AN BUSHRA

PA 25th batch, RU

Course PA 404- Political and Administrative Thoughts

Prepared by: AN BUSHRA
PA (25th Batch)
University of Rajshahi

Contents-
1. Critically discuss the features of the ideal state of Plato.
2. Discuss the lasting contribution of Aristotle.
3. Discuss the contribution of the Romans in the field of Political Science.
4. “Medieval period was non-political”- Dunning. Comment on this statement.
5. Why is Machiavelli called the modern political thinkers? Discuss.

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Ideal State of Plato (features and criticism)

Features of the ideal state of Plato:
Following are some salient features of the ideal state of Plato-
1. Class state: In Plato’s ideal state there are three major classes corresponding to the
three parts of the soul. The guardians, who are philosophers, govern the city; the
soldiers who defend it and the lowest class comprise the producers (farmers, artisans
etc.)

2. Division of Labor: Plato was of the view that due to multiple wants and lack of
capacities; an individual could not fulfill all his desires by himself alone. Some people
are specialized in performing some certain tasks. People are allowed to have only one
occupation- namely that for which they are best suited by nature.

3. Rule of Special class: The guardians are responsible for ruling the city. They are
chosen from among the ranks of the auxiliaries and also known as philosopher king.
Plato argues that a society will decay and pass through each government in succession,
eventually becoming a tyranny, the most unjust regime of all. The starting point is an
imagined, alternate aristocracy (ruled by a philosopher king); a just government
dominated by the wisdom loving element.

4. Establishment of justice: Justice is the main feature of Plato’s Republic. It begins

with the question of justice and concludes with the answer that justice lies in the
harmonious, hierarchal well-ordering of society. Platonic concept of justice is not based
on equality of humankind but just opposite of it. It is not equality but the harmonious,
well-ordering that institutionalizes the inequality. Justice is the bond which binds every
members of society together. It forms a harmonious union of individual.

5. Philosopher king: Plato was of the view that in an ideal state the Philosopher ruler
should be prominent. Either the king should be a philosopher, or a philosopher should
be the king. The king should have a broaden vision of unity of knowledge. Philosopher
kings are immune from the provisions of law and public opinion.

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The virtue of this philosopher class is knowledge. They are deprived of the private
family and property as a safety measure against any possible chances of their being
corrupt; indulgent; sectarian or sloth. They do not live in palatial houses but in the
barracks with their likes and the members of the auxiliary.

6. Basic needs and education: In the ideal state of Plato the basic needs of people
e.g. food, clothes and shelter must be fulfilled. Education was the positive measure for
the operation of justice in the ideal state. Plato was convinced that the root of vice lay
chiefly in ignorance and only by proper education can one be converted into a virtuous
man.

7. Self-reliant:
The ideal state must be economically self-sufficient, and it would not be dependent on
any other states.

Criticism of the ideal state of Plato:

1. Class state- Both the ruling class and the military class are forbidden to possess any
private property or any money. They must live, men and women like soldiers in
barracks, with common meals and sleeping quarters. Their food, clothing and
equipment will be provided by the producers. This food must be simple and restricted
to moderate quantities. They are too having no family life, in order to avoid any conflict
between family loyalties and their loyalty to the state.

2. Individual rule- Plato favored absolute monarchy. He gives the ruling power to one
or few and not to law. Plato’s absolute monarchy is the monopoly of a class to rule the
state and the remaining people are nothing but have been considered to be ruled. State
is for serving people and its rulers must be the representatives and servants of the ruled.

3. Utopian- An ideal state is a hypothetical concept. Plato’s concept of the ideal state
is only an idea. It is an idea that cannot be applied. It is only an interesting story. State
is to serve human beings and not to engulf their individual status.

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4. Undemocratic- Plato attacked Athenian democracies for mistaking anarchy for

freedom. The lack of coherent unity in Athenian democracy made Plato conclude that
such democracies were a mere collection of individuals occupying a common space
rather than a form of political organization.
He does not believe that the state comes into existence primarily for the purpose of
promoting and preserving individual freedom. He does not believe in the unrestrained
rule of the majority in their own interest nor for that matter in the self-sufficiency of
the democratic process as the best means of determining the requirements of justice.

