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Ideal Otto Cycle simulation

Technical Report · November 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18047.23209

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Thermodynamics &
Heat Transfer
ENGG09040
2020/21

OTTO CYCLE

RIZZO LUIGI
B00351002
6/11/2020

0
Contents

Introduction ........................................................................................ 2

Theory ................................................................................................ 2

Experimental Apparatus ..................................................................... 6

Experimental Method ....................................................................... 10

Result ................................................................................................ 11

Discussion ......................................................................................... 15

Conclusion ........................................................................................ 16

References ........................................................................................ 16

List of figures .................................................................................... 17

List of symbols .................................................................................. 17

Appendices ....................................................................................... 18

1
Introduction
The objective of this online laboratory simulation was the study of the working process of a piston subjected
to an ideal Otto-cycle. For this purpose, the interactive Pressure-Volume graph of the system was analysed.
In addition, its pressure and temperature were calculated for each phase of the process. Furthermore, the
Heat Input, the Heat Output, the Net Work Output and the maximum pressure attained in the cycle were
estimated.

Theory
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. The name come from Nikolaus A.
Otto who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman
Beau de Rochas in 1862. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate
strokes( Figure 1). A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder in one of the two reciprocal
directions. The four separate strokes are termed and described as follows:

1. Intake stroke: In this stroke, the intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an
air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing below-atmospheric pressure inside the chamber
through its downward motion.

2. Compression stroke: In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for
ignition during the next stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage.

3. Power (Expansion stroke): While the piston is at the end of the compression stroke, the compressed
air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug. The hot combustion gases expand and forcefully return the
piston to the bottom position.

4. Exhaust stroke: During the exhaust stroke, the piston expels the spent air-fuel mixture while the
exhaust valve is open through its upward motion. ((DXG), 2016)

Figure 1. Spark Ignition Piston Engine in actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine. (Çengel, et al., 2016)
2
The process explained above can be represented in the following diagram:

Figure 2. Actual four strokes spark-ignition engine PV diagram. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

The analysis of actual gas power cycles can reveal very complex, therefore air-standard assumptions are
considered to simplify the system:

1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as
an ideal gas.

2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.

4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid
to its initial state. (Thermal fluids)

In addition, in a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heat of the air is considered constant and determined
at room temperature (25°𝐶). (Çengel, et al., 2016)

3
The Otto cycle can be now idealised as four internally reversible processes in series ( Figure 3 and Figure 4):

Figure 3. Ideal Otto cycle diagram. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

1. Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression of the air, corresponding to the compression stroke. As the
piston moves from the bottom to the top of the chamber (Figure 4), the internal energy, the
temperature and the pression of the system increases, conserving the entropy.

2. Process 2–3 is a isochoric compression where heat is transferred into the air from an external source,
resulting in a considerable increasing of the pressure. This process is intended to represent the
ignition of the fuel–air mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.

3. Process 3–4 is an isentropic expansion corresponding to the power stroke, the air expands
adiabatically, resulting in work into the system.

4. Process 4–1 completes the cycle through an isochoric decompression in which heat is rejected from
the air while the piston is at the bottom (Figure 4), resulting in a decreasing of pressure. This process
represents the exhaustion stroke where the valve opens to release the spent fuel-gas mixture.

4
Figure 4. Working process of a piston in an ideal Otto cycle. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

5
Experimental Apparatus
The Otto-cycle laboratory was an online simulation; therefore the experiment was carried using the Wolfram
Player software. The simulation initiated was “Otto Cycle” from Wolfram Demonstration Project created by
Housam Binous, Brian G. Higgins, Naim Faqir, and Ahmed Bellagi and published the 26th of July 2011.

It is composed by four sections:

• An interactive plot of the system pressure 𝑃 versus the air volume 𝑉.

• An interactive plot of the system temperature 𝑇 in relation of the system entropy 𝑆.
• An interactive chart with the plot of the values of the thermal efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat
rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 and Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 .
• An engine diagram showing the four phases of an ideal Otto cycle.

Figure 5. Pressure-Volume simulation diagram for ideal Otto Cycle. (Binous , et al., 2011)

6
 Figure 6. Temperature-Entropy simulation diagram for ideal Otto Cycle. (Binous , et al., 2011)

The first two graph (Figure 5 and Figure 6) show the four transformations that occur in the cycle in the PV
and TS diagrams, which represent the system pressure 𝑃 plotted versus the air volume 𝑉 and the system
temperature 𝑇 plotted versus the system entropy S, respectively. In both graphs the adiabatic
transformations are shown in blue and the isochoric transformations in red. The highlighted area represents,
in the first graph, the Net work of the cycle, in the second graph, the net heat transfer of the cycle. Both
represent the same quantity and their value changes in relation of the compression ratio 𝑟, the temperature
of the heat sink 𝑇𝐶 and the temperature of the heat source 𝑇𝐻 (shown as reversed by mistake in the
simulation), which is possible to change using the sliders above the graphs.

