Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 1

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Geology Long Exam (Checklist)

Module 7 Formation fo the Geosphere
7.1 Earth’s formation and composition
What is planetary Accretion? How is it related to self-assembly?
Planetary Accretion= The protoplanets were formed through this

process.
Self-assembly = This process at the planetary scale allowed for the

segregation of elements within the Earth, forming layers with
different chemical and mechanical properties.
What is differentiation? What controls differentiation? What is the effect

of differentiation on the structure of planet earth?
Differentiation describes the segregation of elements within a

protoplanet.
The process of differentiation and accretion led to the creation of the

geosphere.
What are the different probably origins of Earth?
Hot Origins
The Earth came from a sun that was assumed to be older than
the planets. Buffon popularized the Hot origins with a vivid
Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 1

hypothesis that the gravitational pull of passing comets had
town away hot masses from the sun, which then cooled to form
planets.
Why was this hypothesis abandoned?
Many near collisions are improbable and because comets

have very weak gravity fields.
Cold Origins
Aggregation of cold clouds of dust and gases
The internal heating of the earth occured after its aggregation.
Solar Nebula
About 5 or 6 billion years ago, a gigantic, disc-shaped

interstellar cloud of gases and dust was spinning in our part of
the galaxy. This disc contains certain elements and through
rotation induced by the galaxy as a whole, gravity concentrated
more mass at the center of the disc, and the resulting
compression raised the temperature there to several million
degrees. At high temperatures, thermonuclear reactions began
providing the sun’s heat energy through hydrogen fusion.
Planetesimal bodies were thought to have condensed from the

nebula first. In the spinning cloud, the cold planetesimals, dust,
and gases concentrated and collided rapidly, formed nine or ten
protoplanets of similar composition.
As their gravity fields strengthened, the protoplanets enlarged

by sweeping up still more material from the dust cloud.
Major elemental assemblage vs distance from the sun
The relative iron content of the planets seems to decrease with

distance from the sun, suggesting that within the solar nebula there
was a temperature gradients such that, more heavy elements (such
as iron) condensed in the hotter neighborhood of the sun.
Relative iron content of planets decrease with distance from sun
Heavier elements condensed closer to the sun (hotter conditions)
Outer planets condensed from the cooler outer portion of the nebula
wherein ices of Water, Ammonia, and Methane are prevalent.

Basis or evidence that the Earth is layered.
Seismic Waves
P-waves = can travel through liquid and solids, and gases
S-waves = only travel through solids
The speed of P waves and S waves increases as they travel

deeper into the Earth's mantle . They travel through the Earth in
curved path but they change direction suddenly when they
pass through the boundary between substances in different
states.
Density of the Earth
The density of the Earth is greater than the density of the rocks
found in the crust. Therefore, there should be heavier materials
inside the Earth. This led to the speculation that the Earth’s interior
is zoned. Further evidence of the Earth’s internal structure is
presented by differences in the behavior of waves as they travel
through the Earth, and the existence of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field of the Earth
Observations indicated that the magnetic field was not

completely fixed and the field has reversed its polarity many
times. The most widely accepted view is that the internal electric
currents produce a magnetic field and a core rich in iron and
nickel would be a good electrical conductor and a fluid outer part
of such core would allow mechanical motion of electrical
charges.
Compositional layers of the Earth
Physical layers of the Earth

What is a discontinuity? How do we know their location? What
discontinuities are present? What are the seismic signatures for each?
The Mohorovicic Discontinuity is the boundary between the earth's crust

and mantle. It was discovered by the refraction of seismic waves
passing from one layer to the other.
Origin of the Lithosphere
Inhomogenous Model
The last elements condense in the solar nebula were the

lightest, which may have produced the first crust rich in silicon,
oxygen, and aluminum. Although this model adheres to the
notion of chemical differentiation of the elements, the model
states that the crust was formed from the condensation of the
solar nebula.
Impact Model
Proposes that asteroids with a similar composition to the crust

produced the first continents, with the impact creating intense

heat that led to the melting of the Earth’s crust, which formed
oceanic and continental crusts.
Basalt, a key component of the Earth’s surface, formed on the