5. Producing class- Plato completely ignores the lower class in his ideal state which
forms the great bulk of population. Such negligence may divide the society into two
hostile groups.

6. Unconstitutional - Plato fails to provide any constitution for his ideal state. There
is no systematic structure of legislature, executive, civil service, local government,
human rights and political parties etc.

Lasting contribution of Aristotle

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) made significant and lasting
contributions to nearly every aspect of human knowledge, from logic to biology to
ethics and aesthetics.
The lasting contribution of Aristotle is briefly described below-
1. Realistic-
Aristotle’s political studies combine observation and theory. He and his students
documented the constitutions of 158 states—one of which, The Constitution of
Athens, has survived on papyrus. The aim of the Politics, Aristotle says, is to investigate,
on the basis of the constitutions collected, what makes for good government and to
identify the factors favorable or unfavorable to the preservation of a constitution. He
didn’t give any argument based on imagination. Because of that he is known as realistic
political thinker.

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2. Individual liberty-
Aristotle preferred aristocratic or monarchical government, but as also mentioned he
assumed that any government of free individuals would include some form of broad
citizen participation. He thinks that the state must concern itself with the character of
the citizen; it must encourage virtue and discourage vice.
3. Rule of Law-
Aristotle champions the rule of law against power because he recognizes the dangers of
overreaching of all kinds: whether on behalf of those who rule, the people, or the polity
itself. Aristotle treats the rule of law as a constituent feature of any regime worthy of
being called a regime. (Pol. 1292a5) Aristotle, in other words, holds both that the rule
of law, and especially, the constitution, moderates the rule of men, and also that the rule
of men moderates the rule of law, including the constitution.
4. Constitutionalism-
Constitutionalism proclaims the desirability of the rule of law as opposed to rule by the
arbitrary judgement or mere fiat of public officials. The central element of the concept
of constitutionalism is that in political society government officials are not free to do
anything they please in any manner they choose; they are bound to observe both the
limitations on power and the procedures which are set out in the supreme,
constitutional law of the community.
5. Political and economic power-
Aristotle taught that economics is concerned with both the household and the polis and
that economics deals with the use of things required for the good (or virtuous) life. As
a pragmatic or practical science, economics is aimed at the good and is fundamentally
moral. Because Aristotle saw that economics was embedded in politics, an argument
can be made that the study of political economy began with him.

6. Importance of Public opinion-

Aristocracy, in theory, is the next-best constitution after monarchy (because the ruling
minority will be the best-qualified to rule), but in practice Aristotle preferred a kind of
constitutional democracy, for what he called “polity” is a state in which rich and poor
respect each other’s rights and the best-qualified citizens rule with the consent of all.

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7. Criticism of communism-
Communism will not promote the harmonious articulation of city and man, rather, it
undermines the integrity of the political community and precludes the proper
development of the best human nature. Aristotle holds that communism thus disrupts
the entelechies of both city and man.

8. Revolution-
Inequality is the main reason of revolution. Craving of men for equality causes
revolution historically. In book V of the Politics Aristotle (384–322 BC) described two
types of political revolution:
• Complete change from one constitution to another
• Modification of an existing constitution.
9. Importance of education-
Aristotle’s definition of education is, “the creation of a sound mind in a sound body”.
Thus, to him the aim of education was the welfare of the individuals so as to bring
happiness in their lives.
10. Unity of Political science and Ethics
Aristotle regarded ethics and politics as two related but separate fields of study, since
ethics examines the good of the individual, while politics examines the good of the City-
State. Aristotle argues in Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the man who possesses
character excellence does the right thing, at the right time, and in the right way. Bravery,
and the correct regulation of one's bodily appetites, are examples of character excellence
or virtue.
11. Political Science is scientific
Political science is the practical science par excellence. It is the architectonic science,
Aristotle argues, concerned with the human good, or happiness, generally, and therefore
the one that orders all other sciences, such as medicine or farming.

