The Eight Parts of Speech

Noun
Pronoun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection Oh no, we lost the game!

Question words
What (request information about somebody or something. for a thing, when there are many
things)
Which (information in order to make a comparison between two or more similar things or
people)
Who, whom (what person)
Whose (who something belongs to)
Where (location of a person or thing)
Why (the reason something happens)
When (time period in which an action occurs)
How (for a method)
Whose (to ask about possession)
How

Compound question words

How often…? (to talk about frequency)
How long…? (to talk about duration)
How much…? (to talk about quantity in uncountable nouns)
How many…? (to talk about quantity in countable nouns)
What kind / What type…?
Which kind / which type…?

Adjective
Describe qualities or states of being of nouns: size, shape, age, color, worth, origin,
material, condition, attribute. The big house, a red shoe, a metal screw.

What kind? Alice ate baby food. (Q: isn’t baby food two nouns?) It was
a last-minute plan
How many? Indefinite adjectives (or determining adjectives), limit the
meaning of nouns or pronouns they modify. They tell
“which one,” “how much,” “how many,” or “whose.” Some
people. Many soldiers. Alice drank several glasses of beer.
Which one(s)? Alice wore the red outfit. The back door is open.
Adjectival clauses There is the woman who always sits next to me on the
bus. The book that I wrote is being published this month.
The house where I was born is near here.
Adjectival phrases You have a beautiful voice. The drones are controlled
remotely. People wearied by travel can rest here. They
felt relieved to return home. The inspectors are training
in safety procedures.
Demonstrative adjectives Those toys. These dishes. That book.
Interrogative adjectives Which book? What street? Whose car?
Nominal adjectives He wants the red car, but I want the blue.
Prepositional phrases He participates in social activities with Harvard
graduates. VERIFY THIS USAGE!
Whose? I can’t find Alice’s toys. The company is proud of its
services.
Stating condition The locked entrance. The broken lock.

—————
Some types of attributive-only adjectives
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language

Attributive-only adjectives are too numerous and semantically heterogeneous to permit a

simple and exhaustive classification.

(a) Degree and quantifying attributives

a complete fool an outright lie a pretty mess

a right idiot a true heroine a blithering idiot
a definite advantage a perfect stranger pure nonsense
sheer arrogance an utter disgrace a crashing bore
the extreme end a positive joy a real help
total disarray the very edge a thumping majority
her complete works further instalments the odd lizard
a single objection the entire class a lone parent
the only escape the usual place full agreement
an occasional truck scant attention the whole book

(b) Temporal and locational attributives

his current girlfriend his former wife my old school
the present manager the lower lip an erstwhile gangster
future progress the original plan the previous attempt her
right eye the eventual outcome a new friend
past students its ultimate demise the southern states

(c) Associative attributives

 clerical duties ` a historical novelist a mathematical genius a
military expert a nuclear physicist criminal law
a lunar landing a medical journal a moral dilemma Platonic
realism foreign affairs a marine biologist
a medieval scholar musical analysis urban policy

(d) Process-oriented attributives

a big eater a hard worker a slow learner
a fast worker a heavy smoker a sound sleeper
a firm believer a rapid reader a strong advocate

(e) Modal attributives

the actual cause the likely benefits the probable result ii
a self-confessed thief ersatz champagne an apparent discrepancy
a possible explanation the putative father the self-styled prince
a mock trial a certain winner a potential customer
the true course of events the soi-disant emperor a would-be novelist

(f) Particularising attributives

a certain house the chief reason the prime suspect
a particular area the main objection the principal factor
our premier scientists the ultimate perk

(g) Expressive attributives

my dear mother a bleeding nitwit her poor father
the bloody tax inspector the wretched car a fucking investigation

(h) Hypallage: transferred attributives

smoked [a discreet cigarette] a nude photo of the mayor
a drunken brawl a quiet cup of tea their insane cackle
your own stupid fault

Never-attributive adjectives
list more here
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language pg 560

————————————————-
Adverb
Adverbs Modifying Adjectives answer only one question: To what extent?