7
 Figure 7. Otto Cycle properties chart. (Binous , et al., 2011)

The third chart shows the value of the thermal efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 and Work
output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 of the cycle at the parameters chosen above. The thermal efficiency is coloured in purple, the
heat input in red, the heat rejected in blue and the work output in black. The units for the heat and the work
should be considered 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and not 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔.

8
 Figure 8. Otto cycle piston engine diagram. (Binous , et al., 2011)

The fourth diagram shows the four phases of the moving process of a piston in an ideal Otto cycle as explained
in the theory section.

9
Experimental Method
With the purpose of making everyone carry a different experiment, the first step was to determine the exact
conditions of the simulation by taking the parameters associated with the last two digits of the students’
banner ID as indicated in the following tables:

The Heat Sink Temperature 𝑇𝐶 was determined by the penultimate digit of the banner ID:

Penultimate digit of Banner ID Heat Sink Temperature 𝑇𝐶 (K)

0 293
1 296
2 299
3 302
4 305
5 308
6 311
7 314
8 317
9 320
Table 1. Heat Sink Temperature 𝑇𝐶 determination table.

The Heat Source Temperature 𝑇𝐻 was determined by the last digit of the banner ID:

Last digit of Banner ID Heat source temperature 𝑇𝐻 (K)

0 1500
1 1525
2 1550
3 1575
4 1600
5 1625
6 1650
7 1675
8 1685
9 1700
Table 2. Heat Source Temperature 𝑇𝐻 determination table.

After having selected with the slider the respective conditions of the simulation, it was asked to vary the
compression ratio from 4 to 9 in steps of 0.5, noting and tabulating the simulation values for the thermal
efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 , and Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 . When all the values have been
annotated in a table the next step was to plot the values of the thermal efficiencies 𝜂 in relation to the
compression ratio 𝑟. Finally, it was asked to choose a value for the compression ratio r and to show the hand
calculations to find:

1. Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 and output 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 ,

2. Thermal efficiency 𝜂
3. Net Work output per kg of air 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 ,
4. The maximum pressure attained in the cycle 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥

10
Results
The condition set for the banner ID B00351002 correspond at the following values:

Heat Sink Temperature 𝑇𝐶 (K) 293

Heat Source Temperature 𝑇𝐻 (K) 1550
Table 3. Temperature condition set.

For the current condition set, the simulation values for thermal efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat rejected
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 and Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 at the compression ratio 𝑟 from 4 to 9 at intervals of 0.5 have been recorded in
a table shown in the appendices section (Table 7).

From this table, the data for the Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 have been plotted against the Compression ratio 𝑟 in
the following graph:

Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 vs Compression Ratio r

0,60
CYCLE THERMAL EFFICIENCY 𝜂

0,55

0,50
y = 1,95E-01ln(x) + 1,60E-01
R² = 9,98E-01
0,45

0,40
4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0
COMPRESSION RATIO R

Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 vs Compression Ratio r

Log. (Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 vs Compression Ratio r)

Figure 9. Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 vs Compression Ratio 𝑟 plot.

From the range of compression ratio that goes from 4 to 9, the value 𝑟 = 6 has been chosen and the
experimental values for thermal efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 , Net Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 and
maximum pressure 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 reached in the cycle have been deducted by hand calculation through the analysis
of the four processes represented in the Pressure-Volume diagram (Figure 10). An initial pressure of 100 kPa
and an air-standard conditions have been assumed. Therefore the heat capacity ratio also known as Laplace’s
𝐶
coefficient 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑃 = 1.4 and the heat capacity at constant volume 𝐶𝑉 = 0.718. The resume of the
𝑉
assumptions for the calculation is shown in the following table:

Heat Sink Temperature 𝑻𝑪 (𝑲) 293

Heat Source Temperature 𝑻𝑯 (𝑲) 1550
Specific Heat Ratio 𝜸 1.4
Compression ratio 𝒓 chosen 6
Specific heat 𝑪𝑽 0.718
Table 4. Condition set chosen to carry the calculations.

