Bushido

04.06.
22, 16:05 Bushido - Wikipedia
Bushido
Bushidō ( 武士道 , "the way of the warrior") is a moral code
concerning samurai attitudes, behavior and lifestyle.[1][2][3]
There are multiple bushido types which evolved significantly
through history.[1][2][4] Contemporary forms of bushido are
still used in the social and economic organization of Japan.[1]
Bushido is also used as an overarching term for all the codes,
practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.[5] It
is loosely analogous to the European concept of chivalry, but
there are major differences.[6][5]
Contents
Origin
Etymology
Usage
Myth and reality Japanese samurai in armor, 1860s.
Historical development Photograph by Felice Beato
Heian-Kamakura (794–1333)
Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603)
Edo (1603–1868)
Meiji-Showa (1868–1945)
Contemporary bushido
Business
Communication
Martial arts
Way of life
Japan Self-Defense Forces
Supporters
Opposition
Bushido types and tenets
Sengoku bushido
Tenets
Edo bushido
Tenets
Meiji bushido
Eight virtues of bushido (as defined by Nitobe Inazō)
Associated virtues
Modern translations
In literature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushido 1/32
04.06.22, 16:05 Bushido - Wikipedia
Major figures associated with bushido

See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Origin
Bushido formalized earlier samurai moral values and ethical code, most commonly stressing a
combination of sincerity, frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery and honour until death.[7] Born
from Neo-Confucianism during times of peace in the Edo period (1603–1868) and following
Confucian texts, while also being influenced by Shinto and Zen Buddhism, it allowed the violent
existence of the samurai to be tempered by wisdom, patience and serenity.[3] Bushido developed
between the 16th and 20th centuries, debated by pundits who believed they were building on a
legacy dating back to the 10th century, although the term bushido itself is "rarely attested in pre-
modern literature".[8] This ethical code took shape with the rise of the warrior caste to power at
the end of the Heian period (794–1185) and the establishment of the first shogunate of the
Kamakura period (1185–1333). It was developed further during the Muromachi period (1336–
1573) and formally defined and applied in law by Tokugawa shogunates in the Edo period.[9][10]
There is no strict definition, and interpretations of the code have varied over time.[11] Bushido has
undergone many changes throughout Japanese history, and various Japanese clans interpreted it
in their own way.
The earliest use of the written term is in the Kōyō Gunkan in 1616 by Kōsaka
Masanobu.[1][12][13][14] In 1685, the ukiyo-e book Kokon Bushidō ezukushi ( 古今武士道絵つくし,
"Images of Bushidō Through the Ages") by artist Hishikawa Moronobu included the term and
artwork of samurai with simple descriptions meant for children.[1] In 1642, the Kashoki (可笑記,
"Amusing Notes") was written by samurai Saito Chikamori and included moral precepts which
explained the theoretical aspects of bushido.[1][15] It was written with accessible kana and intended
for commoners, not warriors.[1] It was very popular, demonstrating that the idea of bushido had
spread among the population.[1] The Kashoki shows that moral values were present in bushido by
1642.[1] The term, bushido, came into common international usage with the 1899 publication of
Nitobe Inazō's Bushido: The Soul of Japan which was read by many influential western people.[16]
In Bushido (1899), Nitobe wrote:
Bushidō, then, is the code of moral principles which the samurai were required or
instructed to observe ... More frequently it is a code unuttered and unwritten ... It was
an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. In order to become a
samurai this code has to be mastered.[6]
Nitobe was the first to document Japanese chivalry in this way.[6] In Feudal and Modern Japan
(1896), historian Arthur May Knapp wrote:
The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law
of honor, obedience, duty, and self-sacrifice ... It was not needed to create or establish
them. As a child he had but to be instructed, as indeed he was from his earliest years, in
the etiquette of self-immolation.[17]
Chinese politician Dai Jitao acknowledged the historical legitimacy of bushido and said it
originated as a theory of a social order, but it had evolved considerably.[18]: 14-15. In the Tokugawa
period, bushido was used to describe an ethical theory and it became a religious concept based on
Shinto.[18]: 14-15. In the Meiji period, bushido absorbed European ideals and formed the foundation
of Japan's political ethics.[18]: 14-15. Chinese writer Zhou Zuoren supported the historical
legitimacy, although it was thought to be altered and corrupted in the modern period.
Etymology
Bushidō (武士道) is a Japanese word that literally means "warrior way". It is
first attested in the 1616 work Kōyō Gunkan (甲陽軍鑑), a military chronicle
recording the exploits of the Takeda clan.[19] The term is a compound of
bushi ( 武士 , "warrior", literally 'military + man'), a Chinese-derived word
first attested in Japanese in 712 with the on'yomi (Sino-Japanese reading),
and dō ( 道 , 'road, way').[19][20][21] Bushi was often used as a synonym for
samurai.[19][20][21]
In the early 17th century, the term bushidō (武士道) with its on'yomi reading
was used alongside the synonymous alternative form (武士の道), read using
native Japanese vocabulary (kun'yomi) as mono no fu no michi.[19][20] Bushidō - The Way
Another important term is bushi katagi ( 武士気質 , literally 'warrior of the Warrior.
Written in
temperament').[22]
Japanese kanji.
Usage
For centuries the samurai adhered to multiple types of the code of which the interpretations varied
per samurai clan.[1][2] This encompassed morality, their role in society, how to live a life with
honor and virtue. The samurai had some common values, but they did not have a singular
definition or path that all samurai were required to abide. The samurai were as practical on the
battlefield as any other warriors.[23] These concepts, codes and ideals were ingrained in the
samurai since they rose to power in the Kamakura period (1185–1333).[24][25][9] At certain eras
there were prevalent rules and unwritten customs such as the "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓
馬の道, kyūba no michi) since the 12th century and in the Edo period the code of the samurai was
formalized with specific virtues and laws by the ruling Tokugawa Shogunate.[1] Notable samurai
wrote extensively about their interpretations of bushido such as Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645)
and Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659-1719).[26] In the 1870s the Meiji restoration abolished the
samurai class and they were transferred to professional, military and business classes.[27]
However, the former samurai and their descendants continued to be influential in Japanese
society because they occupied important positions. Bushido has continued to exist in various
types. Additional concepts and ideas were added to bushido so that it could evolve with the times.
It was used in the Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan and symbolically by the successor Japan
Self-Defense Forces. In the Taisho period, bushido was advocated as the way of the merchant.[28]
It can be dormant for years and revived during geopolitical instability. Centuries of rule by the
samurai class has left a deep impact on Japanese society. Thus various forms are still used today in
e.g. Japanese culture, business, martial arts and communication.[1][29][30][11][31]
Myth and reality
Bushido is often described as a specific moral code that all members of the samurai class were
obligated to follow. However, historically the samurai adhered to multiple warrior codes and the
interpretations varied per samurai clan and eras.[1][2][4][32][5] These codes and philosophies
changed considerably during the different periods. The earliest proto-bushido type existed since
the Kamakura period (1185).[24][25][9] The degrees of devoutness and interpretations varied
between individuals.[5] Since at least the Sengoku period, samurai didn't have compunction to use
certain weapons.[5] Retreating from battles did occur if it was unwinnable while others chose to
fight till the end.[5] Samurai did not actively seek an honorable death.[5] However, it was
honorable to die in the service of a daimyo only while furthering the daimyo's cause.[5] Bushido
has been described as Japanese chivalry.[5] There are notable similarities and differences
depending on which bushido type is compared with chivalry. Christianity had a modifying
influence on the virtues of chivalry,[33] whereas bushido was influenced by Zen Buddhism, Shinto,
and Confucianism.[7][1][34] Bushido is commonly associated with the moral norms of Nitobe
Inazō's Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1900), because his book popularized the term bushido
internationally. However, it is a romanticized interpretation of bushido which differs from other
historical literature by samurai. Thus, the morals defined by Nitobe do not represent all of
bushido. Some researchers claim that chivalric bushido as defined by Nitobe (a.k.a. Meiji Bushido)
was invented in the 19th century. However, there is a plethora of historical literature about
Japanese warrior codes, practices, philosophies since the Kamakura period. These types can be
categorized by era into Ancient, Sengoku, Edo, Meiji and Contemporary
Bushido.[35][1][36][26][4][7][37][11][29] Therefore the term bushido can be used as an overarching
term for all the codes, practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.[5]
Historical development
The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the
present.[1][18]: 14-15. [34][38] These first appeared as unwritten customs in the 12th century with
shogun Minamoto Yoritomo.[39] The written term bushido first appears in the Koyo Gunkan of
roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the Takeda clan.[1] Bushido evolved from
being totally devoted to valor in battle into refined types that were more related to moral
integrity.[1][34] The samurai had different types of bushido in each era in history, reflecting
changing requirements on the battlefield and in society.[1][34] The era name should be used to
describe the type of bushido.
Heian-Kamakura (794–1333)
The first proper Japanese central government was established around the year 700. Japan was
ruled by the Emperor (Tennō) with bureaucratic support of the aristocracy. They gradually lost
control of their armed servants, the samurai. The samurai is similar to "the old English cniht
(knecht, knight), guards or attendants".[40] By the mid-12th century, the samurai class had seized
control. The samurai (bushi) ruled Japan with the shogun (将軍) as the overlord until the mid 19th
century. The shogun was originally the Emperor's military deputy.
The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first shogun at the time of
Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension bushido
gradually appears in the warrior culture and landmark in stories and military treaties only from
the 14th and 15th century.[39] Thus is noted a permanence of the modern representation of its
antiquity in Japanese culture and its diffusion.
In the 10th and 11th century there was the Way of the Man-At-Arms (Tsuwamon no michi), and
the Way of the Bow and Arrows (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi). At the time of the Genpei War (1180–
1185), it was called "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi)[1] because of the
major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the