Adverbial phrases may also describe the conditions of an action or object, or the degree
to which an action or object was affected.

When? Adverbs of Time Yesterday we went to school. I arrive late for most
appointments. Lately, I have had many sleepless nights.
While listening to the news, I made a cup of tea. Also:
now, still, yet, later. Davis is currently appearing in a play.
(Yesterday, tomorrow, etc. are nouns [adverbial objectives]
acting as adverbs.) Put the ingredients on the table before
they are mixed. We travel on the weekends. Dad got
home very late. He went Tuesday. He went immediately.
He will come after a while. He’ll come later.

How often? Frequency. We shop daily. He rarely goes by himself. She constantly
finishes her job first. Sometimes koalas grunt. Also:
always, usually, often, rarely, weekly, monthly.

Where? (to where?) We saw the bird there. I will meet you outside. I walked
downstairs. Outside the strong wind howled. Submit an
application to the HR manager. We always go to the
beach. Here is where I was born. My gloves are right
there, on the table.

Why? (what reason,

for what purpose?) Students study to gain knowledge. I went home to eat. I
work for money. I worked hard to complete the
assignment. (To answer why, an adverb is usually a phrase
or clause, such as an infinitive phrase.) The plants grew tall
because they received a lot of sunshine.

Less certain usages: passive voice? Schools are required

(supposed?) to keep the doors closed. What about: You
are required to keep the doors closed to deter
unauthorized entry. Your dog is supposed to be taken to a
friend’s house.

Modals also include something called “phrasal modals” –

phrases such as has to, ought to, and be supposed to.
(phrasal modals are phrases formed with the verbs be or
have. Some examples of phrasal modals are: Have (got)
to, Be able to, Be supposed to, Be allowed to, Be going to.

How? (In what way, in what

manner, by what means?
 The car drove fast. I watch them closely. Wildly she
rushed into the room. The woman improved her health
running five miles a day. She sings beautifully. Also:
deliberately, happily, slowly. He ascended the stairs
quickly. There isn’t any butter left, so we’ll have to
manage without. The rabbit appeared as if by magic. I
don't like getting up early in the morning. (how early?) I
was late, but fortunately the meeting hadn't started. We
walked very carefully across the floor. He drives really
carefully. Passive constructions: (are these actually
adverbial?) The house was built with indoor plumbing.
The cabinet was assembled by hand. The door was
opened by the attendant.

Under what circumstances? Undeterred by the setbacks, she persevered. The cafe’s
menu changes weekly depending on the availability of
market ingredients. (An adverbial participle is a kind of
non-finite verb phrase. It behaves like an adverb with
respect to the rest of the sentence and is headed by a
participle.)

How much, to what extent,

to what degree?
We mostly agree with you. He is totally prepared for his
exam. I am too tired to play tennis tonight. He runs really
fast. I’m fairly certain this is correct. He was truly sorry.
You look tired from all the heat. Partially completed
assignments will be rejected. (Only when adverbs modify
adjectives or other adverbs) These glasses are exactly the
same. These dresses are nearly the same. That dog
behaves incredibly stupidly.

How likely? Probability. He will probably attend. It is likely that he will win. Others:
surely, unlikely, undoubtedly, absolutely, certainly. (But:
the likely winner is an adjective)

How close to a particular
amount of time, money,
or things?
It took nearly six hours to download this software.
They’ve spent nearly four million dollars. Their CD has sold
almost 90,000 copies. You can approach within one mile
of the site.

How long something lasts?

(Duration) She hasn't seen him since 1999.
 Tom has stayed in England for one year. This pill will take
away the pain temporarily.

Time - frequency
Rent can be paid per week instead of per month
He again demanded a refund
As usual, nobody asked anything at the end of the lecture
Does she always dress well ?
He is continually complaining about the noise
I have often told them to relax more
Have you been drunk many times ?
I sometimes think she doesn’t know what she’s talking about
I have been in his office on several occasions
Each day she felt his pulse hourly

In what status? The students who are behind must attend a remedial
session. [the status of being less advanced in
achievement, or having not finished the required work]

Interrogative adverbs:
Why, where, when, how
Why are you so angry? When does the movie start? How
will you travel? Where is your car?

