually reasonably close and are often used

interchangeably.
Beta ()
Relationship between amplification factors  and  :-
IC I
using   ,  C
IB IE
and I E  IC  I B
IC IC 1 1
 IC    1
   
      (  1)
β α
α β
β1 α 1
Relationship Between Currents
I C  βI B , I E  I C  I B = I B  I B , I E  (β  1)I B
Biasing
Determining the proper biasing arrangement for a common-emitter

npn transistor configuration.
Common–Collector Configuration
The input is on the base and the output is on the emitter.
Common–Collector Configuration
The characteristics are similar to those of the common-emitter
configuration, except the vertical axis is IE.
Transistor Testing
• DMM
Some DMMs measure DC or hFE.
• Ohmmeter
Checking the forward-biased base-to- Checking the reverse-biased base-to-

emitter junction of an npn transistor. collector junction of an npn transistor.
Various types of general-purpose or switching transistors:
(a) low power; (b) medium power; (c) medium to high power.
Chapter 3:
BJTs – DC Biasing
Biasing
Biasing: The DC voltages applied to a transistor in
order to turn it on so that it can amplify the AC signal.
Recall the following basic relationships for a transistor:
V BE  0.7 V
I E  (   1)I 
IC   I 
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 10/e Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky Dr. Talal Skaik 2014 2 Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Operating Point
The DC input
establishes an
operating or
quiescent point
called the Q-point.
Various operating points within the

limits of operation of a transistor.
The Three States of Operation
• Active or Linear Region Operation

Base–Emitter junction is forward biased
Base–Collector junction is reverse biased
• Cutoff Region Operation

Base–Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Saturation Region Operation

Base–Emitter junction is forward biased
Base–Collector junction is forward biased
DC Biasing Circuits
• Fixed-bias circuit
• Emitter-stabilized bias circuit
• Collector-emitter loop
• Voltage divider bias circuit
• DC bias with voltage feedback
Fixed Bias configuration
Fixed Bias configuration
Fixed bias circuit DC equivalent
The Base-Emitter Loop
From Kirchhoff’s voltage

law:
+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
Solving for base current:
VCC  VBE
IB 
RB
Collector-Emitter Loop
Collector current:
I C  I B
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VCE  VCC  I C R C
Example 4.1
Find IBQ , ICQ , VCEQ , VB
, VC , VBC.
Load Line Analysis
V CE V CC  I C RC
Load Line Analysis
V CE V CC  I C RC
V CE V CC I C  0 mA
V CC
IC 
RC V CE  0V
Load Line Analysis
Movement of the Q-point with increasing level of IB.

(The level of IB is changed by varying the value of RB)
Load Line Analysis
Effect of an increasing level of RC on the load line and the Q-point.

(VCC fixed)
Load Line Analysis
Effect of lower values of VCC on the load line and the Q-point.
Example 4.3
Find VCC , RC , RB for
the fixed biasing
configuration
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit
Adding a resistor
(RE) to the emitter
circuit stabilizes the
bias circuit.
Base-Emitter Loop
 VCC - I E R E - VBE - I E R E  0
Since IE = ( + 1)IB:
VCC - I B R B - (  1)I B R E  0
Solving for IB:

VCC - VBE
IB 
R B  (  1)R E
I R V I R V 0
E E CE C C CC
Since IE  IC:
VCE  VCC – I C (R C  R E )
Also:
VE  I E R E
VC  VCE  VE  VCC - I C R C
VB  VCC – I R R B  VBE  VE
Example 4.4
Find IB , IC , VCE , VC , VE , VB , VBC .
Improved Biased Stability
Stability refers to a circuit condition in which the

currents and voltages will remain fairly constant over
a wide range of temperatures and transistor Beta ()
values.
Adding RE to the emitter improves the stability of a transistor.
Improved Biased Stability
Load Line Analysis
V CE V CC  I C (RC  R E )
V CE V CC I C  0 mA
V CC
IC 
RC  R E V CE  0V
Voltage Divider Bias
This is a very stable bias circuit.
The currents and voltages (I C

and V CE) are nearly independent
of any variations in .
Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky 2 Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Voltage Divider Bias Analysis
Redrawing the input side of the network.

