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Theory of Sedimentation: Received 22nd May, 1951 in Form, 6th September
Theory of Sedimentation: Received 22nd May, 1951 in Form, 6th September
A THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION
BY G. J. KYNCH
Department of Mathematical Physics, The University, Birmingham
Received 22nd May, 1951 ; in fimZ form, 6th September, 1951
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
The theory assumes that the speed of fall of particles in a dispersion is determined by
the local particle density only. The relationship between the two can be deduced from
observations on the fall of the top of the dispersion. It is shown that discontinuous
changes in the particle density can occur under stated conditions.
at
d
- (pdx)dt = +
S(X dx)dt - S(x)dt.
2
at
+ V@)-JP 3X
= 0, (4)
Combining eqn. (4) and (6) the slope of such a curve is given by
dx/dt = V(p). (7)
As p, and therefore V, is a constant along the curve, it must be a straight line.
Therefore, on an x against t diagram, the concentration is constant along straight
lines whose slope V depends only on the value of the concentration. One such
line passes through every point in the diagram below the top of the dispersion,
and in a region where the density is continuous the correct pattern of lines is such
that no two lines intersect. This simple result forms the basis of our analysis
of the settling process using this diagram. It can be expressed in another form,
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
which is discussed more fully in $ 4 . This states that a particular value of the con-
centration is propagated upwards through the dispersion with a velocity V given
by eqn. (5).
3. THESEDIMENTATION OF A DISPERSION.-In this section we describe the sedi-
mentation process in detail for a dispersion where the initial concentration in-
creases towards the bottom and V decreases with increasing p in the concentration
range covered during the settling. The reasons for these limitations appear later.
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n(xo>= 1H
xo
pdxo. (1 0 4
We thus derive the equation
n(xo) = p . (V v)t, + ( 1 la)
where n can be expressed as a function of p. To determine the co-ordinates of
P(x, t) in the surface we now have two equations (8a) and (lla).*
* The fall of any other layer of particles not at the top can be found in the same way,
using instead of n the amount of material above the levelxo and below the given layer.
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G . J. KYNCH 169
We have now to consider the lines of constant concentration starting from the
t-axis, which cover the region in the diagram below the line OB. It is worth
noting at this point that these lines are determined in position only by the end
conditions at x = 0 at the bottom of the container, and not by the initial con-
ditions in the suspension. The initial conditions determine what happens above
OB. Similarly the fall of the surface is determined by the initial conditions only
down to the point B.
A physically reasonable assumption about conditions along the t-axis is that
near 0 there is a continuous but extremely rapid increase of concentration from pb
to the maximum possible concen-
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
that the three equations (84, (9) and (lla) are valid and, eliminating and V
between them, we find
dx
P
Now p and n can be expressed as functions of xo using the initial distribution of
particles, a n d the left-hand side can be determined from the curve. Thus the
value of xo corresponding to P is determined, and from this the value of p, and hence
s = pv.
When the concentration values so obtained approach pb the point B has been
reached. For the rest of the curve of fall BC the equations (6) should be used,
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
TABLE1
(hours) (x cm)
0 25.0
1 22.0
2 205
3 19.2
4 18.0
5 17.0
6 16.0
8 14-6
10 13-4
15 11.6
20 10.5
\ P 25 9.9
I
30 9.7
4.2 j0.4 q'6 35 9-6
Fro. 2.-S against p curve deduced 40 9.5
from data given in table 1. 50 9.5
The left-hand side of these equations has a simple graphical interpretation,
(see fig. l(a)). If the tangent at P cuts the x-axis at T then a simple calculation
dx
OT = x -
shows that
*a
Eqn. (8) remains as a check on the working. When the S against p curve
has been constructed the values of V derived from it using eqn. ( 5 ) should agree
with those obtained by using (8).*
Probably the simplest initial state of a dispersion is one where the initial con-
centration is uniform, say p = pl. This leads to a simpler analysis and to a type
of density line diagram shown in fig. l(b). In the sector AOB on the diagram
the concentration is everywhere p1 and the curve of fall AB starts as a straight
line. At B the changes propagated from the bottom have just reached the surface
and the concentration begins to increase. In the sector BOC the eqn. (8b), (9)
and (1 lb) apply and in the sector COD, p = p,,, exactly as before.