time, and because it was considered a traditional method, that
of the oldest samurai heroes, such as Prince Shōtoku,
Minamoto no Yorimitsu and Minamoto no Yoshiie
(Hachimantarō). According to Louis Frédéric, the kyūba no
michi appeared around the 10th century as a set of rules and
unwritten customs that samurai were expected to comply.[41]
There was also "Yumiya toru mi no narai" (customs for those
who draw the bow).[1] This shows there was an emerging sense
of ideal warrior behavior that evolved from daily training and
warfare experience.[34]
Towards the 10th and 11th centuries we began to

use expressions such as the way of the man-at-arms
(Tsuwamon no michi), the way of the bow and
arrows (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi), the way of the
Koyo Gunkan by Kosaka Masanobu
bow and the horse (Kyûba no Michi). These
(1616)
expressions refer to practices which are the
ancestors of the way of the warrior (bushidô) but
they did not then imply any relation whatsoever to
a morality. These were only practices focused on
training for real combat and which therefore had to
do with the samurai ways of life in the broad sense.
The world of warriors which developed […] in the

medieval period (12th – 16th century) was […]
placed under the domination of the Buddhist
religion […]. Buddhism makes the prohibition of
killing living beings one of its main principles. […]
Faced with death, some samurai thought they had
inherited bad karma […] others knew they were
doing evil. The Buddhist notion of impermanence
(Mujo) tended to express a certain meaning to the Shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo
fragility of existence, […]. Beliefs in the pure land of (1147-1199)
Buddha Amida […] allowed some warriors to hope
for an Amidist paradise […]. Zen Buddhism with its
doctrine of the oneness between life and death was
also appreciated by many samurai […]. The world
of medieval warriors remained a universe still
largely dominated by the supernatural, and the
belief in particular, in the tormented souls of
warriors fallen in combat (who) returned almost
obsessively in the dreams of the living. This idea
also ensured the success of the Noh theater.
The Tale of the Heike depicts an idealized story of the Genpei War (1180–1185) with a struggle
between two powerful samurai clans, the Minamoto and the Taira. Clearly depicted throughout the
epic is the ideal of the cultivated warrior.[42] During the early modern era, these ideals were
vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form
of the Japanese man of arms. The influence of Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on
bushido's early development instilled among those who live by the code a religious respect for it.
Many early literary works of Japan talk of warriors, but the term bushidō does not appear in text
until the Edo period.[43] The code which would become bushido was conceptualized during the
late-Kamakura period (1185–1333) in Japan.[24] Since the days of the Kamakura shogunate, the
"way of the warrior" has been an integral part of Japanese culture.[25][9] Scholars generally regard
pre-modern Japan as a "warrior nation" since the medieval period.[44] The samurai were role
models for society since medieval times. In accordance with Confucianism, one of their duties was
to serve as a role model for society. They balanced their martial arts skills with peaceful
accomplishments such as literature, poetry and the tea ceremony.[45] Such as the medieval
Japanese proverb Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi (Japanese: 花は桜木人は武士, literally "the
[best] blossom is the cherry blossom; the [best] man is the warrior").[46] In 1843 Nakamura said:
Our nation is a nation of arms. The land to the west [China] is a nation of letters.
Nations of letters value the pen. Nations of arms value the sword. That's the way it has
been from the beginning... Our country and theirs are separated from one another by
hundreds of miles, our customs are completely different, the temperaments of our
people are dissimilar – so how could we possibly share the same Way? (Nakamura
1843 cited in Watanabe 2012: 285).[47][48]
Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603)
During the Muromachi period (1336–1573) the way of the warrior began to refine by inserting in
their daily activities, alongside martial training, Zen meditation, painting (monochrome style),
ikebana, the tea ceremony, poetry such as the death poem (written by samurai before suicidal
missions or battles)[49] and literature.[9]
Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th- and 14th-century writings (gunki monogatari) "portrayed the
bushi in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride,
and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man".[50]
Every farmer was basically also a warrior until Hideyoshi confiscated weapons through
a nation-wide "sword-hunt" in 1588. Every ashigaru had his first lessons on the
mentality of war from the biwa hōshi. On the other hand, the Heike recitations also
propagated civic virtues: loyalty, steadfastness in adversity, and pride of family honor.
— Carl Steenstrup[50]
The sayings of Sengoku-period retainers and warlords such as Katō Kiyomasa (1562–1611) and
Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the
16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all
samurai, regardless of rank", Katō states:
"If a man does not investigate into the matter of bushidō daily, it will be difficult for
him to die a brave and manly death. Thus, it is essential to engrave this business of the
warrior into one's mind well."
— Katō Kiyomasa"[51]
Katō was a ferocious warrior who banned even recitation of poetry, stating:
"One should put forth great effort in matters of

learning. One should read books concerning
military matters, and direct his attention
exclusively to the virtues of loyalty and filial
piety....Having been born into the house of a
warrior, one's intentions should be to grasp the
long and the short swords and to die."
— Katō Kiyomasa[51]
Nabeshima Naoshige (1538 – 1618) says similarly, that it is

shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in
battle, regardless of rank, and that "bushidō is in being crazy to
die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man". However,
Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know
exertion as it is known in the lower classes".[51]
Daimyo Katō Kiyomasa
By the mid-16th century, several of Japan's most powerful

warlords began to vie for supremacy over territories amidst the
Kyoto government's waning power. With Kyoto's capture by the warlord Oda Nobunaga in 1573,
the Muromachi period concluded.[24]
In 1551 CE, one of the first western people to visit Japan was the Roman Catholic missionary
Francis Xavier. The description of Francis shows that honor, weaponry and warfare were valued of
utmost importance in Japanese culture.[36]
The Japanese are very ambitious of honors and distinctions, and think themselves
superior to all nations in military glory and valor. They prize and honor all that has to
do with war, and all such things, and there is nothing of which they are so proud as of
weapons adorned with gold and silver. They always wear swords and daggers both in
and out of the house, and when they go to sleep they hang them at the bed's head. In
short, they value arms more than any people I have ever seen. They are excellent
archers, and usually fight on foot, though there is no lack of horses in the country. They
are very polite to each other, but not to foreigners, whom they utterly despise. They
spend their means on arms, bodily adornment, and on a number of attendants, and do
not in the least care to save money. They are, in short, a very warlike people, and
engaged in continual wars among themselves; the most powerful in arms bearing the
most extensive sway. They have all one sovereign, although for one hundred and fifty
years past the princes have ceased to obey him, and this is the cause of their perpetual
feuds.[52][53]
The practice of decapitating and collecting enemy heads is an example of honor in samurai
culture.[54][55] The decapitated heads were shown to a general as evidence that they killed wanted
opponents and to collect rewards.[55] More heads meant higher prestige, honor and rewards.[55] A
beautification ritual of the decapitated heads called Ohaguro was performed.[56][54] Prestigious
heads were arranged on a table and presented in front of the warriors.[54][55] All heads were
identified and marked to prevent mistakes.[55] The guards were left and right of the general and
cited spells to transfix demonic spirits of the enemy.[55] Then a samurai said his own name, lifted a
box to show and describe the decapitated head.[55] The general inspected the trophy heads while
holding a fan so that the dead could not recognize his face.[55] If the claimed head was correct then
the samurai received a payment otherwise he was dismissed.[55][54]
Despite the war-torn culmination of this era and the birth of the Edo period, Samurai codes of
conduct continued to extend beyond the realms of warfare. Forms of bushido-related Zen
Buddhism and Confucianism also emerged during this period.[57] A Samurai adhering to bushido-
like codes was expected to live a just and ethical social life; honoring the practices of the gentry in
the absence of military campaigns.[57]
Edo (1603–1868)
Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of relative peace during the
Edo period (1600 to the mid-19th century). Japan didn't have
domestic or international conflict. These peaceful times in Tokugawa
society enabled bushido to be refined from a focus on valor in battle
to more moral integrity.[1]
The Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) codified aspects of the