Confirm that something was

or was not done
positive: He certainly does feel that way.
negative: You should not be late.

Focusing adverbs Do you want sugar in your coffee? Only half a spoon,
please. My phone can only make local calls. The rule
primarily protects marshland habitats.

Adverbs adding intensity, stress He didn't even try. The task might be difficult,
impossible even. São Paulo is a huge city, larger even
than New York.

Adverbs showing surprise It always feels cold in this room, even in summer. Even
the dog refused to eat it.

even now (=used for saying it is surprising that

something still continues):

Even now, after all these years, he cannot mention her

name without crying.
 even then (=used for saying that something is surprising
after what has happened):

I sat down and explained the rules to him, but even then
he continued to do as he pleased.

Evaluative adverbs Unfortunately for me, I can’t speak Italian.

What distance, direction, movement or position?

Describe the direction, distance, movement, or position
involved in the action of a verb. I hate running uphill. I will
put the glass here. Can you drive forward? Also: north,
everywhere, there, up, behind.

Negative adverbs Used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, other

adverb, or entire clause in a negative way. He does not
work on Mondays. I barely noticed. I never eat liver.
Citizens may not hunt without first obtaining a license.

Conjunctive adverbs Used to connect independent clauses and describe the

relationship between them. Describe why something
happens or is the case. We must therefore conclude that
there isn’t enough evidence to convict. You ran a red light;
consequently you will get a ticket. John is bad at math;
however, he still likes the subject. Also: thus, hence.

Evaluative adverbs Used by the speaker to comment or give an opinion on

something. Evaluative adverbs modify the entire clause.
Clearly, we’re going to have to work harder. Apparently,
the silver was stolen. Obviously, he was not not amused.
Presumably, the people we saw were not native to this
city.

Viewpoint adverbs Used to indicate whose point of view we are expressing, or

specify what aspect of something we are talking about.
Many viewpoint adverbs are phrases. Personally, I don’t
believe it’s true. In my point of view, the rule is unfair.
According to you, parties are boring. Scientifically, birds
descend from dinosaurs.

Relative adverbs Used to introduce relative clauses, when the information relates to a
place, time or the reason an action took place. I don’t know why
he got angry. Can you tell me when the class begins?
Does the map show where the hospital is? This is the
 place where he proposed to me. (also in which, at which,
on which, the reason for which)

Adverbial nouns Nouns or noun phrases that function grammatically as

adverbs, usually specifying time, distance, weight, age, or
monetary value. I can barely see a foot in front of me in
this fog. The swimming pool stretches the whole length of
the resort. “This block of cheese weighs a ton! Their latest
shipment weighs a truckload. She is 35 years old (In this
case, the adverbial noun phrase modifies the adjective
old.) This wine has been aged 25 years.

Adverbial phrases, acting like adjectives?

We use adverb phrases to modify noun phrases and
prepositional phrases:
That’s quite a tree. (it’s a tree that is special in some
way, e.g. it’s very big)
There was hardly anyone at the concert.
We climbed right over the top of the hill and down
again.
We use adverb phrases to modify determiners, especially
words like all, some, half, many (quantifiers):
Only half of my friends could come to my party.
Very few people have heard of my city. It’s very small.

An adverb modifies a clause Perhaps you are correct, but not at first glance.

An adverb modifies a sentence Fortunately, she went home.

Finally, he will be on time.

Viewpoint Adverbs

Specifying an aspect of something: biologically environmentally ideologically industrially

financially formally, inwardly linguistically mathematically medically morally
officially outwardly physically politically scientifically technically theoretically
visually
Indicating point of view: according to me/you/him/her/them as far as I/you/he/she/they
am/is/are concerned, in my/your/his/her/their opinion in my/your/his/her/their
view

to my/your/his/her/their knowledge from my/your/his/her/their perspective

from my/your/his/her/their point of view personally

Adverbs as Intensifiers
Adverbs as emphasizers.
I really like him.
I literally wrecked my car.