DC Circuit
Determining R TH Determining E TH.
R 2 V CC
Rth  R1 || R 2 E th V R 2 
R1  R 2
E th  I B RTH V BE  I E R E  0
I E  (   1)I B
Inserting the Thévenin equivalent circuit.
E th V BE
IB 
RTH  (   1)R E
V CE V CC  I C (RC  R E )
Example 4.8 Find ICQ , VCEQ
Example 4.10 Repeat example 4.8
with β=50. compare solutions for IC and VCE
β IC(mA) VCE (V)

100 0.84 mA 12.34 V
50 0.81 mA 12.69 V
Collector Feedback Configuration
Another way to
improve the stability
of a bias circuit is to
add a feedback path
from collector to base.
In this bias circuit

the Q-point is only
slightly dependent on
the transistor beta, .
Base-Emitter Loop
VCC – IC R C – I B R B – VBE – I E R E  0
Since IB << IC:

I'  I  I  I
C C B C
Knowing IC = IB and IE  IC, the

loop equation becomes:
VCC – I B R C  I B R B  VBE  I B R E  0
Solving for IB:

VCC  VBE
IB 
R B  (R C  R E )
IC   IB
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law:
IE RE + VCE + I’CRC – VCC = 0

Since IC  IC and IE  IC :
IC(RC + RE) + VCE – VCC =0
Solving for VCE:
VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE)
Example 4.12 Find ICQ , VCEQ
Example 4.13 Repeat example 4.12,
with β=135. (Find ICQ , VCEQ ).
Example 4.14 Determine the DC level of
IB and VC.
Emitter Follower (Common Collector)
Configuration
The output is taken

off the emitter terminal.
Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Configuration
I B R B V BE  I E R E V EE  0
and using I E =( +1)I B
 I B R B  ( +1)I B R E V EE V BE
V EE V BE
IB 
R B  ( +1)R E
V CE  I E R E V EE  0
V CE V EE  I E R E
Example 4.16 Determine VCEQ and IEQ
The applied signal is connected to the emitter terminal.
Determining VCE and VCB Input DC equivalent
V EE  I E R E V CE  I C RC V CC  0 V EE  I E R E V BE  0
IE I C  V CE V EE V CC  I E (R E  RC ) V EE V BE
V CB  I C RC V CC  0 IE 
RE
IE I C V CB V CC  I E RC
Example 4.17
Determine IE , IB , VCE
and VCB
Miscellaneous Bias Configurations
Example 4.18
Example 4.20
Example 4.19
Example 4.20
Design Operations
Current and/or Voltage may be specified, and the values of
resistors are to be found.
Example 4.21
Determine VCC , RB , RC
Example 4.25
Determine resistor values. Assume:
1 1
VE  V CC , R2   RE
10 10
Transistor Switching Networks
Transistors are used for amplification and also they can be
used as electronic switches.
Transistor Inverter
The output voltage VC is opposite to that applied to the base.
Switching Circuit Calculations
Cutoff: When I B=0 (Vi=0), IC=ICEO≈0mA → VC=VCC=5V.
Saturation: When Vi=5V, transistor must be operated in saturation
region by having sufficient level of I B. → VC=VCEsat≈0V.
Operating Point switch from cutoff to saturation along load line.

Switching Circuit
Calculations
Saturation current:
VCC
I Csat 
RC
To ensure saturation:
I
I B  Csat
 dc
V i  0.7 5  0.7
When Vi =5, I B    63 A
RB 68k 
V CC 5
I Csat    6.1mA
RC 0.82k
I Csat 6.1mA
I B  63 A    48.8 A
 125
Transistor Switching Networks
VCEsat
R sat 
I Csat
Saturation conditions and the resulting terminal resistance.
VCC
R cutoff 
I CEO
Cutoff conditions and the resulting terminal resistance.