Samurai warrior values and formalized them into parts of the
Japanese feudal law.[10] In addition to the "house codes" issued in
the context of the fiefdoms (han) and texts that described the right
behavior of a warrior (such as the Hagakure), the first Buke shohatto
(Laws for the Military Houses, 武家諸法度 ) was issued by the
government in 1615, which prescribed to the lords of the fiefdoms
(daimyo) and the samurai warrior aristocracy responsibilities and
Miyamoto Musashi killing a
activities, the rules of conduct, simple and decent clothing, the
giant creature, from The
correct supply in case of official visits, etc.[9] The edicts were Book of Five Rings
reissued in 1629, and in 1635, by the third shogun Tokugawa
Iemitsu. The new edicts made clear the shogunate's authority
and its desire to assert control.[58] The swordsmanship skills of
the samurai developed into character-building martial arts.[11]
During this period, the samurai class played a central role in

the policing and administration of the country. The bushidō
literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a
warrior class seeking more general application of martial
principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on
the land's long history of war. The literature of this time
includes:
Kashoki (Amusing Notes) by Saito
Shoke no Hyōjō by Ogasawara Sakuun (1621)[1] Chikamori (1642)
Budo Shōshinshu (武道初心集) by Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji

Yūzan (1639–1730)[4]
Hagakure as related by Yamamoto Tsunetomo to Tsuramoto Tashiro.
Bugei Juhappan (武芸十八般)
A Book of Five Rings by Miyamoto Musashi
The first mention of the term bushido is in the scriptures Koyo Gunkan (甲陽軍鑑) from Takeda-
ryū (martial arts school), written around 1616 by samurai Kōsaka Masanobu (1527–1578).[1] It
consists of 20 scrolls that mention bushido over 30 times.[1] It contains the history of the Takeda
family and their military tactics.[59] The Koyo Gunkan describes valor and exploits in battle.[1] For
example it is a waste of talent when a bushido practitioner takes on administrative roles in
government or financial affairs (e.g. dealings in rice, money, timber, or forest land), it emphasis
that bushido lies only in "becoming as a spear" on the

battlefield.[1] The scrolls were widely disseminated as a martial
arts instruction manual by the samurai class and helped to
popularize the term.[1]
In Koyo Gunkan (1616), bushido is a survival technique for

individual fighters, and it aims to make the development of the
self and the clan troupe advantageous by raising the samurai
name. He also affirms that he seeks a lord who praises himself
for wandering, as reflected in Tōdō Takatora (1556–1630)'s
deceased memoir that ""A samurai cannot be called a samurai
until he has changed his lords seven times." Also, as
symbolized by Asakura Norikage (1477–1555), "The warrior
may be called a beast or a dog; the main thing is winning." as
symbolized by Asakura Norikage, it is essential to win the
battle even with the slander of cowardice. The feature is that it
also contains the cold-hearted philosophy. These are mainly Nabeshima Secretary, Hagakure
related to the way of life as a samurai, and they are the The Anelects
teachings of each family, and they are also equivalent to the
treatment of vassals.
Dr. Hiroko Willcock (senior lecturer at Griffith University,

Australia) explained Koyo Gunkan is the earliest
comprehensive extant work that provides a notion of bushido
as a samurai ethos and the value system of the samurai
tradition.[12] However, it does not have a set of principles
regarded as "true" or "false", but rather varying perceptions
widely regarded as formidable throughout different centuries.
Emphasized by Thomas Cleary, "Confucianism, Buddhism, and
Shinto were each represented by a variety of schools, and
elements of all three were commonly combined in Japanese
culture and customs. As the embodiment of Samurai culture,
bushido is correspondingly diverse, drawing selectively on
elements of all these traditions to articulate the ethos and
discipline of the warrior".[60]
During the Genna era (1615–1624) of the Edo period and later, Book cover of Kokon Bushido
the concept of "the way of the gentleman" (Shidō) was newly Ezukushi (Bushido Through the
established by the philosopher and strategist Yamaga Sokō Ages) by artist Hishikawa Moronobu
(1622–1685) and others who tried to explain this value in the (1685)
morality of the Confucian Cheng–Zhu school. For the first
time, Confucian ethics (such as Honor and Humanity", "filial
piety") became the norm required by samurai.[61] Yamaga Sokō was widely viewed as the "Sage of
Bushidō" in early twentieth-century Japan.[18]: 8-9, 12, 31-32, 86.
Martial arts scholar Ogasawara Sakuun compiled 20 scrolls called Shoke no Hyōjō about the
military arts in 1621.[1] Therein bushido is described as iji (willpower).[1] The scrolls describe the
essence of bushido as the strength to not yield to rewards or power, but adhere to personal
convictions that dominate one's inner principles.[1]
In 1642, the Kashoki (可笑記, "Amusing Notes") was written by samurai Saitō Chikamori (斎藤親
盛 , 1603-1674) (ex-vassal of the Mogami clan from Yamagata Domain) and published.[1][15]
Chikamori's pen name was Nyoraishi ( 如儡子 ). The kashoki are 5 scrolls with wide-ranging
content, including samurai knowledge with moral precepts,[1] the knowledge of ordinary people,
the teachings of Confucian Buddhism, and narrative ones. It has moral precepts which explain
theoretical aspects of bushido.[1] The 5th scroll has an important definition that was made by a
samurai:[1] Thus the first known description of morality in bushido and the bushido spirit was the
Kashoki.[1]
"The essence of Bushidō is: do not lie, do not be insincere, do not be obsequious, do not
be superficial, do not be greedy, do not be rude, do not be boastful, do not be arrogant,
do not slander, do not be unfaithful, be on good terms with comrades, do not be overly
concerned with events, show concern for one another, be compassionate, with a strong
sense of duty. Being a good samurai takes more than merely a willingness to lay down
one's life."
— 5th scroll of the Kashoki by Saitō Chikamori (1642)[1]
The kashoki was important with promulgating the bushido spirit among the common
population.[1] Thus it was written for commoners, not warriors.[1] Its accessibility made it very
popular, because it was written in kana (hiragana and katakana) rather than kanji which can be
read by people with elementary school reading skills.[1] There were many editions which had
major influence on the behavior of commoners such as adults, adolescents, women and
generations.[1]
Master swordsman Miyamoto Musashi's life exemplifies bushido.[26] Musashi (1584-1645) wrote
The Book of Five Rings (Gorin no Sho) around 1643.[26] It consists of five volumes (Earth, Water,
Fire, Wind and Void). The Book of Earth describes the general framework of bushidō.[26] For
example: apply skills in any situation, always carry two swords, learn how to effectively use the
lance, naginata, bow and arrow, and guns. A daimyo should know the strength of his troops and
how to properly deploy them. Devote yourself to training to master a way, avoid evil acts and
thoughts, broaden perspectives with arts and knowledge about different professions, make
objective judgments etc.[26]
In 1685, the ukiyo-e book Kokon Bushidō ezukushi ( 古今武士道絵つくし , "Images of Bushidō