surface of the moon after the impacts.
Terrestrial Model
Points to processes that operate within the Earth, which

corroborates Dott and Prothero’s discussion of the formation of
the crust.
7.2 Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift
Who proposed the continental drift theory?
Alfred Wegener
What were the evidences of Wegener for his Continental Drift

theory?
Jigsaw Puzzle Fit
Expanded by Edward Bullard who fit the continents at 137 m

water depth.
It filled the gaps in Wegener’s puzzle map but still

qualitative.
Fossils spread over certain areas
Mesosaurs were not strong swimmers and were incapable

of crossing an ocean. Their fossil remains found in these
areas are an indication that the continents were, at one
time, together.
Glossopteris - a seed fern of the permian period, they are

immobile. This fern is distributed in 5 continents which are
now separated by large oceans today.
Similarities in Lithology and Structures
same rock types and same orientation in an area
Example: Both sides of Atlantic (Appalachian in North

America = Caledonian in Europe + Mauritanian in Africa)

Paleoclimate
Glacial deposits in the tropics and coals at high latitude

Why was not it a widely accepted theory during the time presented?

Wegener was not able to explain the mechanis behind why
plates moved in the first place.
Why was this idea revolutionary?
Continental drift theory was a revolutionary theory explaining

that continents shifts position on Earth’s surface. This theory
introduced the idea of moving continents to geoscience.
Evidence of Seafloor spreading
Who proposed seafloor spreading?
Harry Hess
What causes the seafloor to move according to proponent?
Seafloor moves away from the mid-oceanic ridge due to mantle

convection.
Convection is circulation driven by rising hot material and/or

sinking cooler material.
Hot mantle rock rises under mid-oceanic ridge
Ridge elevation, high heat flow, and abundant basaltic

volcanism are evidence of this.
Seafloor rocks, and mantle rocks beneath them, cool and

become more dense with distance from mid-oceanic ridge.
When sufficiently cool and dense, these rocks may sink back
into the mantle at subduction zones.
Downward plunge of cold rocks gives rise to oceanic

trenches
Overall young age for sea floor rocks (everywhere <200 million
years) is explained by this model.
What pattern was observed in age of seafloor? Thickness of

sediments?
Dating studies showed that the seafloor becomes older with

distance away from the ridge crests.
On the seafloor, sediments are thinnest near spreading

centers (young seafloor) and thicker away from the ridge,

where the seafloor is older and has more time to accumulate.
Paleomagnetism
What is the difference between magnetic poles and geographic

poles?
Magnetic poles = nagbabago depende sa magnetic field

generated by the liquid iron core
Geographic pole = Kung nasaan ang true north
The Geographic North Pole is an unfixed geographical point

marking the northernmost location on Earth, while the Magnetic
North Pole is a constantly shifting pole of the planet's magnetic
field.
Apparent polar wondering, what is that?
It is the relative location of a certain continent with respect to its

magnetic pole. By comparing past data, it can be infered that
the polar-wandering curves converge to the pole’s present
location, it becomes possible to infer the relative movement of
different continental blocks over different intervals of geologic
time.
Geomagnetic reversals (The magnetic stripes in the seafloor- what

do they tell?)
Magnetic minerals are formed in rocks as they are formed in the

mid-oceanic ridge. These magnetic minerals align themselves in
the direction of the existing magnetic field at the time they were
formed. Throughout history, there has been a series of changes
in the magnetic field of the earth (magnetic reversals).
This provides us a record of the direction and distance to

the magnetic poles at the time a rock was magnetized.
Earth periodically reverses polarity. Last reversal was 780,

000 years ago and there were at least 183x in the last 83
million years.
These findings were used to support seafloor spreading

theory.
Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundary
This is a place where plates crash into each other and where
deep earthquakes occur.
What are the different types of Convergent Plate Boundary?
Oceanic ➡ Continental
Marked by Ocean Trench, Benioff zone, volcanic arc,
and mountain belt
Creates volcanic arcs/ belts
Example: Juan de Fuca Plate ➡ North American Plate
Oceanic ➡ Oceanic
Marked by ocean trench, Benioff zone, and volcanic
island arc
Produces volcanic arcs from the bottom of the sea
Relatively older oceanic crusts are denser

compared to younger ones which are less dense
Example: Philippine Sea Plate ➡ Eurasion Plate