PNP Transistors
The analysis for pnp transistor biasing circuits is

the same as that for npn transistor circuits. The
only difference is that the currents are flowing in
the opposite direction.
Practical Applications – Relay Driver
Relay driver: (a) absence of

protective device; (b) with a
diode across the relay coil.
Practical Applications – Relay Driver
Constant Current Source
Building a constant-current source assuming ideal BJT characteristics:

(a) ideal characteristics; (b) network; (c) demonstrating why I C remains constant.
Constant Current Source
Network establishing a fairly constant current source due to its reduced

sensitivity to changes in beta.
Logic Gates
Points of operation for a BJT logic gate.
Logic Gates
BJT logic gates: (a) OR; (b) AND.
Chapter 3:
BJT AC Analysis
BJT Transistor Modeling
• A model is an equivalent circuit that represents the AC
characteristics of the transistor.
• A model uses circuit elements that approximate the

behavior of the transistor.
• There are two models commonly used in small signal

AC analysis of a transistor:
– re model
– Hybrid equivalent model
Capacitors chosen with very
small reactance at the frequency
of application → replaced by
low-resistance or short circuit.
Removal of the dc supply and

insertion of the short-circuit
equivalent for the capacitors.
Circuit redrawn for small-
signal ac analysis
The re Transistor Model Common Emitter Configuration
V i V be
Zi  
Ib Ib
V be  I e re   I c  I b  re    I b  I b  re
    1 I b re
V be    1 I b re
Zi       1 re  re
Ib Ib
The re Transistor Model Common Emitter Configuration
26 mV
re 
IE
The re Transistor Model
Common Emitter Configuration
I C 1
slope  
V CE r0
V CE
r0 
I C
The output resistance r is

typically in the range of
40 kΩ to 50 kΩ
Common-Base
Configuration
The output resistance

r 0 is quite high.
typically extend into
the megaohm range.
Common Base r e
equivalent circuit
Common Emitter Fixed Bias Configuration
Network after the removal of the effects

Common-emitter fixed-bias of V CC, C 1 and C 2.
configuration.
Substituting the r e model into the network.

Input impedance:
Z i  R B ||  re
Z i   re R E  10 re
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || rO
Z o  R C ro  10R C Voltage gain:
Vi  Vi 
Vo    I b (R C ||ro ) , I b  , Vo      (R C ||ro )
 re   re 
Vo (R C ||ro ) RC
Av   , Av   ro 10R C
Vi re re
Vo (R ||r )
Av   C o
Vi re
Demonstrating the 180°phase shift between input and

output waveforms.
Example 5.1
Determine re, Zi (with ro=∞), Zo (with ro=∞),
Av (with ro=∞).
Repeat with ro=50 kΩ.
Example 5.1 - Solution
Common-Emitter
Voltage-Divider Bias
re model requires you to determine , re, and ro.

Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
Input impedance:
R   R 1 || R 2
Z i  R  ||  re
Output impedance:
Z o  R C || ro
Z o  R C ro  10R C
Voltage gain:
Vi  Vi 
Vo    I b (R C ||ro ) , I b  , Vo      (R C ||ro )
 re   re 
Vo (R ||r ) RC
Av   C o , Av   ro 10R C
Vi re re
Example 5.2
Determine re, Zi , Zo (with ro=∞), Av (with
ro=∞). Repeat with ro=50 kΩ.
Example 5.2 - Solution
Common-Emitter
Emitter-Bias Configuration
Impedance Calculations
Input impedance:
V i  I b  re  I e R E
V i  I b  re     1 I b R E
Vi
Zb    re     1 R E
Ib
Z b   re   R E    re  R E 
Z b   RE for R E  re
Output impedance:
Zi  R B ||Zb Zo  R C
Gain Calculations
Voltage gain:
Vo  I o RC    I b RC
Vi 
Vo      RC
 Zb 
Vo  RC
Av  
Vi Zb
substituting Zb   (re  R E )
Vo RC
Av  
Vi re  R E
and for the approximation Zb   R E
Vo R
Av   C
Vi RE
Example 5.3 Without CE (unbypassed):
Determine re, Zi , Zo , Av . ignore ro for ro ≥ 10(RC+RE)
Emitter-Follower Configuration
• This is also known as the common-collector configuration.