Through the Ages") by artist Hishikawa Moronobu (1618-1694) was published.[1] It features heroic
popular tales of samurai warriors with simple descriptions per artwork.[1] The title includes the
word bushido and it was meant for children which shows that it had spread among the general
population.[1]
The Chinese politician Dai Jitao (1891-1949) attended Nihon University's law program in 1907. He
was fluent in Japanese and learned about bushido. Dai criticized the supposedly violent nature of
the traditional Japanese feudal class structure before the Meiji period. Dai said the samurai
brutally exploited the class structure to abuse and kill people below them in the social order (and
biasedly claimed the opposite for Chinese society as peace-loving). According to Dai, after
Confucianism became influential in the 17th century, it brought ideas of benevolence and
humanity that pacified the cruel samurai and set Japan upon the course to become a modern and
civilized society. Dai also appreciated aspects of the samurai. For example Dai said: Japan
continued to benefit from their spirit of self-sacrifice, selfless loyalty, and—after Confucianism was
introduced—compassion. Dai blamed the problems of modern Japan (post-Meiji restoration) due
to the loss of samurai virtues when the former merchant class gained power and large corporations
started to steer government policy.[62] Dai said after the samurai class was heavily influenced by
Confucian ideals of compassion, their bushido became essentially a "life of blood and tears",
because they selflessly shed blood for their lords and cried tears of compassion for farmers and
other lower class people.[18]: 16.
The Hagakure contains many sayings attributed to Sengoku-period retainer Nabeshima Naoshige
(1537–1619) regarding bushidō related philosophy early in the 18th century by Yamamoto
Tsunetomo (1659–1719), a former retainer to Naoshige's grandson, Nabeshima Mitsushige. The
Hagakure was compiled in the early 18th century, but was kept as a kind of "secret teaching" of the
Nabeshima clan until the end of the Tokugawa bakufu (1867).[37] His saying, "I have found the
way of the warrior is death", was a summation of the focus on honour and reputation over all else
that bushidō codified.[63] This is occasionally misinterpreted that bushido is a code of death. The
true meaning is by having a constant consciousness of death, people can achieve a state of freedom
that transcends life and death, whereby "it is possible to perfectly fulfill one's calling as a
warrior."[1]
Tokugawa-era rōnin, scholar and strategist Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685) wrote extensively on
matters relating to bushidō, bukyō (a "warrior's creed"), and a more general shidō, a "way of
gentlemen" intended for application to all stations of society. Sokō attempts to codify a kind of
"universal bushidō" with a special emphasis on "pure" Confucian values, (rejecting the mystical
influences of Tao and Buddhism in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy), while at the same time calling for
recognition of the singular and divine nature of Japan and Japanese culture. These radical
concepts—including ultimate devotion to the Emperor, regardless of rank or clan—put him at odds
with the reigning shogunate. He was exiled to the Akō domain, (the future setting of the 47 Rōnin
incident), and his works were not widely read until the rise of nationalism in the early 20th
century.
The aging Yamamoto Tsunetomo's interpretation of bushidō is

perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his
unique station and experience, at once dutiful and defiant,
ultimately incompatible with the laws of an emerging civil
society. Of the 47 rōnin—to this day, generally regarded as
exemplars of bushidō—Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in
hatching such a wily, delayed plot for revenge, and had been
over-concerned with the success of their undertaking. Instead, Painting of Ōishi Yoshio committing
Tsunetomo felt true samurai should act without hesitation to seppuku, 1703
fulfill their duties, without regard for success or failure.
This romantic sentiment is of course expressed by warriors throughout history, though it may run
counter to the art of war itself. This ambivalence is found in the heart of bushidō, and perhaps all
such "warrior codes". Some combination of traditional bushidō's organic contradictions and more
"universal" or "progressive" formulations (like those of Yamaga Sokō) would inform Japan's
disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century.
Meiji-Showa (1868–1945)
Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai
caste and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido evolved considerably
over time. Bushido in the prewar period emphasized the role of the emperor and placed greater
value on the imperial virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than many Tokugawa-era
interpretations.[32]
Prominent scholars consider the bushido prevalent since the Meiji era to be a simplification of the
attributes of samurai.[64] Samurai originally fought for personal matters and the honor of their
family and clan. When Japan was unified, the role of samurai included public administrative
responsibilities, such as public order preservation, judicial responsibility, infrastructure
maintenance, disaster recovery, farmland development, healthcare administration and industrial
promotion.[1]
The samurai class was abolished in the 1870s and the role
of those in it grew more bureaucratic, focusing on the
formation of a modern nation-state. With the diminishing
of social classes, some values were transferred to the whole
population, such as loyalty to the emperor.[9] The author
Yukio Mishima asserted that "invasionism or militarism
had nothing to do with bushidō from the outset."
According to Mishima, a man of bushido is someone who
has a firm sense of self-respect, takes responsibility for his
actions and sacrifices himself to embody that
responsibility. Three samurai with different weapons,
the one on the left has a yumi, in the
Dai Jitao credited the samurai with sole responsibility for
center a katana and on the right a yari
the Meiji Restoration, which enabled Japan's
modernization, while the populace merely allowed it to
happen.[18] Dai argued that Japanese combative tendency
and militarism were purely founded in Japan's socio-religious
superstitions centered on the notion of divine authority.[18]: 33.
It did not exist in Chinese or Indian thought.[18]: 33.
Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and

military, who doctored it to suit their needs.[65] The original
Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882 uses the word
hōkoku ( 報国 ), signifying the idea of indebtedness to one's
nation because of one's birth. Such debt must be repaid
through physical or mental exertion. This idea did not exist in
earlier bushido.
Chinese writer Zhou Zuoren regarded the bushido promoted

by the military as a corruption of a noble and ancient
tradition.[66] He discussed the act of seppuku and the
importance of old samurai practices in his 1935 essay series,
"Riben guankui". He named the story of the Forty-seven rōnin
of the Akō Domain, who were sentenced to seppuku after Cover of Bushido: The Soul of
avenging their daimyo, and their legacy in the story Japan, 1900
Chūshingura (A Treasury of Loyal Retainers). He discussed the
Sakai incident, in which 20 samurai from Tosa Domain
committed seppuku in 1868 for attacking French sailors. These examples were compared with the
soft punishment given to the soldiers who assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932.
Zhou condemned them for not taking responsibility by committing suicide like traditional
samurai.[66] In 1936, Zhou wrote about the loss of humanity and empathy of traditional bushido
during the deterioration of the Second World War. He pointed to the samurai novel by Jun'ichirō
Tanizaki as an example where victors of a battle treated enemy corpses with dignity.[62]: 227.
Bushido regained popularity and became intertwined with Japan's nationalist expression in the
mid-1800s in response to Britain's invasion of China in the First Opium War. Xenophobia toward
Westerners rose in Japan during the 1850s and 1860s which contributed to the perceived
legitimacy of the imperial restoration. Use of "bushido" in text increased during this period and its
concept was viewed with more positivity. While it disappeared during the 1870s, it reappeared in
the 1880s to express the loss of traditional values during the rapid introduction of Western
civilization and a renewed sense of urgency to defend Japanese traditions.[67] The victory of Japan
over China in 1895 restored a feeling of pride in bushido, which was considered the "origin of
military success."[68]
The researcher Oleg Benesch argued that the concept of

modern bushido changed throughout the modern era as a
response to foreign stimuli in the 1880s, such as the English
concept of the gentleman. Nitobe Inazō's bushido
interpretations followed a similar trajectory, though he was
following earlier trends. This relatively pacifistic bushido was
hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from
the early 1900s as nationalism increased around the time of
the Russo–Japanese War.[69]
The entrepreneur Fukuzawa Yukichi appreciated bushido and

emphasized that maintaining the morale of scholars is the
essence of eternal life.[70][71] Nitoto Inazuke submitted his
book, Bushido, to Emperor Meiji and stated, "Bushido is
prosperous here, assists Komo, and promotes the national
style, so that the public will return to the patriotic virtues of
loyal ministers." He wrote that bushido has slightly different Japanese samurai acts seppuku
requirements for men and women. For women, bushido means
guarding their chastity, educating their children, supporting
their husbands and maintaining their families.[72]
The junshi suicide of General Nogi Maresuke and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji earned
praise as an example of opposition to the trend of decaying morals in Japan. It also earned
criticism from those who believed that aspect of bushido should not be revived.[73]
After the Meiji Restoration, the martial arts etiquette represented by Ogasawara-ryū (小笠原流)
popularized training.[74] Bushido-influenced martial arts and education corresponded with
nationalistic ideals prevalent prior to 1941. Honoring tradition through bushido-inspired martial
skills enabled society to remain interconnected, harnessing society's reverence of ancestral
practices for national strength.[75] According to researcher William R. Patterson, "The martial arts
were seen as a way not to maintain ancient martial techniques but instead to preserve a traditional
value system, Bushido, that could be used to nurture national spirit. In the midst of modernization
the Japanese were struggling to hold onto some traditions that were uniquely Japanese and that
could unify them as countrymen."[75] For example, Kanō Jigorō argued, "Because judo developed
based on the martial arts of the past, if the martial arts practitioners of the past had things that are
of value, those who practice judo should pass all those things on. Among these, the samurai spirit
should be celebrated even in today's society."
During interbellum and Second World War Shōwa Japan, bushido was pressed into use for
militarism[76] to present war as purifying, and death a duty.[77] Bushido was pitched as revitalizing
traditional values and "transcending the modern".[78] Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to
let soldiers fight to the end.[79] When giving orders, General Hideki Tojo routinely slapped the
faces of the men under his command, saying face-slapping was a "means of training" men who
came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second
nature.[80] Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū (Essays in time of national
emergency) which the Army Ministry published in March 1934. It called for Japan to become a
totalitarian "national defense state".[81] It included 15 essays by senior generals and argued Japan
defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War because bushido gave the Japanese superior
willpower: they did not fear death, unlike the Russians who wanted to live.[82]
As the Second World War turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on
the firm and united soul of the nation.[84] When Japan lost the Battle of Attu, the government
attempted to paint the more than two thousand Japanese deaths as an inspirational epic for the
fighting spirit of the nation.[85] Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all
Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they

failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted
to "bloom as flowers of death".[86] The Japanese believed that
indoctrination in bushido would give them the edge as the
Japanese longed to die for the emperor, while the Americans
were afraid to die. However, superior American pilot training
and airplanes meant the Japanese were outclassed by the
Americans.[87] The first proposals of organized suicide attacks
met resistance. While bushido called for a warrior to be always When the aircraft carrier
aware of death, they were not to view it as the sole end. USS Bunker Hill was hit by two
However, desperation brought about acceptance[88] and such kamikazes on 11 May 1945 there
attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido.[89] were 389 personnel killed or
officially listed as missing and 264
Bushido regarded surrender as cowardly. Those who did
were wounded.[83]
forfeited their honor and lost dignity and respect:[90]
As Japan continued its modernization in the early

20th century, her armed forces became convinced
that success in battle would be assured if Japanese
soldiers, sailors, and airmen had the "spirit" of
Bushido. ... The result was that the Bushido code of
behavior "was inculcated into the Japanese soldier
as part of his basic training". Each soldier was
indoctrinated to accept that it was the greatest
honor to die for the Emperor and it was cowardly to
surrender to the enemy. ... Bushido therefore
explains why the Japanese in the NEI so mistreated
POWs in their custody. Those who had surrendered
to the Japanese—regardless of how courageously or
honorably they had fought—merited nothing but
contempt; they had forfeited all honor and literally
deserved nothing. Consequently, when the
Japanese murdered POWs by shooting, beheading,
and drowning, these acts were excused since they
involved the killing of men who had forfeited all
rights to be treated with dignity or respect. While
civilian internees were certainly in a different
category from POWs, it is reasonable to think that
there was a "spill-over" effect from the tenets of
Bushido.
— Fred Borch, Military Trials of War Criminals

in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949
The practice of beheading captured soldiers and prisoners originates from samurai culture in the
14th century or earlier.[54][55] Japanese propaganda claimed prisoners of war captured during the
Second World War denied mistreatment, and declared they were treated well by virtue of bushido
generosity.[91] Broadcast interviews with prisoners were described as not propaganda and
voluntarily given based on such sympathy for the enemy that only bushido could inspire.[92]
During the Second World War, many Japanese infantry were trapped on Guam, surrounded by
Allied forces and low on supplies.[93] Despite being outnumbered and in horrific conditions, many
soldiers refused to surrender. Nitobe Inazō wrote, "They continued to honor the Bushido code,
believing that to rush into the thick of battle and to be slain in it, is easy enough ... but, it is true
courage to live when it is right to live, and to die only when it is right to die".[94][95]
Bushido is still present in the social and economic organization of Japan.[1] The samurai spirit and
the virtues can still be found in Japanese society.[1] Notable Japanese consider bushido an
important part of their culture.[96] Certain people use aspects of bushido as a way of life.[96][29]
Business
Bushido affects myriad aspects in Japanese society and culture. In addition to impacts on military
performance, media, entertainment, martial arts, medicine and social work, the bushido code has
catalyzed corporate behavior. It is the mode of thought which historically structured the capitalist
activity in the 20th century. Business relations, the close relationship between the individual and
the group to which he or she belongs, the notions of trust, respect and harmony within the
Japanese business world are based on bushido. Therefore, this is at the origin of the industrial
harmony (ja: 労使協調 ) ideology of modern Japan. It allowed the country to become, with the
Japanese economic miracle, the economic leader of Asia in the post-war years of the 1950-1960s.
The industrialist Eiichi Shibusawa preached bushido as necessary for future times, and the spirit
of Japanese business from the Meiji era to the Taishō Democracy was advocated, which became
the backbone necessary for Japanese management.[97]
Shinya Fujimura examines Samurai ethics in the academic article The Samurai Ethics: A Paradigm
for Corporate Behavior. Bushido principles indicate that rapid economic growth does not have to
be a goal of modern existence.[98] Relatedly, economic contentment is attainable regardless of
hegemonic gross-domestic product statistics.[99] In Fujimura's words, "The tradition permeates
the country's corporate culture and has informed many of its social developments".[100] Fujimura
states egalitarian principles practiced by the Samurai have permeated through modern business
society and culture. Principles like Honorable Poverty, "Seihin," encourage those with power and
resources to share their wealth, directly influencing national success.[100] Bushido also provides
enterprises with social meaning. Eloquently described by Fujimura, "The moral purpose that
bushido articulates transcends booms and busts ... it is often said that a Japanese company is like a
family, with executives caring about employees and employees showing respect to executives.
Bushido, then, is part of the basis for a sense of national identity and belonging—an ideal that says
the Japanese are one people, in it together.[101]
In Taiwan there continued to be positive views of bushido.[102] Such as late ROC president Lee
Teng-hui (1923-2020) admired traditional Japanese values and bushido influenced him.[29] In
Japanese Taiwan, Teng-hui learned kendo in school and he was deeply influenced by bushido and
the Japanese Bushido spirit, which had a significant impact on his future life.[103] He wrote the
2003 Japanese book "Bushido" Precis: What is Noblesse oblige? which strived to boost Japan's
morale during the economic stagnation by appealing to Japan's warrior spirit.[102]
Communication
In utilization of bushido's seven virtues, the Samurai code has been renewed to contribute towards
development of communication skills between adult Japanese couples. Composed in 2012, the
empirical document "The Bushido Matrix for Couple Communication" identifies a methodology
which can be employed by counseling agents to guide adults in self-reflection and share emotions
with their partner. This activity centers on the "Bushido Matrix Worksheet" (BMW).[104] The
authors accentuate, "practicing Bushido virtues can ultimately enhance intra- and interpersonal
relationship, beginning with personal awareness and extending to couple awareness.[30] When
utilizing the matrix, a couple is asked to identify one of the seven virtues and apply it to their past
and current perceptions surrounding its prevalence in their lives.[30] If individuals identify their
relationship to be absent that specific virtue, they may now ponder of its inclusion for their
benevolence.[105]
Martial arts
The bushido spirit exists in Japanese martial arts.[11] Modern