(Philippine Mobile Belt)
How did they know the angle of subduction?
By plotting the epicenter and the depth of

earthquakes, several data from earthquakes would
create the Wadati-Benioff Zone which is the planar

zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-
going slab in a subduction zone.
Continental ➡ Continental
Mountain belts and thrust faults
Convergence induces mountain building since both of

the converging plates are less dense (kaya walang
magsusubmerge sa kanilang dalawa).
Example: Indian Plate ➡ Eurasion Plate, formation of

the Himalayas
Divergent Boundary
Divergent Plate boundaries = Constructive Plate boundaries
Creators of some seas and oceans (through rifting and ridge

processes)
Linear sea example: Red Sea ( a proto-ocean)

Transform Boundary
Conservative plate boundaries
Shallow but strong Earthquakes
Example: San Andreas Fault
Transform faults may connect:
Two offset segments of mid-oceanic ridge
A mid-oceanic ridge and a trench
Two trenches
What causes the movement of plates?

Geologists have hypothesized that the movement of tectonic plates is
related to convection currents in the earth’s mantle. Convection
currents describe the rising, spread, and sinking of gas, liquid, or
molten material caused by the application of heat.
Module 8 Formation of the Atmosphere and the Hydrosphere
What are the different units in the geologic time?
What is the pre-cambrian?
The time when the biggest changes in the composition of the Earth’s
atmosphere and hydrosphere occured

What is the current composition of the atmosphere?

How has the atmosphere changed through time (from its initial formation 4.5
Bya to present)?
The Early Atmosphere of the Earth

The earliest atmosphere of the Earth was believed to be composed of
Hydrogen and Helium, but most of it were blown away by solar winds
coming from the sun. Hydrogen was then regained in the atmosphere as
it reacted with oxygen as time passes by.
The gases that accumulated were those we still find coming out of
volcanoes:
Water vapor
Hydrogen chloride
Carbon monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
These gases combined to form:
Methane
Ammonia
Hydrogen Cyanide

What are stromatolites? How are they related to cyanobacteria?
Formed when layers of sediments are trapped and precipitated by

Cyanobacteria.
Stromatolites ay product ng cyanobacteria which is the oldest known

photosynthetic organisms
How old are the oldest stromatolites?
3.45 billion years old
What happens to the early oxygen produced by the earliest organisms?
After the emergence of cyanobacteria, why is there a huge gap of

time before oxygen became an abundant component in the
atmosphere?
The oxygen produced by the Cyanobacteria reacted with iron

which is abundant initially in oceans of the Early earth.

One evidence of this is the Banded Iron formation.
This suggest that, the oxygen produced by cyanobacteria

reacted immediately with the Iron on earth’s oceans forming
rust or oxidized layers on rocks. Iron that came from sea
vents or from the weathering of rocks.
Photosynthetic organisms were making oxygen, but it

reacted with the iron dissolved in seawater to form iron
oxide minerals on the ocean floor creating banded iron
formations.
When did free oxygen become available in the atmosphere?
Free oxygen began to accumulate at the end of the archaean Eon (2.5
billion years ago)
When did the oxygen level in the atmosphere reached the same level that
we have today?
600 million years ago
Where did the water come from?
Water vapor condensed to form clouds and rain water that formed the
oceans.
Most recent studies suggested carbonaceous chondrites instead of

comets based on H-isotope differences)
Balls of ice that collide with earth; 20 balls per minute
Outgassing, produced acidic conditions that accelerated the rate of

weathering on Earth’s rocky surface.