Adverbs as amplifiers
They completely abandoned the city.
I absolutely refuse to leave.

Adverbs as down toners

I somewhat like this movie.
Peter almost quit that job.

Adjunct Adverbials:
With whom, to whom, for
whom? maybe for what?
Verify all of these:
May I speak with the organizer?
Surprisingly to everyone, the home team won.
He played skillfully for his team.
He worked hard for the prize.
`

Adjunct Adverbials as
Indirect objects
A word, phrase or clause functioning as an indirect object
can move into a prepositional phrase headed by the
preposition to or for that functions as an adjunct
adverbial, that literally answers the question “To or for
whom or what is the action of the verb performed?”
He prepared me a summary. He prepared a summary for
me.
He ran his mom an errand. He ran an errand for his mom.
He brought Bob a sandwich. He brought a sandwich for
Bob.

——-
https://parentingpatch.com/lies-your-grammar-teacher-told-you-indirect-objects/

Ditransitive Verbs (indirect object + direct object)

Summary:
An indirect object is a word, phrase, or clause that follows a ditransitive verb and precedes a
direct object and indicates to or for whom or what the action of the verb is performed.
Four grammatical forms can function as indirect objects in English, although nominal forms
most commonly perform the function.

• noun phrases, including nouns and pronouns

• noun clauses
• verb phrases
• prepositional phrases

Indirect objects can move into the subject position in passive constructions [When an
indirect object moves of an active ditransitive construction moves into the subject position
of the equivalent passive construction, the sentence retains the direct object, but the active
subject moves into a by-prepositional phrase that functions as an adjunct adverbial. For
example, the indirect object the cat in the active "I gave the cat a bath" moves into the
subject position and the subject I moves into a by-prepositional phrase, resulting in the
passive "The cat was given a bath by me" with a bath as the direct object. Just as with
other adjunct adverbials, the by-prepositional phrase in a passive construction can be
omitted without changing the grammaticality of the sentence. Both "The cat was given a
bath by me" and "The cat was given a bath" are grammatically possible, although the
second omits the agent of the verb.]

Indirect objects can also move into to-prepositional phrases that function as adjunct
adverbials. However, adjunct adverbials are not indirect objects despite providing the same
semantic information. The grammar of indirect objects also differs across languages, with
Spanish allowing only pronouns as indirect objects but English allowing multiple forms.

Indirect Objects vs Adjunct Adverbials

A word, phrase or clause functioning as an indirect object can move into a prepositional
phrase headed by the preposition to or for that functions as an adjunct adverbial. An
indirect object answers to or for whom or what the action of the verb is performed.
Thus, an indirect object can move into a prepositional phrase that literally answers the
question “To or for whom or what is the action of the verb performed?”

For example, the follow sentences demonstrate the movement of the indirect objects into
prepositional phrases:
• I gave a bath to the cat. ("to the cat" modifies the clause “I gave a bath”)
• The teacher assigned extra homework to Linus.

However, once an indirect object moves into a to– or for-prepositional phrase, the form
ceases to function as an indirect object and becomes a prepositional complement. The
entire prepositional phrase then functions as an adjunct adverbial.

Adjunct adverbials are words, phrases, and clauses that modify an entire clause by
providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, reason,
result, and concession. Unlike indirect objects, adjunct adverbials are not constituents of the
predicate. Adjunct adverbials are also not constituents of the subject but are instead
constituents of the entire sentence. An adjunct adverbial can be omitted without changing
the grammaticality of the rest of the sentence (although semantic meaning is lost by
omitting the to– or for-prepositional phrase). Most importantly, to– or for-prepositional
phrase formed by moving an indirect object are not indirect objects. Semantically, the two
forms provide the same information (to or for whom or what the
action of the verb is performed)

Passive Constructions
Additionally, indirect objects can move into subject positions in passive constructions. Direct
objects can also move into subject positions. Adjunct adverbials cannot. For example, the
follow sentences demonstrate the movement of the direct and indirect objects from the
above examples into subject positions:

• The cat was given a bath by me.