In fig. 2 we show the results f of applying our method to some experimental
results obtained with a dispersion believed to have a uniform concentration
* It would be very convenient to solve this problem without using tangents to the curve
of fall or another curve derived from it, but so far no way of doing this has been found.
-f For these results I am grateful to Dr. Nutt of the Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing in this University. They refer to a disperson of graphite in toluene.
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G . J. K Y N C H 171
initially. The experimental results are given in table 1. This should not be taken
to mean that our assumptions are necessarily valid for this suspension, as further
experiments are necessary to verify this. In this example, the initial constant
rate of fall only exists for a very short time, which would mean that the speed of
propagation of density changes, V = dS/dp, is initially large.
4. DISCONTINUTI~ES OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDERS.-Adiscontinuity of the first
kind in the particle concentration is a sudden finite change of concentration at
a certain level. The differential equation of continuity (eqn. (2)) no longer applies.
It is replaced by an equation stating that the flow of particles into one side of the
layer equals the flow out on the other side. If the suffix 1 denotes the layer above
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
the discontinuity and the suffix 2 the layer below, and U is the upwards velocity
of the discontinuity, this equation is
Plh +w = p2@2 +
u). (16)
This makes it clear that in general the discontinuity is not at rest but moves through
the dispersion with a velocity
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u=- Sl - s2 (17)
p2 - P I ,
where S = pv. On an S against p diagram the speed U is the slope of the line
joining the points (pl, S l ) and (p2, 5'2).
A discontinuity of the second kind is a very small change in the particle con-
centration. If p2 - p1 = dp is small, the expression for U reduces to
U = - dS/dp= V@). (18)
The velocity Vintroduced in 9 2 now appears as the velocity of a discontinuity
+
between concentrations p and p dp. A small change dp, if maintained, is pro-
pagated through a dispersion of concentration p with velocity Y just as sound is
propagated through air with a definite velocity. A line of constant concentration
in the x against t diagram therefore describes the motion of a boundary between
+
dispersions of density p and p dp so that its slope is necessarily equal to this
velocity V. The whole adjustment of concentration which occurs when a dis-
persion settles (fig. l(a), (b)) can be described as a series of small discontinuities
propagated through the fluid.
The final settling of a dispersion into a layer of maximum concentration pm
is an interesting application of these results. The velocity U is now that rate
of increase of the thickness of the deposit. If there is a sudden change of con-
centration U is given by eqn, (17) with p2 = pmand S2 = 0 on the lower side : if
there is no sudden change then U = V,.
5 . STABILITY OF DIsco"rmurrm.-The possibility of discontinuities having
been demonstrated, it remains to explain why a dispersion of any concentration
does not always settle discontinuously into a layer of maximum concentration.
A discussion of the formation and stability of these sudden changes shows that
this is indeed possible, but is not necessary.
For dispersions where the concentration increases downwards towards the
bottom the condition for the formation of a first-order discontinuity can be
expressed in the following equivalent ways :
(a) the lines of constant concentration in the x against t diagram, if continued
away from the x-axis, would intersect ;
(6) the propagation velocity Y increases with concentration ;
(c) the S against p curve is concave to the p-axis.
If these conditions are not satisfied a first-order discontinuity is not formed.*
This assertion can be proved in terms of second-order discontinuities. If
V increases with p small concentration changes from the denser regions below
* The first of these three is the most general.
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172 THEORY OF S E D I M E N T A T I O N
move faster upwards than those in the less dense regions above, and overtake
them. This means that the concentration gradient increases until a first-order
discontinuity is formed. If V decreases with p the reverse takes place, the con-
centration gradient decreases and any discontinuity is dispersed.
The construction of concentration-line diagrams for a few selected problems
is sufficient to show that these arguments can be made quantitative. Thus fig. 3a
shows that when V increases with p, intersection of the lines can be prevented only
by stopping them at a discontinuity. Moreover the diagram shows how this is
gradually built up along the envelope of the concentration lines. This envelope,
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
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the increase of Vnear p1 requires the formation of a discontinuity AB, whereas the
subsequent decrease near p2 requires a spray of lines BAC. A more careful exam-
ination shows that one discontinuity from p1 to a concentration p3 can be formed,
followed by a continuous increase of concentration to pz. Just below AB the
concentration is everywhere p3 so that this line is also the concentration line
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(a) cc>
The situation is that discussed at the end of 5 4. The bottom of the dispersion
settles discontinuously into a layer rising from the bottom with a speed given by
the slope of the chord PlP2. Immediately below this layer the concentration is
p 2 and it increases continuously to p m on the bottom. As v = 0 at p = pnt this
final settling is relatively slow. However, if p1 > p c there is no discontinuity in
concentration and a continuous settling takes place.