Products of weathering (dissolved compounds) were carried to the
oceans, thus increasing the salinity.
Oceans also served as depository for Carbon dioxide
Why can’t water exist in the early conditions of the proto earth?
But in the early period of our solar system's formation, that disk was
much hotter at the position where our Earth sits now. So even though
there were most likely water molecules present in the mess of debris
that made up the disk, it was too hot for water to condense into a
liquid, causing it to evaporate instead.
Faint Young Sun Paradox
What is the major source of heat in the Earth’s surface?
Sunlight
How has the sun’s brightness changed through time? How would this
affect the surface temperature of the planet?
The sun was not as bright as it is today, so what kept earth warm
during that time? Volcanic gases which trapped heat from escaping
the earth making the Earth relatively warm allowing water formation.
The paradox is this: with the young sun's output at only 70

percent of its current output, early Earth would be expected to

be completely frozen – but early Earth seems to have had liquid
water.
What is the distribution of earth’s water? Freshwater vs seawater
What are the current composition of seawater?

Is there liquid water elsewhere in the solar system?
Yes
Module 9 Origin of the Biosphere
How do we defne the Biosphere?
The Biosphere can be defined as the totality of life forms on Earth.
The hydrosphere is where cyanobacteria first emerged and through their

photosynthetic waste products, they made the atmosphere abundant of
oxygen. The presence of oxygen made the evolution of more complex
life forms to be possible in the first place.
How do we scientifically define LIFE?
Four rules of being characterised to be alive:
A living thing must work to avoid decay and disorder.
To do that, a living thing has to create a closed system.
They have some molecule that can carry information.
This information must evolve by natural selection.
When did most likely, life emerge? Where?
3.8 to 3.9 billion years ago
The oldest well established microfossils seem to be those of the Apex

chert of Western Australia. These are cellular, filamentous structures
dated at about 3.465 Ga. Many of these resemble modern
Cyanobacteria in size and shape.
What are the different theories in the formation of life?

Primordial Soup Hypothesis
What are the conditions for this primordial soup hypothesis?
The notion that when Earth was young, the oceans were
filled with simple chemicals important for life. These would
eventually self-assemble into simple living cells.
Miller-Urey Experiment
What does the Miller-Ulrey experiment suggest?
They simulated hypothetical conditions of the early Earth,

testing earlier hypothesis that conditions on the primitive
Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesized organic
compounds from inorganic precursors.
Setup
Components:
1. Methane, ammonia, and hydrogen gas = components of

primitive atmosphere (no oxygen)
2. Water boiled in a flask = primitive ocean
3. Electrodes attached to power supply to create a spark =

lightning
Results after one week of continuous operation

10-15% carbon within the system was now in the form
of organic compounds
2% of the carbon had formed amino acids that are used

to make proteins in living cells, with glycine as the most
abundant
Water in the flask turned into a muddy brown liquid (the

primordial soup) containing amino acids, cyanide and
formaldehyde.
The common amino acids were formed, but in various

concentrations
Sugars and liquids were also formed
Abiotic synthesis of amino acids only needs a source of

chemicals and a reducing environment.
Did Miller and Urey create life from non-life?
No, they were only able to form amino acids which are
necessary ingredients for all life.
Deep Sea Hydrothermal vents
How are they different from vents found on land?
Hydrothermal vents are fissures in a planet’s surface from which

geothermally heated water is released.
They are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas

where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins, and
hotspots.
Hydrothermal vents are similar to common land types such as

hot springs, fumaroles, and geysers.
They release essential components and organic compounds

which enable the earliest life forms to exist.
What are the two types of hydrothemal submarine vent types?
Black smokers
Waters rich in sulfide minerals
Superheated waters (~400 degrees celsius)

contact between the superheated waters and frigid ocean
water results to precipitation of minerals (massive sulfide
ore deposits; sometimes gold)
White smokers
Waters depleted in sulfide minerals
Water temperature less than that of the black smokers
Believed to where life actually emerged, the carbon dioxide

was supplied by the black smokers around that area.
Areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more

productive, often hosting complex commnities fueled by the
chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids.
What are the results of experiments simulating hydrothermal vent?

Were they able to create life?
Lab experiments produced amino acids and later on formed

short-protein like chains called peptides.
No, they were not able to create life
What is the problem with DNA and protein origin?
It is a paradox, you cannot create proteins without genetic

information and you cannot create more DNA without the help of
proteins (enzymes).
How is RNA different from DNA?
RNA = single stranded
DNA = double stranded
DNA is not the first biomolecule to form but rather it is the RNA
which jumpstarted the formation of complex life.
What is LUCA?
Last universal common ancestor
By finding out the common gene across all life domains, these
shared genes tell us that LUCA lived in a hot, oxygen-free place and
harvested energy from a chemical gradient like the ones at
hydrothermal vents.