• A bath was given to the cat by me.
• Linus was assigned extra homework by the teacher.
• Extra homework was assigned to Linus by the teacher.

When an indirect object moves of an active ditransitive construction moves into the subject
position of the equivalent passive construction, the sentence retains the direct object, but
the active subject moves into a by-prepositional phrase that functions as an adjunct
adverbial. For example, the indirect object the cat in the active I gave the cat a bath moves
into the subject position and the subject I moves into a by-prepositional phrase, resulting in
the passive The cat was given a bath by me with a bath as the direct object. Just as with
other adjunct adverbials, the by-prepositional phrase in a passive construction can be
omitted without changing the grammaticality of the sentence. Both The cat was given a bath
by me and The cat was given a bath are grammatically possible, although the second omits
the agent of the verb.

Conversely, when a direct object of an active ditransitive construction moves into the subject
position of the equivalent passive construction, the original indirect object must move into a
to– or for-prepositional phrase because transitive verbs followed by only an indirect object
are grammatically impossible in English. For example, the direct object a bath in the active I
gave the cat a bath moves into the subject position, resulting in the passive A bath was
given to the cat by me but not *A bath was given the cat by me. The subject I moves into a
by-prepositional phrase, and the indirect object the cat must move into a to-prepositional
phrase because a sentence cannot have an indirect object but not a direct object in English.

• I gave the cat a bath.

• I gave a bath to the cat.
• The cat was given a bath by me.
• A bath was given to the cat by me.
• *A bath was given the cat by me.
• *To the cat was given a bath by me.
Additionally, the form of the adjunct adverbial is irrelevant. Noun phrases can function as
adjunct adverbials as in the active ditransitive I gave the cat a bath yesterday morning. The
noun phrase yesterday morning functions as an adjunct adverbial to provide additional
information about time. However, the nominal adjunct adverbial still cannot move into the
subject position in the passive equivalent:
*Yesterday morning was given the cat a bath by me is grammatically (and semantically)
impossible in English.

Ditransitive verbs take both indirect and direct objects in a sentence, and dative alternation,
sometimes referred to as dative shift or movement, is the variation of indirect object
placement within those sentences.

[The Passive voice is also carried out by Aux "Be". One of the properties of the Passive Voice
is that it allows the Object of an otherwise Active sentence to become the Subject of a
Passive sentence. This is particularly handy when one wants to emphasis or put focus onto
the object for discourse reasons. Consider the contrast between the active vs. passive voice
in the paradigm below noting that the Subject of an Active Sentence becomes the Object of
a Passive (and vice versa): The thieves stole the jewels. The jewels were stolen... (by the
thieves).

Perhaps the most complicated part of the Passive Rule is the Past Participle (Past Part.)
component plus “by.” In the passive construction, the "by" is not a prepositional "by"
since it cannot be substituted by any other preposition. The "by" component of the
passive rule should be thought of as actually that, part of the rule--it is a lexical item
projecting an Adverbial Phrase (AdvP) that is invariably fixed and doesn't in any way come to
represent a class of words, say 'preposition'. One other note here that needs to be
mentioned is that the "by" component can get and often gets deleted: the derived passive
Mary was kissed is fine enough a sentence without any mention of the culprit (= the one
doing the kissing). In fact, passives quite often go without any overt object of which to speak
(i.e., their intrinsic subject gets omitted).]

————
https://broncoscholar.library.cpp.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.3/149931/
KempBrittany_McNair2015.pdf

In the double object, or postverbal, construction, the indirect object is situated immediately
after the verb (1). In the prepositional construction, the indirect object is positioned after a
preposition (2). (In both examples, Jane is the indirect object.)
(1) Mary gave [Jane]IO [the cat]DO.
(2) Mary gave [the cat]DO to [Jane]IO.