In fig. 4(c) there is still one point of inflexion but the curves come to the
point N at an angle so that V'm, the final layer rate, is not zero, as in (b). The
tangent at N meets the curve at T where the density is PT. There are now three
possible modes :
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
It may well be asked why, in (c) there is not a discontinuous change directly
from p1 to pm rather than the change to p2 followed by a continuous increase to
pm. The answer can be seen from the S against p curve. The line PIN cuts this
curve at p 3 . The sudden change pp -+pm could therefore be regarded as two
changes p1 +p3 and p 3 -+pnL, moving upwards together through the dispersion
with the same speed. The second would immediately begin to decay and in the
subsequent adjustment the other discont~uitywould alter from p1 -+ p 3 to p1 -+ p2.
It might be expected that dispersions would normally behave as shown in
(a) or (c). If they behave as in (b) the velocities of fall near maximum concentration
are very small indeed, corresponding to some anomalous properties of the fluid
at such large concentrations. Experimentally, of course, it may be hardly possible
to distinguish between (a)and (b) if dilute dispersions are used. Even when settling
is complete the concentrated layer is very thin and it is doubtful whether any
detailed structure could be observed except in the most favourable circumstances.
A difference between (a) and (b) would only be noticed if the initial concentration
were an appreciable fraction of pa. If (d) were in operation conditions might be
better, as two discontinuities would occur. The x against t diagram shows that
these will be well separated and therefore more easily visible.
7. C o N c L u s r o N . - I n this presentation of our theory we have made assumptions
of two types. The first type is made in order to ensure a simple mathematical
presentation. The second type can be removed only by a development in the
underlying physical theory.
Assumptions of the first type are.:
(a) the particle concentration is uniform across any horizontal layer ;
(b) the initial concentration increases towards the bottom of the dispersion ;
(c) the velocity v tends to zero as p + p,, i.e. end effects.
Assumption (a) is not to be confused with wall effects, which we discuss below.
If our main hypothesis were granted, a continuity equation can be set up even
when (a) is not true. The mathematics is very much more complicated, however,
and solutions with appropriate boundary conditions very difficult to obtain.
If (6) is not true and the initial concentration fluctuates a complete analysis
is still possible using our equations. It is very complicated because (as shown in
earlier sections) discontinuities are set up and dispersed during the sedimentation
process. Since small fluctuations do occur we may well ask whether small
fluctuations alter in any essential way a theoretical result based on the assumption
of uniform density. In fact they do not and the reason is that small discontinu-
ities can always be ignored without appreciable error. This can easily be proved,
but we shall not attempt a proof here.
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G. J. KYNCH 175
This result has another application. We have seen that discontinuities are
produced for certain types of S against p curve. A large discontinuity can be
observed experimentally but a small one may be missed. If only the top layer
of the dispersion is under observation the discontinuity is observed as a sudden
change in the rate of fall of this layer, and an observed small change of this type
may be also due to small errors in observation. The result mentioned, however,
shows that an S against p curve, deduced ignoring a small discontinuity which
actually exists (or conversely, assuming that one exists when in fact it does not)
does not lead to a curve markedly in error.
The last assumption (c) of the three given above cannot always be true in so
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166
far as a thick layer of density po above a layer of pure liquid must gradually fall
through it or disperse. This is not an important difficulty as we can assume that
z! tends to a small but finite value vo as p -+po and then decreases suddenly to zero
because of the bottom of the container containing the dispersion. If vo were
sufficientlysmall the resulting discontinuity in S can generally be ignored. Alter-
natively we can assert that the maximum concentration attainable during settling
on the bottom of the container is slightly greater than that possible in other
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dispersions which are initially of uniform density. The density line diagram
(fig. l(b)) then has a particularly simple form. Apart from the fall of the top
surface of the dispersion our theory predicts the variation of density with time at
a given level and the relation between the types of fall in different containers
through the eqn. (15) which states that the concentration is a function only of
the ratio x/t.
I should like to express my gratitude to Dr. Nutt for many interesting dis-
cussions on this work, and to Prof. Peierls for his advice in its presentation.
Published on 01 January 1952 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/TF9524800166