bushido focuses more on self-defense, fighting, sports,
tournaments and just physical fitness training. While all of
these things are important to the martial arts, a much more
important thing is missing, which is personal development.
Bushido's art taught soldiers the important secrets of life, how
to raise children, how to dress, how to treat family and other
people, how to cultivate personality, things related to finances.
All of these things are important to be a respected soldier.
Although modern bushido is guided by eight virtues, that alone
is not enough. Bushido not only taught one how to become a
soldier, but all the stages of life. The warrior described by
bushido is not a profession but a way of life. It is not necessary
to be in the army to be a soldier. The term "warrior" refers to a
person who is fighting for something, not necessarily Iaido sensei Haruna Matsuo
physically. Man is a true warrior because of what is in his
heart, mind, and soul. Everything else is just tools in the
creation to make it perfect. Bushido is a way of life that means living in every moment, honorably
and honestly. All this is of great importance in the life of a soldier, both now and in the past.[106]
In the book Kata – The true essence of Budo martial arts?, Simon Dodd and David Brown state
that bushido spiritualism led the martial art 'Bujutsu' to evolve into modern 'Budō' (武道).[38] For
their analysis, they review the Kamakura period to reiterate the influence bushido held in martial
arts evolution.[38] They distinctly state, "For clarity any reference to bushido is in relation to
bujutsu within the Kamakura to pre‐Meiji restoration period (pre-1868), and any links to budo are
referring to the modern form of the martial arts."[38] To supplement this affirmation Dodd and
Brown discuss the variance between the meaning behind Bujutsu and Budo. According to Todd
and Brown Budo is a redevelopment of traditional Kamakura period martial arts principles; Budo
defines the way of the warrior through roots in religious ethics and philosophy. The martial art
form's translation binds it to Confucian and Buddhist concepts of bushido:[38]
Respected karate‐ka Kousaku Yokota explains how Bujutsu could be considered the
"art of fighting or killing" and encompasses a 'win at all costs' mentality required for
battlefield survival (Yokota, 2010, p. 185). Conversely, Budo could be considered the
"artof living or life" and enables a practitioner to live "honestly and righteously or at
least with principles". Expanding on both these points, Deshimaru (1982, p. 11; p. 46)
reports that the ideogram for bu means to "the cease the struggle" and that "in Budo
the point is...to find peace and mastery of the self"[38]
The iaidō, in its transmission and its practice, is the martial art which takes up in its entirety
bushido by the etiquette, the code of honor, the dress, the carrying of the sword and the fight
against oneself rather than against the opponent. Modern combat sports like kendo derive their
philosophy from bushido; Unlike other martial arts, prolonged contact or multiple hits tend to be
disadvantaged in favor of simple, clean attacks on the body. Bushido has also inspired the code of
honor for disciplines such as aikijutsu, aikido, aikibudo, judo, jujitsu, Kyudo, or the chanbara.
Kendo has the bushido spirit such as epitomized by the motto Ken Zen Ichi Nyo (lit. "the sword
and Zen are one") ( 剣禅一如 ).[11] The philosopher Tetsuro Watsuji (1889–1960) wrote that
kendo involves raising a struggle to a life-transcending level by freeing oneself from an attachment
to life.[11] Kendo inculcates moral instruction through strict adherence to a code of etiquette.[11]
There are kamidana (miniature Shinto shrine) in the dojo.[11] The basic attitude in Kendo is noble
by shunning base feelings and the aim is conquering the self.[11]
Way of life
There are people who use bushido as a way of life. For example, the Japanese music artist Gackt
said that his philosophical way of life is similar to bushido.[31][96] In 2011, during interviews about
his martial arts action movie Bunraku (2010) he said:
"Being Japanese, bushido is my roots, and is an important part of my country's culture.

I believe it is my role to share this beautiful culture with the world. Bushido is a big part
of me personally as well as in my professional career."[96] "Bushido is also the core of
how I think, feel, and live so I felt this was a great opportunity for me to express to the
world what "Bushido" really means."[31]
— Gackt
Other notable people who use bushido in life are for example: former ROC president Lee Teng-hui
(1923-2020).[29]
In October 2011, Spain's Prince of Asturias Award for Concord was given to the heroes of the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster aka the Fukushima 50.[11] They were praised for their conduct
which "embodied the values most deeply rooted in Japanese society" and "courage and exemplary
behaviour" with self-sacrifice.[11] This was described by the media as "samurai spirit".[11]
Japan Self-Defense Forces
The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) are the successor of the

Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan which existed from 1868
till 1947.[107] The JSDF was officially established with the Self-
Defense Forces Act in 1954 (Act No. 165 of 1954).[108] It is
primarily used for national defense due to limitations of Article
9 of the Japanese Constitution. Bushido is only used
symbolically for example with names for combat exercises such
as Exercise Bushido Guardian (2019).[109] There are JSDF soldiers during a training
supporters and opposition for introducing bushido to the exercise
JSDF.
Supporters
Since 2000, numerous general officers proclaimed the importance of bushido with lectures.[110]
Bushido is useful for uniting troops with slogans such as "bravery" "discipline" and "honesty".[110]
Takashi Araya is an author, martial artist and JGSDF veteran (1982-2008) who established the
first special forces of the JSDF.[110] Araya wrote the 2015 book To those who Fight: Japan's Cause
and Bushido.[111] He describes the essence of bushido which was created over a thousand years,
and stresses the importance of training soldiers with bushido.[111] He argues the purpose of
Japanese martial arts is not to kill other people, but to cleanse their evil spirits and open the way
for coexistence and co-prosperity.[111] He says by training soldiers with bushido they can become
the strongest fighting special forces.[111] He wants JSDF members to inherit bushido to be brave
and live dignifiedly.[111] By using the action philosophy of bushido, they can become not only
strong technologically, but also spiritually.[111]
Opposition
Some critics say that excessive praise of bushido could repeat the mistakes of the former Imperial
Armed Forces.[110] The old Japanese military officer training of the IJA emphasized courage under
fire (assault) instead of scientific ability.[110] This created close solidarity between the soldiers and
officers, but the officers lacked skills that the soldiers did not have.[110] Japanese troops put high
significance on dying bravely and spiritual value instead of long-term endurance.[110] This resulted
in "an inclination toward spirituality that ignores reality."[110] This ethos exists in the JSDF. By
having officers act like soldiers to earn their loyalty with the courage of bushido, it causes sleep-
deprivation.[110] It's disputed whether it has significance for modern-warfare such as space
warfare and cyberwarfare.[110]
seppuku process
There was a case of a National Police Reserve (1950-1954) member who committed seppuku to
apologize for being unable to become an ideal soldier.[110] This was a wasteful loss of life. Another
example was a young squadron commander who failed an exercise due to repeating to attack
rather than change tactics.[110] The pre-war Imperial Japanese Navy researcher Alexander Chiralfi
said the Japanese mindset was subjective and had no interest to academically analyze unrelated
maritime issues.[110] Subjective and short-sighted discussions don't yield wise strategies.[110] The
ideal image of executives should change according to the times and strategic environment.[110]
Thus the feudal bushido may not fit in a modern strategic environment and culture.[110] Critics
argue the Meiji Army defeated the Qing and the Imperial Russian Army, not because of bushido,
but because it was a professional military organization.[110] Therefore, Bushido should not become
the values of the whole JSDF.[110] Rather the ideal image of JSDF executives should be defined to
achieve national interests.[110]
Bushido types and tenets