What were the discoveries made about organic matter in space?
Saggitarius B1
2000
Astronomers discovered a frigid reservoir of simple sugar

molecules in a cloud of gas and dust some 26,000 light-years away,
near the center of our milky way galaxy
The discovery suggest how the molecular building blocks necessary

for the creation of life could first form in interstellar space.
Comet 1P
NASA scientists identified one of the fundamental chemical building-

blocks of life (the amino acid glycine) in a comet for the first time.
Murchison meteorite
2008
NASA discovered sugar and several related organic compounds in

meteorites— providing first evidence that another fundamental
building block of life on Earth might have come from outer space.
How does the concept of panspermia differ from the other theories on the
formation of life?
Origin of life outside Earth
Life in a ready-made form is ubiquitous in the galaxy, distributed by

meteoroids, asteroids, and planetoids.
Life that can survive the effects of space become trapped in debris that
are ejected into space after collisions between planets.
Not meant to address how life began.
Bombardment by meteorites and comets might play a role in the origin

of life, they may have brought which have been critical for life such as
oxygen, sulfur, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Nagkaroon ng ganitong idea ang mga scientists because organic

molecules in space float in clouds of gas or bound up in dust particles.
2000: Astronomers discovered a frigid reservoir of simple sugar

molecules in a cloud of gas and dust.

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 1

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Geology Long Exam (Checklist)

7.1 Earth’s formation and composition

What is planetary Accretion? How is it related to self-assembly?

Planetary Accretion= The protoplanets were formed through this

Self-assembly = This process at the planetary scale allowed for the

What is differentiation? What controls differentiation? What is the effect

Differentiation describes the segregation of elements within a

The process of differentiation and accretion led to the creation of the

What are the different probably origins of Earth?

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 1

Why was this hypothesis abandoned?

Many near collisions are improbable and because comets

Aggregation of cold clouds of dust and gases

The internal heating of the earth occured after its aggregation.

About 5 or 6 billion years ago, a gigantic, disc-shaped

Planetesimal bodies were thought to have condensed from the

As their gravity fields strengthened, the protoplanets enlarged

Major elemental assemblage vs distance from the sun

The relative iron content of the planets seems to decrease with

Relative iron content of planets decrease with distance from sun

Heavier elements condensed closer to the sun (hotter conditions)

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 2

P-waves = can travel through liquid and solids, and gases

S-waves = only travel through solids

The speed of P waves and S waves increases as they travel

Density of the Earth

Magnetic field of the Earth

Observations indicated that the magnetic field was not

Compositional layers of the Earth

Physical layers of the Earth

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 3

The Mohorovicic Discontinuity is the boundary between the earth's crust

Origin of the Lithosphere

The last elements condense in the solar nebula were the

Proposes that asteroids with a similar composition to the crust

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 4

Basalt, a key component of the Earth’s surface, formed on the

Points to processes that operate within the Earth, which

7.2 Plate Tectonics

Who proposed the continental drift theory?

What were the evidences of Wegener for his Continental Drift

Jigsaw Puzzle Fit

Expanded by Edward Bullard who fit the continents at 137 m

It filled the gaps in Wegener’s puzzle map but still

Fossils spread over certain areas

Mesosaurs were not strong swimmers and were incapable

Glossopteris - a seed fern of the permian period, they are

Similarities in Lithology and Structures

same rock types and same orientation in an area

Example: Both sides of Atlantic (Appalachian in North

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 5

Glacial deposits in the tropics and coals at high latitude

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 6

Geology Long Exam (Checklist) 7

Why was this idea revolutionary?

Continental drift theory was a revolutionary theory explaining

Evidence of Seafloor spreading

Who proposed seafloor spreading?

What causes the seafloor to move according to proponent?

Seafloor moves away from the mid-oceanic ridge due to mantle

Convection is circulation driven by rising hot material and/or