One early theory of dative alternation was advanced by Jacobson (1966), who proposed that
the verbs that assume indirect objects could be separated into three semantic categories:
• directional verbs like say or explain, (to)
• benefactive verbs like make, (for)
• eliciting verbs like ask. (of)
Each category corresponds to a specific prepositional phrase – directional verbs take to,
benefactive verbs take for, and eliciting verbs take of.

———
http://www.dailygrammar.com/Lesson-191-Indirect-Objects.htm

An indirect object is really a prepositional phrase in which the preposition to or for is not
stated but understood. It tells to whom or for whom something is done. The indirect object
always comes between the verb and the direct object
.
Example:
She gave me a gift. (indirect object)
She gave to me a gift. (prepositional phrase)

The indirect object always modifies the verb. It may have modifiers and be compound. It is
used with verbs such as give, tell, send, get, buy, show, build, do, make, save, and read.

Example:
She gave the man and me a gift. (indirect objects)
She gave to the man and to me a gift. (prepositional phrases)

———-
https://www.grammar-quizzes.com/ditransitive.html#hide1

A ditransitive verb requires a direct object ("patient", person or thing affected by the action)
and an indirect object ("recipient", person to whom something is given) to complete its
meaning. The indirect object takes form as a noun phrase—a name Jane, a noun phrase the
young woman, or an accusative pronoun him, her, them, us, me. The indirect object is the
recipient—the person or thing that is the receiver, the endpoint of the action. The indirect
object takes the form of a proper noun (John, Angela), noun phrase (the man, Mr. Smith, the
family) or an accusative pronoun (me, you, him, her, them, us).

Alternatively, information about "the recipient" can be expressed in a prepositional phrase

with to. The phrase expresses the same meaning as the indirect object; however, because a
prepositional phrase functions differently from a noun phrase in a clause, it is called a verbal
complement rather than an indirect object. The recipient can also be expressed in a
prepositional phrase (to), which carries the same information as the indirect object.
However, it is called a verbal complement rather than an indirect object because it functions
differently in a clause from a direct object¹

—————
http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/passive.htm
Verbals in Passive Structures
Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase in
the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence ( just like the
active forms of the infinitive).

Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor.

Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother.
Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right.

The same is true of passive gerunds.

Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill.

Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss.
Object of preposition: I am so tired of being lectured to by my boss.

With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being a
simple modifying participial phrase.

[Having been] designed for off-road performance, the Pathseeker does not always behave
well on paved highways.

———
Although prepositional verbs resemble phrasal verbs in that both verb forms consisit of a
verb followed by a prepositin, the main difference between prepositional and phrasal verbs is
the grammatical function of the preposition. When part of a phrasal verb, the preposition —
which is more accurately known as a p-word (see below) rather than a preposition —
functions as a particle. Such prepositions functioning as particles may separate from the
verb and appear after the direct object.

o The storm blew my shed down.

o The couple called the wedding off.
o A little girl made the story up.
o We have finally paid the bank back.
o The toddler took his diaper off.

However, when part of a prepositional verb, the preposition functions as a verb

phrase complement. A verb phrase complement is a word or phrase that
completes the meaning of the verb. Unlike particles, verb phrase complements
must directly follow the verb. For example:

• The bride insisted on the blue flowers for her bouquet. (correct)
• *The bride insisted for her bouquet on the blue flowers. (incorrect)
• Many adults believed in monsters as children. (correct)
• *Many adults believed as children in monsters. (incorrect)

Prepositional verbs are a common verb form in the English language that are
formed by a verb followed by a preposition that functions as a verb phrase
complement. Prepositional verbs differ from phrasal verb in the function of the
preposition.