Multiple bushido types have existed through history. The code varied due to influences such as Zen
Buddhism, Shinto, Confucianism as well as changes in society and on the battlefield.[7][1][34] The
consistent ideal is martial spirit, including athletic, military skills and valor: fearlessness toward
the enemy in battle.[7][1] Bushido is a path that the samurai of each era pursued for their entire
existence.
Sengoku bushido
Period: Muromachi-Azuchi (Sengoku period) (1336–1603)
Representative and important figures: Takeda Shingen, Uesugi Kenshin, Oda Nobunaga,
Tokugawa Ieyasu, Katō Kiyomasa, Nabeshima Naoshige
During this era the daimyo expanded their territory by force and strategy. Battles occurred
frequently in various places. The purpose was to expand one's power. The killing of the enemy in a
battle led to evaluation.
Certain daimyos wrote about moral codes with influence from Zen
Buddhism and Confucianism. There was not yet a strong attachment to moral values (apart from
honor) in samurai society. Honor, weaponry and warfare were valued of utmost importance in
Japanese culture.[36] Low priority was placed on monetary savings.[36]
Tenets
Honor[36]
Warfare[36]
Weapon mastery[36][26]
Martial arts[7][1]
Valor in battle[1]
Early moral codes
Edo bushido
Period: Early to late Edo (1603–1868)
Representative and important figures: Kōsaka Masanobu, Saito Chikamori, Yamaga Soko,
Daidoji Tomoyama, Yagyu Munenori, Yamaoka Tesshu, Miyamoto Musashi, Yamamoto
Tsunetomo, Hishikawa Moronobu
After the chaotic Sengoku period, politics were carried out in orderly fashion, and peace was
maintained. The samurai could no longer obtain merit on the battlefield. They found more
significance of the samurai's existence in areas other than battle. As per Confucianism, it was
valued to work for morals and the public, not for personal reasons. In addition, there were many
martial arts who included religious boundaries such as Buddhism and Shinto.
A famous example is a passage in the Hagakure: "Bushido is realised in the presence of death. In
the case of having to choose between life and death you should choose death. There is no other
reasoning. Move on with determination." It can be difficult to interpret, but it was radical at the
time. That appeared in the Taihei era of the Edo period. The oral tradition of the Saga Domain
feudal lord Nabeshima Mitsushige, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, is the main subject. There are many
expressions that criticize the samurai who are associated with Confucianism and Buddhism that
were popular at the time. There are many works that guide the art of treatment while describing
the spirit of the samurai of the Sengoku period.
Tenets
Bushidō expanded and formalized the earlier code of the samurai, and stressed sincerity, frugality,
loyalty, mastery of martial arts, and honour to the death. Under the bushidō ideal, if a samurai
failed to uphold his honor he could only regain it by performing seppuku (ritual suicide).[7] The
core of bushido consists of a combination of teachings from Japan's three main philosophical
traditions: 1. Buddhist precepts of serenity, stoicism, and non-attachment to life. 2. Shinto notions
of fidelity and patriotism, and 3. Confucian morality.[11] People imbued with bushi katagi (武士気
質, lit. "samurai spirit") can serenely carry out their work in the face of any adversity, and have the
willpower to master themselves.[11] Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji Yūzan wrote Bushido Shoshinshu (武
道初心集 ) (pre-1730) which provides practical and moral instructions for samurai to improve
personal, social and professional standards.[4]
In an excerpt from his book Samurai: The World of the Warrior,[112] historian Stephen Turnbull
describes the role of seppuku in feudal Japan:
In the world of the warrior, seppuku was a deed of bravery that was admirable in a
samurai who knew he was defeated, disgraced, or mortally wounded. It meant that he
could end his days with his transgressions wiped away and with his reputation not
merely intact but actually enhanced. The cutting of the abdomen released the samurai's
spirit in the most dramatic fashion, but it was an extremely painful and unpleasant way
to die, and sometimes the samurai who was performing the act asked a loyal comrade
to cut off his head at the moment of agony.
Bushidō varied dramatically over time, and across the geographic and socio-economic
backgrounds of the samurai, who represented somewhere between 5% and 10% of the Japanese
population.[2] The first Meiji-era census at the end of the 19th century counted 1,282,000
members of the "high samurai", allowed to ride a horse, and 492,000 members of the "low
samurai", allowed to wear two swords but not to ride a horse, in a country of about 25 million.[113]
Some versions of bushidō include compassion for those of lower station, and for the preservation
of one's name.[51] Early bushidō literature further enforces the requirement to conduct oneself
with calmness, fairness, justice, and propriety.[51] The relationship between learning and the way
of the warrior is clearly articulated, one being a natural partner to the other.[51]
Other pundits pontificating on the warrior philosophy covered methods of raising children,
appearance, and grooming, but all of this may be seen as part of one's constant preparation for
death—to die a good death with one's honor intact, the ultimate aim in a life lived according to
bushidō. Indeed, a "good death" is its own reward, and by no means assurance of "future rewards"
in the afterlife. Some samurai, though certainly not all (e.g., Amakusa Shirō), have throughout
history held such aims or beliefs in disdain, or expressed the awareness that their station—as it
involves killing—precludes such reward, especially in Buddhism. Japanese beliefs surrounding the
samurai and the afterlife are complex and often contradictory, while the soul of a noble warrior
suffering in hell or as a lingering spirit occasionally appears in Japanese art and literature, so does
the idea of a warrior being reborn upon a lotus throne in paradise[114]
The essence of bushido was defined by Saitō Chikamori as:[1][7]
Sincerity - do not lie, do not be insincere, do not be superficial

Responsibility - do not be obsequious
Frugality - do not be greedy[1]
Politeness - do not be rude, do not slander
Modesty - do not be boastful, do not be arrogant
Loyalty - do not be unfaithful
Harmony - be on good terms with comrades
Tranquility - do not be overly concerned with events
Compassion - show concern for one another, be compassionate, with a strong sense of duty.
Meiji bushido
Period: Meiji to mid Showa (1868-1945).
Representative and important figures: Nitobe Inazō, Yukio Mishima, Kanō Jigorō, Kanno
Kakumyō, Eiichi Shibusawa, Fukuzawa Yukichi
Meiji bushido added emperor worship with an emphasis on loyalty and self-sacrifice.[32] The book
Bushido: The Soul of Japan by Nitobe Inazō popularized bushido internationally during the Meiji
era. However, the morals that he described are romanticized interpretations and do not represent
all of bushido through history.
In the Taishō era, bushido as the way of the merchant was advocated by industrialist Shibusawa
Eiichi (1840–1931), known as the "father of Japanese capitalism".[28] Shibusawa was also a
warrior who learned Shindō Munen-ryū and Hokushin Ittō-ryū. He spent some time as a vassal of
Tokugawa Yoshinobu, and since the Meiji era, he was a businessman and involved in the
establishment of hundreds of corporations.
In his book "Theory and Arithmetic" (論語と算盤), he
advocated the word "samurai business talent" ( 士魂商才 ). He linked the spirit of the samurai
(bushido with the influence of Confucianism) to economic activity and denied immoral merchants
for self-interest.
Eight virtues of bushido (as defined by Nitobe Inazō)
The bushidō code is typified by eight virtues according to Nitobe Inazō in the Meiji Period
(1900):[6] Nitobe defined bushido as "the ways which fighting nobles should observe in their daily
life as in their vocation."[11]
Righteousness (義, gi)
Be acutely honest throughout your dealings with all people. Believe in justice, not from other
people, but from yourself. To the true warrior, all points of view are deeply considered regarding
honesty, justice and integrity. Warriors make a full commitment to their decisions.
Heroic Courage (勇, yū)
Hiding like a turtle in a shell is not living at all. A true warrior must have heroic courage. It is
absolutely risky. It is living life completely, fully and wonderfully. Heroic courage is not blind. It is
intelligent and strong.
Benevolence, Compassion (仁, jin)
Through intense training and hard work the true warrior becomes quick and strong. They are not
as most people. They develop a power that must be used for good. They have compassion. They
help their fellow men at every opportunity. If an opportunity does not arise, they go out of their
way to find one.
Respect (礼, rei)
True warriors have no reason to be cruel. They do not need to prove their strength. Warriors are
not only respected for their strength in battle, but also by their dealings with others. The true
strength of a warrior becomes apparent during difficult times.
Honesty (誠, makoto)
When warriors say that they will perform an action, it is as good as done. Nothing will stop them
from completing what they say they will do. They do not have to 'give their word'. They do not have
to 'promise'. Speaking and doing are the same action.
Honour (名誉, meiyo)
Warriors have only one judge of honor and character, and this is themselves. Decisions they make
and how these decisions are carried out are a reflection of who they truly are. You cannot hide
from yourself.
Duty and Loyalty (忠義, chūgi)
Warriors are responsible for everything that they have done and everything that they have said and
all of the consequences that follow. They are immensely loyal to all of those in their care. To
everyone that they are responsible for, they remain fiercely true.
Self-Control (自制, jisei)
Associated virtues
Filial piety (孝, kō)

Wisdom (智, chi)
Fraternity (悌, tei)
Duty (義理, giri) (Giri (Japanese))
Period: 1950–Present
Representative and important figures: Lee Teng Hui, Gackt, Fukushima 50
Bushido continues to exist in various forms in for example business, communication, martial arts
and as a way of life.[1][30][38][31][96][29] This is also called the bushido spirit.[11][103]
Modern translations
Modern Western translation of documents related to bushidō began in the 1970s with Carl
Steenstrup, who performed research into the ethical codes of famous samurai including Hōjō
Sōun and Imagawa Sadayo.[115]
Primary research into bushidō was later conducted by William Scott Wilson in his 1982 text Ideals
of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors. The writings span hundreds of years, family
lineage, geography, social class and writing style—yet share a common set of values. Wilson's work
also examined older Japanese writings unrelated to the warrior class: the Kojiki, Shoku Nihongi,
the Kokin Wakashū and the Konjaku Monogatari, as well as the Chinese Classics (the Analects, the
Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, and the Mencius).
In May 2008, Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on bushidō by warriors,

scholars, political advisers, and educators, spanning 500 years from the 14th to the 19th centuries.
Titled Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook, it gave an insider's view of the samurai
world: "the moral and psychological development of the warrior, the ethical standards they were
meant to uphold, their training in both martial arts and strategy, and the enormous role that the
traditions of Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism had in influencing samurai ideals".
In literature
Examples of important Japanese literature related to bushido from the 12th to the 21st century:
Author English Title Japanese title Date