11
 3

2
4
1

Figure 10. Otto-Cycle Pressure-Volume diagram’s analysis. (Binous , et al., 2011)

The first phase of the PV diagram is an isentropic compression occurring between point 1 and 2. From the
assumptions (Table 4), the Pressure 𝑃 at point 1 is 100 kPa and the Temperature 𝑇 at that point corresponds
to the Heat Sink Temperature 𝑇𝐶 which is equal to 293 K. Therefore the Temperature at point 2 has been
calculated through the isentropic compression equation:

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑇1 𝑉2
From the theory, the Otto cycle is composed by two isentropic processes and by two isochoric processes,
𝑉 𝑉
since 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 and 𝑉4 = 𝑉1, 𝑟 = 1 = 4. Therefore:
𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑇2
= (𝑟)𝛾−1
𝑇1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑟)𝛾−1

𝑇2 = 293 ∗ (6)1.4−1 = 599.968 𝐾

To estimate the Pressure P at the same point, the isentropic equation in function of the Pressure 𝑃 and the
Volume 𝑉 has been used:

𝑃2 𝑉1 𝛾
=( )
𝑃1 𝑉2
𝑃2
= (𝑟)𝛾
𝑃1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 (𝑟)𝛾

𝑃2 = 100 ∗ (6)1.4 = 1228.603 𝑘𝑃𝑎

The analysis of the second phase of the diagram, shows that an isochoric process is occurring between point
2-3, furthermore, the Temperature 𝑇 at point 3 corresponds to the Heat Source Temperature 𝑇𝐻 . Therefore
the Pressure 𝑃 at the point 3 is equal to:

12
 𝑃3 ∗ 𝑉3 𝑃2 ∗ 𝑉2
=
𝑇3 𝑇2
From the Otto cycle volumes correlations, 𝑉3 = 𝑉2, hence:
𝑃3 𝑃2
=
𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑃2
𝑃3 = 𝑇3 ∗
𝑇2
1228.603
𝑃3 = 1550 ∗ = 3174.061 𝑘𝑃𝑎
599.968
The third phase of the diagram is an isentropic expansion occurring between point 3-4, by applying the
isentropic expansion equation, the pressure 𝑃 at point 4 can be calculated as follow:

𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑇4 𝑉3
𝑉
Where 𝑉4 = 𝑟 , therefore:
3

𝑇3
= (𝑟)𝛾−1
𝑇4
1 (𝑟)𝛾−1
=
𝑇4 𝑇3
1550
𝑇4 = = 756.957 𝐾
(6)1.4−1
The fourth and last phase of the cycle is an isochoric process occurring between point 4-1; last missing data
is the pressure 𝑃 exerted by the system in point 4 and it is equal to:
𝑃4 ∗ 𝑉4 𝑃1 ∗ 𝑉1
=
𝑇4 𝑇1
Where 𝑉4 = 𝑉1, thus:
𝑃4 𝑃1
=
𝑇4 𝑇1
𝑃1
𝑃4 = 𝑇4 ∗
𝑇1
100
𝑃4 = 756.957 ∗ = 258.347 𝑘𝑃𝑎
293
The pressure 𝑃 and the temperature 𝑇 at each point of the cycle are summarised in the following table:

Pressure P (kPa) Temperature T (K)

Point 1-2 100 293
Point 2-3 1228.603507 599.9680457
Point 3-4 3174.061433 1550
Point 4-1 258.3470921 756.95698
Table 5. Pressure 𝑃 and the temperature 𝑇 at each point of the cycle.

13
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic and potential energies,
the energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, as:

(𝑞𝐼𝑛 − 𝑞𝑂𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝐼𝑛 − 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 ) = ∆𝑈

No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take place at constant volume.
Therefore, the Heat Input 𝑞𝐼𝑛 which correspond to the heat absorbed by the air between point 2-3 can be
expressed as:

𝑞𝐼𝑛 = 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑞𝐼𝑛 = 0.718 ∗ (3174.061 − 1228.603) = 682.12 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
At the same way, the Heat rejected 𝑞𝑂𝑢𝑡 can be calculated as following:

𝑞𝑂𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1 = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝑞𝑂𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1 = 0.718 ∗ (756.957 − 293) = 333.121 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Then the thermal efficiency η of the ideal Otto cycle at air standard conditions becomes:
𝑇
𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4− 𝑇1 ) 𝑇1 ( 4 − 1)
𝑇1
𝜂= =1− =1− =1−
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝐼𝑛 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3− 𝑇2 ) 𝑇
𝑇2 (𝑇3 − 1)
2
𝑉 𝑉
From the previous assumptions, 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 and 𝑉4 = 𝑉1, 𝑟 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉4. Therefore:
2 3