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Contribution of Romans in the field of Political Science

A brief discussion of the contribution of the Romans in the field of Political science is
discussed below-
1. Separation of Politics and Ethics
The most significant contribution of the Rome is the idea of positive law. “This idea”, says
Gettell, “involved the separation of politics and ethics, the formation of an abstract
conception of the state…. and the development of the idea of legal personality and of
the sovereignty of the state as a maker of law.”
By freeing law from the clutches of religion and ethics the Romans built up a concrete
theory of legal rights. Subsequently this view founded a strong basis of an elaborate
system of various rights.
2. Nationalism
Early Rome did not evolve into a nation because initial expansion was based, not on
incorporation, but treaty-relationships; even when she extended her citizenship to all
Italy, a Roman citizen belonged to a city, not a country.
3. Individual and state
The Romans distinguished the state from the individual. The state as well as the
individual had definite rights and duties. The Romans laid emphasis on the individual,
and, to them, the state exists to protect the rights of the individual against other
individuals and against the state itself. In short, the protection of the rights of the
individual was the main purpose of the state. On the basis of this conception, an
elaborate system of Roman private law was created.
4. Unity
The Roman love for the order and unity was so strong that the Men of the Middle Ages
were obsessed by the notion of the political unity of the world in the face of the most
disintegrating forces. This idea took definite shape in the conception of the Holy
Roman Empire.
5. Agent of the people
The emperors were representative agents of the people. The emperor was the fountain
of law, because the sovereign body of citizens had delegated to him their whole
authority.
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6. Law making (Roman law is the oldest law)-

The Roman Law crystallized the theory that the authority of the ruler is derived from
the people as his authority arises from the collective power of the people.
They viewed law in a positive and realistic way. They emancipated law from the shackles
of religion and ethics. In doing this they considerably enhanced the practical importance
of law. Romans did this to establish a well- ordered empire. This attempt and attitude
of Romans laid the foundation of a number of political ideas of Western Europe and
America.
7. Delegation
The sovereign body of the citizens had delegated their authority to the emperor. This
delegation of the authority by a governmental contract, and not by a social contract,
was made to the public officials. The delegation, however, was irrevocable and could
not be withdrawn. There was no redress against the abuse by the officials of their
delegated authority. Revolutions were unjustified.
8. Sovereignty
The concept of sovereignty emerged out of the Roman concept of law. People obeyed
law not because it is ethical or religious, but because it is the command of the supreme
political authority and it is the manifestation of the will of body politic. Only the
sovereign authority can sanction such a law and to disobey such a law implies to disobey
the sovereign authority which is bound to be followed by punishment. While the state
was legal sovereign, the political sovereignty lay with the people as a whole.
9. State and society
The state is based on agreement to share common good. Another feature of Cicero’s
state is people have assembled together not guided by their weakness but by their
sociable nature. Man is not a solitary animal. He loves and likes to habit with man.
This is the inborn nature of man. It is the rational behavior of men which is responsible
for the foundation of state. Hence, we may call it a necessary association.
10. Concept of Natural Equality
Cicero's concept of equality is another aspect of Roman political philosophy. Men are
born for justice and that right is based not upon man's opinion but upon nature. There
is no difference between man and man in kind in the eye of natural law, all men are
equal.

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11. Theory of checks and balance

In the field of political organization, the contributions of Rome have mainly been the
nixed constitution and the principle of checks and balances. In the Roman constitution,
the consuls represented the monarchic element, the Senate was aristocratic, and the
assemblies were democratic. each one of these exercised some check on the others, no
one being able to act effectively without the consent of all. Thus, an elaborated system
of checks and balance was created.
12. The idea of contract
The idea of contract played a great part in roman Legal theory, but the contract was a
governmental contract but not a social contract. the sovereign body of the citizens
delegated to the emperor their whole authority. Romans didn’t believe in contractual
origin of the state, though they believe in contractual origin of the government. To
them the state wasn’t a natural institution.
13. International law
The Romans had developed a legal system applicable for several nations. This is called
law of nations or international law. The jus gentium of Romans constitutes the basis of
modern day’s international law. Roman theory of world unity and of single, all-powerful
authority, enforcing a universal law over the western world survived for centuries.