• The input is applied to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.
• There is no phase shift between input and output.
Input impedance:
Zi  R B ||Zb
Zb   re  (  1)R E
Zb   (re  R E )
Zb   R E (for R E >>re )
Output impedance:
Vi
Ib  , Ie =( +1)I b
Zb
Vi
 ( +1)
Zb
( +1)V i
Ie 
 re  (  +1)R E
sin ce ( +1)  
Vi
Ie 
re  R E
To determine Zo , V i is set to zero
Zo  R E ||re , Zo  re R E  re
Gain Calculations
Voltage gain:
RE
Vo  Vi
R E  re
Vo RE
Av  
Vi R E  re
Vo
Av  1 R E  re , R E  re  R E
Vi
Example 5.7 Determine re, Zi , Zo , Av .
Example 5.7 - solution
• The input is applied to the
emitter.
• The output is taken from the
collector.
• Low input impedance.
• High output impedance.
• Very high voltage gain.
• No phase shift between input
and output.
Calculations
Input impedance:
Z i  R E || re
Output impedance:
Zo  R C
Voltage gain:
Vo  I o RC  (I C )RC Current gain:
  I e RC
Assuming R E  re
Vi V i 
Ie   Vo     RC Ie  I i
re  re 
V  RC RC I o   I e   I i
Av  o  
Vi re re Io
A i     1
Ii
Av positive… Vi and Vo in phase.
Example 5.8
Determine re, Zi , Zo , Av , Ai
Common-Emitter Collector Feedback Configuration
• This is a variation of the common-emitter fixed-bias configuration

• Input is applied to the base
• Output is taken from the collector
• There is a 180 phase shift between input and output
Calculations
Output impedance:
Zo  R C ||R F
Voltage gain:
Io  Ib  I '
For  I b  I '  I o   I b
V o   I o RC     I b  RC
Vi Vi
Ib  V o    RC
 re  re
Vo RC Defining Z o
Av  
Vi re
Calculations Input impedance:
Vi V
Zi  , V o   i RC
Ii re
V o V i V o V i RV V 1  RC 
I '    C i  i  1  V i
RF RF RF re R F R F RF  re 
V i  I b  re  (I i  I ')  re  I i  re  I '  re
1  RC 
V i  I i  re  1    rV
e i
RF  re 
  re  RC  
or Vi 1  1     I i  re
 RF  re  
V  re
Zi  i 
Ii r  R 
1  e 1  C 
RF  re 
re
R R  re Zi 
1 C  C  Z i  1 RC
re re  RC 
1
RF  RF
Determining the current gain using the voltage gain
Io Vi Vo
Current Gain Ai  , Ii  , Io  
Ii Zi RL
Vo

I RL Vo Z i
Ai L  o   .
Ii Vi V i RL
Zi
Zi
A iL  Av L
RL
Determining the current gain using the voltage gain
From example 5.2
Zi=1.35 kΩ.
Av=-368.76
Io
Current Gain A i  ,
Ii
Vi Vo
Ii  , Io  
1.35k 6.8k
Vo