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1
=( ) = =( )
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑇4 𝑉3
𝑇4 𝑇3
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇1
𝜂 =1−
𝑇2
1
𝜂 =1−
(𝑟)𝛾−1
1
𝜂 =1− = 0.512
(6)1.4−1
The Net Work Output 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 is equal to the difference of the Work input 𝑊𝐼𝑛 occurring between point 1-2 and
the Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 occurring between point 3-4. Hence:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑊𝐼𝑛 − 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 ) = (𝑢1 − 𝑢2 ) − (𝑢4 − 𝑢3 ) = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝐶𝑣 ∗ (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ [(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) − (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )]
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.718 ∗ [(293 − 599.968) − (756.95 − 1550)] = 349 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The maximum pressure attained in the cycle corresponds to the pressure calculated at point 3 which has
been found to be:

𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃3 = 3174.061 𝑘𝑃𝑎

(All the formulas have been obtained from the book Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics 7th ed. by
Moran, et al. at pages 497-499.)
14
The experimental values of the cycle’s properties obtained by hand calculations have been resumed in the
following table:

Simulation values Experimental values

Heat Input 𝒒𝒊𝒏 (𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈) 682.12 682.12
Heat Output 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈) 333.12 333.12
Thermal Efficiency 𝜼 (𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈) 0.512 0.512
Net Work Output 𝑾𝑵𝒆𝒕 (𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈) 349.00 349.00
Maximum Pressure in the cycle 𝑷𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝒌𝑷𝒂) / 3174.06
Table 6. Experimental values of Otto cycle’s properties at 𝑟 = 6.

The percentage of error from table 6 regarding the cycle’s properties obtained experimentally and by the
simulation is the following:
682.12−682.12
Heat Input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 : 682.12
∗ 100 = 0%
682.12−682.12
Heat Output 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 : 682.12
∗ 100 = 0%
682.12−682.12
Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 : ∗ 100 = 0%
682.12
682.12−682.12
Net Work Output 𝑊𝑁𝑒𝑡 : ∗ 100 = 0%
682.12

Average percentage of error:

0+0+0+0
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 0%
4
Considering an average error of 0% in the calculations of the experimental values, the Maximum Pressure
attained in the cycle 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 can be assumed to have the same percentage error of the others, despite not
having a stated simulation value.

15
Discussion
The comparison of thermal efficiency 𝜂, Heat input 𝑞𝑖𝑛 , Heat rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 and Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 obtained
experimentally (table 6) shows a 0% of error with the simulation values annotated in Table 7 in the
appendices section. Therefore, it is possible to state that the hand calculations have been developed in a
precise and accurate way, using the appropriated equations to achieve the exact results of the simulation.

Comparing the graph (Figure 9) elaborated from the table of annotated values (Table 7) with the literature
graph from the appendices section (Figure 11), the same direct proportionality correlation between the
thermal efficiency 𝜂 and the compression ratio 𝑟 has been observed in both plots. This is represented by a
logarithmic trendline and defined by the following equation, 𝜂 = 1 − 1/(𝑟)𝛾−1 . Therefore, the increasing of
the compression ratio 𝑟 provides an higher thermal efficiency 𝜂, while, the heat transferred inside the system
𝑞𝑖𝑛 and rejected 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 outside it, decreases. Contrariwise, the Net Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 performed in the system
increases until it reaches its maximum value at 𝑟 = 8. When the compression ratio 𝑟 become bigger than
that number, the Net Work output 𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 starts to decrease. Ideally, the correlation that binds the thermal
efficiency 𝜂 and the compression ratio 𝑟 would suggest an advantage for internal combustion engines to have
high values of compression ratios. However, during the actual combustion process, when high compression
ratios are applied, the temperature of the unburned air-fuel mixture rises above the autoignition point of the
fuel before the mixture is consumed by the flame point. This results in high pressure waves in the cylinder
manifested by knocking sounds that can lead to power losses and engine damages. For this reason, an upper
limit on the compression ratio 𝑟 of spark-ignition engines has been placed.

The thermal efficiency 𝜂 of an Otto cycle depends also from the type of gas used. For a given value of
compression ratio 𝑟, the thermal efficiency 𝜂 increases with the increasing of the heat specific ratio 𝑘.
Therefore, the use of monoatomic gases as Helium or Argon 𝑘 = 1.667 (Figure 12) provides an higher
thermal efficiency 𝜂 respect using air 𝑘 = 1.4 or carbon dioxide 𝑘 = 1.3, which is the most common gas
present in actual engines. This is one of the reasons why actual cycles have less thermal efficiency respect to
the ideal Otto cycle. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

After analysing all the results obtained, it is possible to state that no sources of error have been found to
influence the experiment.