Medieval period
The Middle Age was essentially un-political in the sense that politics was not recognized
as a separate subject of investigation. There is little of political philosophy and much of
confusion in medieval writings. The confusion is due to the fact that the writers during
the Middle Ages drew their inspiration from three different sources. They dependent
partly on the Bible, which is based on Jewish theocracy, partly on Roman law, based on
imperial autocracy, and partly on Aristotle’s politics, based on ancient Greek theories
and Practices.
1. Supremacy of the Christianity-
When the Roman Empire adopted Christianity, the emperor became the head of both
the state and the church. But the church grew more and more strong and began to
exercise the right of excommunication which was a powerful weapon in the hands of
the Church. The Church began to apply this right to recalcitrant kings and thus began

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to control secular authority. the coronation of the emperor gave the Pope the idea of
claiming supreme universal power. the clash between the two began and lasted for
about two centuries when at last the Papacy came out victorious as the unrivalled head
of western Christendom.
2. Revelation-
If mankind be one, the Church funded by God Himself can be the only true State,
having “received by a mandate from God the plenitude of all spiritual and temporal
powers, they being integral parts of one Might. (Political theories of The Middle Ages,
by Gierke, edited by Maitland. p.11) The Head of the State is the Christ, but he must
have an earthly representative to exercise this authority over the community of the
mortals. This representative is the Pope who “is their Priest and their King, their
spiritual and temporal Monarch, their Law-giver and judge in all causes supreme.”
3. Papal Supremacy -
Right from the 9th century onwards, the Papacy laid claims to supremacy not only in
matters ecclesiastical but over temporal ones also. Papal supremacy was meant to
include the supremacy of the Pope within the Church as well as his supremacy over
secular authorities. The supporters of the Church employed their learning in giving a
historic basis to the papal claim for supremacy.
After the fall of Roman Empire, the Church was the only coordinating power in
Western-Europe. It represented the only stable element in a period of general social
and political ferment. All power must be centered to the church to prevent
disintegration in Europe.
4. Old testament and new testament conflict -
The Roman Catholic Church in 1500 had lost much of its integrity. The involvement
with the Italian War had dragged the papacy into disrepute; popes were more interested
in politics than piety; and the sale of indulgences was clearly only for the Church’s
financial gain. Despite its “rottenness”, in 1500 the Roman Catholic Church was the
most powerful force in western Europe. The Catholic Church used the threat of
excommunication and eternal damnation to maintain its authority.
Despite, or because of, the rampant abuses of the hierarchy, there were efforts to
reform the church. This was the time when Protestantism, through its definitive break
with Roman Catholicism, arose to take its place on the Christian map.

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5. Position of the king-

Both the Papacy and the Roman Empire were considered by the medieval mind as two
brunches of a universal CHURCH STATE. But there was no clear-cut demarcation of
the jurisdiction. The Church was the controlling guide of the State and, therefore, the
Papal authority was superior to temporal authority. A king might be the image of God,
but if he disregarded the church he could be excommunicated. Aquinas believed in
fundamental importance of unity amidst universal disorder and anarchy and believed
that this unity could only be achieved by the supremacy of the Papacy over all persons
and all classes, spiritual or temporal.
6. State and church-
The theory of dual authority of the Church and the State gave its characteristics coloring
to medieval political thought. the defenders of both the Empire and the Church valued
unity. But in practice, each charged that the other encroached upon its domain, and
each group tried to build up a doctrine which would justify the extension of its
respective institution. So, in fact the defenders of the Empire made the State a Church
by subordinating the Church to the State, and the defenders of the Papacy made the
Church a State by subordinating the State to the Church.
7. Two sword theory-
Both the sword representing spiritual and secular authority, were given by God to Peter
from whom they have descended to the Pope who is Vicegerent of God on earth. the
Pope has retained the spiritual sword in his own hands, while the temporal one he has
transferred to the secular rulers. the Emperor and other secular rulers receive their
offices and power mediately from God and immediately from the pope, and are
therefore, his vassals. The Emperor is the highest of the Papal vassals, his coronation
oath constituting an homage to the Pope. The temporal power, being a delegation of
the church, must be exercised under the discretion of the church. the pope is entitled
to hear complaints against the lay rulers and can depose them.
8. Fanaticism
Fanaticism was the leading way of social and political life in the Medieval era. Monarchs,
like kings and queens, maintained control and power by using religious fanaticism.