I V 1.35k
A i L  o  6.8k   o .
Ii Vi V i 6.8k
1.35k
1.35k
 (368.76)  73.2
6.8k
Z 1.35k
or A iL  Av L i  (368.76)  73.2
RL 6.8k
Effect of RL and RS
Vo Vo
AvNL  , AvL  , with R L
Vi Vi
Vo
AvS  , with R L and R S
Vs
Effect of RL and RS
Vi
Vo    I b (R C ||ro ||R L ) =   I b (R C ||R L ) , I b  ,
 re
 Vi  Vo (R C ||R L )
Vo      (R C ||R L )  A vL  
  re  Vi re
Effect of RL and RS
Input impedance: Zi  R B || re

Output Impedance: Zo  R C ||rO
Z iV s Vi Zi
To find overall gain: V i  , 
Z i  Rs V S Z i  Rs
Vo Vo Vi Zi Zi
AvS   .  AvL  AvS  AvL
VS Vi VS Z i  Rs Z i  Rs
Darlington Connection
•The Darlington circuit provides a very high current gain—the

product of the individual current gains: D = 12
•A Darlington transistor connection provides a transistor having a
very large current gain, typically a few thousand.
•Darlington pairs are available as complete packages.
•A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small
current.
DC Bias of Darlington Circuits
Base current:
VCC  VBE
IB 
R B   DR E
Emitter current:
I E  ( D  1)I B   DI B
Emitter voltage:
VE  I E R E
Base voltage:
VB  VE  VBE
Darlington Circuits
When light falls on the LDR,

its resistance reduces.
The bias voltage is supplied to
the transistor and this voltage is
enough to make the transistor
and relay work.
A variable resistor is also
connected on the base of
transistor to adjust the
sensitivity.

Ed - 2022 - Chap 03

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Ed - 2022 - Chap 03

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Chapter 3:

Bipolar Junction Transistors

•The npn BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the

The transistor consists of two pn junctions, the emitter–base

Base: The middle portion which forms two PN junctions between

Forward-biased junction of Reverse-biased junction of

The collector current is comprised of two currents:

The minority current is called the leakage current and is given by

The base is common to both

• Saturation – Region to the left of VCB=0. Note the

Emitter and collector currents:

VBE  0.7 V (for Silicon)

Alpha (a) in the AC mode:

•The emitter is common to both input (base-emitter) and output (collector-

(a) collector characteristics; (b) base characteristics.

(3.2 mA  2.2 mA)

 ac and  dc are usually reasonably close and are often used

Relationship Between Currents

Determining the proper biasing arrangement for a common-emitter

Checking the forward-biased base-to- Checking the reverse-biased base-to-

Recall the following basic relationships for a transistor:

Various operating points within the

• Active or Linear Region Operation

• Cutoff Region Operation

• Saturation Region Operation

Fixed bias circuit DC equivalent

From Kirchhoff’s voltage

+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0

Solving for base current:

From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

Movement of the Q-point with increasing level of IB.

Effect of an increasing level of RC on the load line and the Q-point.

Solving for IB:

Stability refers to a circuit condition in which the

Adding RE to the emitter improves the stability of a transistor.

The currents and voltages (I C

Redrawing the input side of the network.

Determining R TH Determining E TH.

β IC(mA) VCE (V)

In this bias circuit

VCC – IC R C – I B R B – VBE – I E R E  0

Since IB << IC:

Knowing IC = IB and IE  IC, the

Solving for IB:

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law:

IE RE + VCE + I’CRC – VCC = 0

IC(RC + RE) + VCE – VCC =0

Solving for VCE:

VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE)

The output is taken

The applied signal is connected to the emitter terminal.

Determining VCE and VCB Input DC equivalent

The output voltage VC is opposite to that applied to the base.

Operating Point switch from cutoff to saturation along load line.

Saturation conditions and the resulting terminal resistance.

Cutoff conditions and the resulting terminal resistance.

The analysis for pnp transistor biasing circuits is

Relay driver: (a) absence of

Building a constant-current source assuming ideal BJT characteristics:

Network establishing a fairly constant current source due to its reduced

Points of operation for a BJT logic gate.

BJT logic gates: (a) OR; (b) AND.

• A model uses circuit elements that approximate the