Conclusion
The thermodynamics Lab session 3 about the Otto cycle, carried through an online simulation with Wolfram
Demonstration Project, has resulted to be a reliable simulation of the experiment due to the exact
correspondence between the experimental and the simulated values. Therefore, after the discussion of the
results, the original aims of the experiment have been fully met, making possible to conduct a clear analysis
on the working process of a piston subjected to an ideal Otto cycle and on the relation that occur between
the thermal efficiency and the compression ratio, explaining the reasons of the limits of thermal efficiency in
spark-ignition engines subjected to actual cycles.

16
References
(DXG), P. D. G., 2016. Engineering Thermodynamics. 1st ed. Washington: University of Washington, pp. 88

Binous , H., HIggins, B. G., Faqir, N. & Bellagi, A., 2011. Otto Cycle. [Online]
Available at: https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/OttoCycle/
[Accessed 12 November 2020].

Çengel, Y. A., Cimbala, J. M. & Turner, R. H., 2016. Fundamentals of thermal-fluid sciences. 5th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Education, pp. 350-352

Moran, M. J., Shapiro, H. N., Boettner, D. D. & Bailey, M. B., 2010. Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics. 7th ed. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 497-499

List of figures
Figure 1. Spark Ignition Piston Engine in actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

Figure 2. Actual four strokes spark-ignition engine PV diagram. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

Figure 3. Ideal Otto cycle diagram. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

Figure 4. Working process of a piston in an ideal Otto cycle. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

Figure 5. Pressure-Volume simulation diagram for ideal Otto Cycle. (Binous , et al., 2011)

Figure 6. Temperature-Entropy simulation diagram for ideal Otto Cycle. (Binous , et al., 2011)

Figure 7. Otto Cycle properties chart. (Binous , et al., 2011)

Figure 8. Otto cycle piston engine diagram. (Binous , et al., 2011)

Figure 9. Thermal Efficiency 𝜂 vs Compression Ratio 𝑟 plot.

Figure 10. Otto-Cycle Pressure-Volume diagram’s analysis. (Binous , et al., 2011)

Figure 11. Thermal efficiency of the cold air-standard Otto cycle with 𝑘 = 1.4 . (Çengel, et al., 2016)

Figure 12. Thermal efficiency vs compression ratio at different k. (Çengel, et al., 2016)
17
List of Symbols
𝑃 pressure of the system (𝑘𝑃𝑎)

𝑉 volume of the chamber (𝑐𝑚2 )

𝑇 temperature of the system (𝐾)

𝑆 entropy of the system(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝐾)

𝜂 thermal efficiency of the cycle

𝑞𝑖𝑛 Heat input (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 Heat rejected (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

𝑊𝑂𝑢𝑡 Work output (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑥 Maximum pressure attained in the cycle (𝑘𝑃𝑎)

𝑟 compression ratio

𝑇𝐶 temperature of the heat sink (𝐾)

𝑇𝐻 temperature of the heat source (𝐾)

𝛾 Specific Heat Ratio in Theory and Results section

𝑘 Specific Heat Ratio in Discussion section

𝐶𝑣 Heat capacity at constant volume

∆𝑈 Internal energy (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔)

18
Appendices
Table of annotated values obtained from the Wolfram Player simulation:

Compression ratio Thermal efficiency Heat input Heat rejected 𝑸𝑶𝒖𝒕 Work Output
𝒓 𝜼 𝑸𝑰𝒏 𝑾𝑶𝒖𝒕

𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

4 0.426 746.62 428.82 317.8
4.5 0.452 728.95 399.4 329.54
5 0.475 712.42 374.24 338.18
5.5 0.494 696.86 352.37 344.49
6 0.512 682.12 333.12 349
6.5 0.527 668.11 316 352.11
7 0.541 654.73 300.62 354.1
7.5 0.553 641.9 286.71 355.19
8 0.565 629.59 274.04 355.54
8.5 0.575 617.72 262.44 355.29
9 0.585 606.27 251.75 354.52
Table 7. Annotated values obtained from Wolfram Player simulation.

Thermal efficiency 𝜂 versus Compression ratio 𝑟 graph from literature:

Figure 11. Thermal efficiency of the cold air-standard Otto cycle with 𝑘 = 1.4 . (Çengel, et al., 2016)

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 Thermal efficiency 𝜂 versus Compression ratio 𝑟 graph at different specific heat ratio from literature:

Figure 12. Thermal efficiency vs compression ratio at different k. (Çengel, et al., 2016)

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