————
P-words are prepositions and adverbs that no longer perform prepositional or adverbial
functions. P-words are function words, which are defined as words that perform definite
grammatical functions but that lack definite lexical meaning. P-words perform two
grammatical functions within sentences in the English language. The two functions of p-
words are:

• Particles
• phrasal verbs
• quasi-modal verbs
• determiner phrases
• Infinitive markers

P-words as Particles
A particle is a function word that expresses a grammatical relationship with another word or
words. Particles appear within three constructions in English: phrasal verbs, quasi-modal
verbs, and determiner phrases. For example, the following italicized p-words function as
particles:

• Can you look some addresses up for me? (phrasal verb)

• Her boss really laid in on her lack of initiative. (phrasal verb)
• He ought to consider buying some new dress shoes. (quasi-modal verb)
• You had better pick up some milk and eggs on your way home. (quasi-modal verb)
• Two of the chickens escaped from the hen house again. (determiner phrase)
• I have already read many of the assigned readings. (determiner phrase)

P-words as Infinitive Markers

An infinitive markers is a function words that distinguishes the base form from the infinitive
form of an English verb. For example, the following italicized p-words function as infinitive
markers:

• To err is human.
• To not graduate now would be a shame.
• She likes to read.
• Grandma still needs to pickle the eggs.
• His uncle is afraid to fly.
• Too many people will never find someone to love.
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Comparative and superlative adverbs are almost exclusively used to modify verbs.

Comparative adverbs express a higher (or lower) degree of how a verb’s action is
performed, usually in comparison to another person or thing. They are generally formed by
adding the suffix “-er.”

Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, are used to identify the highest (or lowest) degree
of how an action is performed. They are generally formed by adding the suffix “-est.”
Adverbs in their basic forms are sometimes known as being in the positive degree.
The way in which an adverb shifts from the basic degree to the comparative and superlative
degrees is known as the Degrees of Comparison.

Adverbial Phrases

An adverbial phrase (also known as an adverb phrase) is a group of words that functions as
an adverb in a sentence. These can be adverbs modified by other adverbs, adverbial
prepositional phrases, or adverbial infinitive phrases.

Adverbs modified by mitigators and intensifiers

Adverbial phrases are commonly formed when an adverb’s intensity is being modified by
another adverb. These modifying adverbs are known as mitigators, which decrease the
intensity of the main adverb, and intensifiers, which increase its intensity.

“The kicker is running somewhat slowly back to the bench. He might be

injured.” (mitigator)
“She performed very well on her exam.” (intensifier)

Prepositional phrases
“We were playing Frisbee at the park.”
“After they woke up, they packed up their things and went on a hike.”

Infinitive phrases
Use infinitive phrases as adverbial phrases to describe purpose or reason for an action or
state of being.

“Patricia went to the mountains to go for a hike.”

“I’m so happy to be your friend.
Adverbial Clauses

An adverbial clause, or adverb clause, is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate verb and is used, like a regular adverb, to modify adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.
Adverbial clauses use subordinating conjunctions to connect them to independent clauses;
the way an adverbial clause modifies an element in a sentence depends on the kind of
subordinating conjunction used.

“I will arrive when dinner is ready.” (adverbial clause of time)

“Peter brings his sunglasses everywhere he goes.” (adverbial clause of place)
“I admire you because you are an inspiration to many people.” (adverbial clause
of purpose)
“They’ll approve your request provided you pay the appropriate amount of
money.” (adverbial clause of condition)
“She looked excited, as if she could jump up and dance at any
moment.” (adverbial clause of comparison or manner)
“Although she doesn’t have much money, Wendy often goes
traveling.” (adverbial clause of contrast)

Order of Adverbs

Sometimes called the royal order of adverbs.

1. Adverbs of Manner
2. Adverbs of Place
3. Adverbs of Frequency
4. Adverbs of Time
5. Adverbs of Purpose

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https://linguaholic.com/linguablog/comma-before-thereby/

“Thereby” is more technically known as a pronominal (relating to pronouns) adverb, whose

meaning simply translates to “by that (condition)”, “due to that”, or “with that being said”.
This means that pronominal adverbs denote a high level of formality which can actually be
replaced by more subtle word variations such as that, therefore, and thus, as long as the
sentence is appropriately restructured.

——————————
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)

Adjunct Adverbials

Causal – Causal adjuncts establish the reason for, or purpose of, an action or state.
The ladder collapsed because it was old. (reason)

Concessive – Concessive adjuncts establish contrary circumstances.