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Machiavelli: a modern political thinker

The influence of Machiavelli on modern political science and practice has been
tremendous. Machiavelli though hardly a political theorist himself, for he writes on the
art of government rather than on the philosophy of state, is the father of modern
political theory in many respects. Many concepts of modern political thought begin with
Machiavelli. It was he who first use the word state in the sense in which it is used now-
a-days, that is something having a definite territory, population, government and
sovereignty of its own. “He more than any other political thinker created the meaning
that has been attached to the state in modern political usage.”- said Sabine.

Some comments of Machiavelli are briefly discussed below-

1. Human nature
Machiavelli did not believe in the essential goodness of human nature and human
beings. Like Hobbes he held that all men were wicked and essentially selfish. Selfishness
and egoism were the chief motive forces of human conduct. They were good only when
it paid them to be good. Love of wealth and ambition are the powerful motives of
human action.
2. Nature of the government
A successful state must be founded by a single man, and the laws and government. His
lawgiver is the architect not only of the state but of society as well, with all its moral,
religious and economic institutions. By sheer political genius a successful ruler had to
create a military power strong enough to overcome the disorderly little cities and
principalities, and in the end to evolve a new public spirit and civic loyalty. All the
circumstances of his time conspired to make him see in an absolute ruler an arbiter in
a nation’s fate.
3. Life, liberty, property
Machiavelli’s analysis of role of the state to offer security of its citizens remains
pragmatic as ever. The prince is responsible to protect the life, liberty and property of
the people. The whole argument of the prince is based on two premises borrowed mainly
from Aristotle. One of these is that the state is the highest form of human association
and the most indispensable instrument for the promotion of human welfare.
Considerations of the welfare of the state must, therefore, outweigh any considerations
of individual or group welfare.

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4. Fear
Men always commit the error of not knowing where to limit their hopes. fear is the one
dominating element of life and is mightier than love. A prince, therefore, ought to
personify fear. He is to excite fear in their minds, but not hatred nor contempt.
5. Efficient/ experienced ruler
According to Machiavelli the ruler should have two instincts. He has to be strong as the
lion and cunning like a jackal. Machiavelli reasons that since princes come across men
who are evil, he should learn how to be equally evil himself, and use this ability or not
according to necessity.
6. Politics and Morality
By far the most important contribution of Machiavelli to political science lies in his
bringing about a divorce between ethics. He was the first secular writer. The chief
difference between Machiavelli and the writers who preceded him was in his attitude
towards religion and morality. He separated politics from ethics, even to the point of
paradox and scandal. For centuries, political thought had been a by-product of theology,
and political issue had been confused with issue primarily religious in nature.
Machiavelli frankly subordinated moral principles to the necessities of political
existence and welfare. He viewed the state as a distinctly human institution.
7. Double standard of Morality
The main theme of Machiavelli’s the Prince is the “End justifies the means.” State actions
were not to be judged by individual ethics. He prescribes a double standard of conduct
for the ruler and for individual citizens on the basis that the ruler is the creator of law
as also of morality, for moral obligations must ultimately be sustained by law. as such
he is above both. It will be the ruin of the state if the ruler’s public actions relating to
problems of external and internal security of the state were to be weighed down by
individual ethics.
8. End justifies the means
It was always wrong for an individual to tell a lie but sometimes necessary and good for
the ruler to do so in the interest of the state. this is the main connotation of what is
called ‘Machiavellism’. There is no standard to judge Prince’s acts except the success of
his political expedients for enlarging the power of his state.

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9. Cruelty and Mercy

Machiavelli explained how mercy can be misused which will harm the prince and his
dominion. He states that a prince should not shrink from being cruel if it means that it
will keep his subjects in line. After all, it will help him maintain his rule. In addressing
the question of whether it is better to be loved or feared, Machiavelli asserts,
commitments made in peace are not always kept in adversity; however, commitments
made in fear are kept out of fear. Yet, a prince must ensure that he is not feared to the
point of hatred, which is very possible.

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