Lorna went out although it was raining.
Despite all their efforts, the dishwasher is still broken.

Conditional – Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in which an action occurs or

state holds.
I would go to Paris, if I had the money.
Leslie had left no letter for me to read in the event of his death.

Consecutive – Consecutive adjuncts establish an effect or result.

It rained so hard that the streets flooded.

Final – Final adjuncts establish the goal of an action (what one wants to accomplish).
He works a lot to earn money for school.

Instrumental – Instrumental adjuncts establish the instrument used to accomplish an

action.
Mr. Bibby wrote the letter with a pencil.

Locative (place) – Locative adjuncts establish where, to where, or from where a state or
action happened or existed.
She sat on the table. (locative)

Measure – Measure adjuncts establish the measure of the action, state, or quality that they
modify
I am completely finished.
That is mostly true.
We want to stay in part.

Modal – Modal adjuncts establish the extent to which the speaker views the action or state
as (im)probable.
They probably left.
In any case, we didn't do it.
That is perhaps possible.
I'm definitely going to the party.

Modificative – Modificative adjuncts establish how the action happened or the state existed.
He ran with difficulty. (manner)
He stood in silence. (state)
He helped me with my homework. (limiting)

Temporal (time) – Temporal adjuncts establish when, how long, or how frequent the action
or state happened or existed.
He arrived yesterday. (time point)
He stayed for two weeks. (duration)
She drinks in that bar every day. (frequency)

———
Adjunct adverbials

are words, phrases, and clauses that modify an entire clause by providing additional
information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, reason, result, and
concession.

Adjunct adverbial is a grammatical function.

The grammatical forms that can function as the adjunct adverbial in English grammar are the
adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, adverb clause, noun phrase, and verb phrase.

Adjunct adverbials are not constituents of either the subject or the predicate.
———-

—————-
Noun
Who? Who is going to visit? My cousin is going to visit.
Why? Why are you happy? I’m happy because it’s my birthday.
What? What is the spokesperson going to say? The spokesperson
will describe the company’s plans.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a part of speech that is typically used as a substitute for a noun or noun
phrase. There are eight subclasses of pronouns, although some forms belong to more than
one group:

(1) personal pronouns (I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they)

• Make sure sentences use them consistently

(2) possessive pronouns (my/mine, his/her/its/hers, their/theirs, our/ours, etc.)

• Do not change the gender of noun as in French

(3) reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, him/herself, ourselves, themselves, etc.)

• No reflexive verbs in English
(4) demonstrative pronouns (this/these, that/those)
• Nearness in location
• That (pronoun) vs. That (conjunction)

(5) reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another)

(6) interrogative pronouns (who, what, when, where, why etc.)

• Five w’s of a journalist’s first paragraph

(7) relative pronouns (who, that, what, which etc.)

• Related different clauses in a sentence to each other
• That vs. Which: restrictive vs. non-restrictive clause
• Who vs. Whom: take subject vs. take object (Please see explanation later.)

(8) indefinite pronouns (any, none, somebody, nobody, anyone, etc.)

• none = singular (when it means “not one”); all = plural (if countable);
• much = can’t be counted; many = can be counted
• less = can’t be counted; fewer = can be counted

Prepositions

1) simple prepositions: these are the most common prepositions, such as: in, on, of, at,
from, among, between, over, with, through, without.

2) compound prepositions: two prepositions used together as one, such as: into, onto/on to
(on to is British English, onto is American English), out of.

3) complex prepositions: a two- or three-word phrase that functions in the same way as a
simple preposition, as in: according to, as well as, except for, in favor of.

Idioms with Prepositions

a sequence of
in accordance with
be accused of
acquiesce in
access to
a sequence of
in accordance with
be accused of
acquiesce in
access to
Subject complements:

Your example I made it blue does not have a [subject]* predicate adjective. The word blue is
an object complement [a predicate adjective of the object]. The sentence follows this
pattern:

Subject + verb + object + complement

Here are more examples of this pattern.

• I painted the house brown.

• I found the child silly.
• He considers the idea ridiculous.