1198–
Hōjō Shigetoki The Message of Master Gokurakuji
1261
Ogasawara Sakuun Shoke no Hyōjō 1621
1350–
Shiba Yoshimasa The Chikubashō
1410
1325–
Imagawa Sadayo The Regulations of Imagawa Ryoshun
1420
The Seventeen-Article Injunction of 1428–
Asakura Toshikage
Asakura Toshikage 1481
1432–
Hōjō Sōun The Twenty-One Precepts Of Hōjō Sōun
1519
1474–
Asakura Norikage The Recorded Words Of Asakura Soteki
1555
1521–
Takeda Shingen The Iwamizudera Monogatari
1573
1525–
Takeda Nobushige Opinions In Ninety-Nine Articles
1561
1539–
Torii Mototada The Last Statement of Torii Mototada
1600
1538–
Nabeshima Naoshige Lord Nabeshima's Wall Inscriptions
1618
1562–
Katō Kiyomasa The Precepts of Kato Kiyomasa
1611
Kōsaka Masanobu Kōyō Gunkan 甲陽軍鑑 1616
1568–
Kuroda Nagamasa Notes On Regulations
1623
Saitō Chikamori Kashoki 可笑記 1642
Miyamoto Musashi The Book of Five Rings 五輪書 1645
Kokon Bushido Ezukushi (Bushido

Hishikawa Moronobu 古今武士道絵つくし 1685
Through The Ages)
Yamamoto Tsunetomo and
Hagakure 葉隠 1716
Tsuramoto Tashiro
Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji Before
Bushido Shoshinshu 武道初心集
Yūzan 1730
Hijōji Kokumin Zenshū (Essays in Time of
Hideki Tojo & senior generals 非常時國民全集 1934
National Emergency)
To those who Fight: Japan's Cause and 戦う者たちへ (日本の大

Takashi Araya 2015
Bushido 義と武士道)
Major figures associated with bushido

Asano Naganori Yukio Mishima
Imagawa Ryōshun Hijikata Toshizō
Katō Kiyomasa Kosaka Masanobu
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro Miyamoto Musashi
Honda Tadakatsu Nitobe Inazo
Tokugawa Ieyasu Kusunoki Masashige
Torii Mototada Gichin Funakoshi
Sasaki Kojirō Kanō Jigorō
Saigō Takamori Dom Justo Takayama
Yamaga Sokō Morihei Ueshiba
Yamamoto Tsunetomo Takeda Sōkaku
Yamaoka Tesshū Hideki Tojo
See also
Budō
Hagakure
Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi
Japanese martial arts
The Unfettered Mind
Japanese Zen
Zen at War
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78. John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p1 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
79. Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won p 6 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
80. Browne, Courtney (1998). Tojo The Last Banzai. Boston: Da Capo Press. p. 40.
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82. Bix, Herbert P. (September 4, 2001). Hirohito and the making of modern Japan (https://books.g
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Retrieved November 11, 2011.
83. Bunker Hill CV-17 (http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/17.htm), NavSource Online: Aircraft
Carrier Photo Archive
84. Hoyt 1986, p. 334.
85. John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 444
Random House New York 1970
86. John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945 p 539
Random House New York 1970
87. Willmott, H.P. (1984). June 1944 (https://archive.org/details/june194400will). Poole, United
Kingdom: Blandford Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-7137-1446-8.
88. Hoyt 1986, p. 356.
89. Hoyt 1986, p. 360.
90. Borch, Fred (2017). Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949
(https://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31). Oxford University Press.
pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0191082955. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200128213146/htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31) from the original on 2020-01-28.
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91. Hoyt 1986, p. 256.
92. Hoyt 1986, p. 257.
93. Dixon, Gilda & Bulgrin 2012, p. 110.
94. Nitobe, Inazō. 2006 Bushido: The Soul of Japan. Stepney, Australia: Axiom Publishing.
95. Dixon, Gilda & Bulgrin 2012, p. 113
96. "Interview with GACKT" (http://www.jame-world.com/us/articles-79430-interview-with-gackt.ht
ml). JaME World. September 28, 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016021607120
5/http://www.jame-world.com/us/articles-79430-interview-with-gackt.html) from the original on
February 16, 2016. Retrieved February 9, 2016.
97. Bushido according to Shibusawa Eiichi: The Analects and Business and Samurais in the
World. Amazon.com. 2017.
98. Fujimura 2011, p. 212.
99. Fujimura 2011, p. 213.
100. Fujimura 2011, p. 214.
101. Fujimura 2011, p. 215.
102. Lee Teng-hui (April 6, 2006). 「武士道」解題〔小学館文庫〕: ノーブレス・オブリージュとは
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103. 再發"參拜靖國神社"論李登輝媚日情結大起底 3 November 2010 (https://archive.today/20130
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Daily. 兩岸網. 3 November 2010. Archived from the original (http://tw.news.chinayes.com/Cont
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104. Li et al. 2012, p. 299
105. Li et al. 2012, p. 302
106. Sanders, B., 2012. Modern Bushido: Living a Life of Excellence.
107. "One can date the 'restoration' of imperial rule from the edict of 3 January 1868." Jansen,
Marius B. (2000). The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 334.
108. "Japan Self-Defense Force | Defending Japan" (http://defendingjapan.wordpress.com/tag/japa
n-self-defense-force/). Defendingjapan.wordpress.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20150216123929/https://defendingjapan.wordpress.com/tag/japan-self-defense-force/) from
the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
109. Louis Dillon (October 14, 2019). "Exercise Bushido Guardian comes to an end" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20210101021200/https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/air-sea-lift/4941-exercise
-bushido-guardian-comes-to-an-end). Archived from the original (https://www.defenceconnect.
com.au/air-sea-lift/4941-exercise-bushido-guardian-comes-to-an-end) on January 1, 2021.
110. Naosuke Heya (部谷直亮) (March 8, 2017). "自衛隊よ、武士道に入れあげていると破滅する
ぞ (Self-Defense Forces, if you put it in Bushido, it will be ruined)" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20190529032720/http://jbpress.ismedia.jp/articles/-/49356). Archived from the original (http
s://jbpress.ismedia.jp/articles/-/49356) on May 29, 2019.
111. Takashi Araya (荒谷卓) (August 31, 2015). 戦う者たちへ (日本の大義と武士道). ISBN 978-4-
89063-332-6.
112. "ospreysamurai.com" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060315180151/http://www.ospreysamura
i.com/samurai_death02.htm). www.ospreysamurai.com. Archived from the original (http://www.
ospreysamurai.com/samurai_death02.htm) on 2006-03-15. Retrieved 2006-03-05.
113. Mikiso Hane Modern Japan: A Historical Survey, Third Edition Westview Press (January 2001)
ISBN 0-8133-3756-9
114. Zeami Motokiyo "Atsumori"
115. "Monumenta Nipponica" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080215193758/http://monumenta.cc.s
ophia.ac.jp/aboutMN.html). Archived from the original (http://monumenta.cc.sophia.ac.jp/about
MN.html) on 2008-02-15.
Bibliography
Dixon, Body; Gilda, Laura; Bulgrin, Lon (2012). "The Archaeology of World War II Japanese
Stragglers on the Island of Guam and the Bushido Code". Asian Perspectives. 51 (1): 110–
127. doi:10.1353/asi.2012.0000 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fasi.2012.0000). hdl:10125/36660
(https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F36660). S2CID 162216662 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:162216662).
Hoyt, Edwin P (1986). Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict, 1853-1952 (https://archive.org/
details/japanswargreatpa0000hoyt). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070306125.
Li, Chi-Sing; Lin, Yu-Fen; Ginsburg, Phil; Eckstein, Daniel (2012). "The Bushido Matrix for
Couple Communication". Family Journal. 20 (3): 299–305. doi:10.1177/1066480712449142 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1177%2F1066480712449142). ISSN 1066-4807 (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
n/1066-4807). S2CID 145112346 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145112346).
Patterson, William R (2008). "Bushido's Role in the Growth of Pre-World War II Japanese
Nationalism". Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 17 (3).
Fujimura, Shinya (2011). "The Samurai Ethics: A Paradigm for Corporate Behavior". Harvard
Kennedy School Review. 11: 212–215.
Keen, Maurice Keen (2005). Chivalry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Further reading
William Scott Wilson, Ideals of the Samurai: John Allyn, "Forty-Seven Ronin Story"
Writings of Japanese Warriors (Kodansha, ISBN 0-8048-0196-7
1982) ISBN 0-89750-081-4 Imagawa Ryoshun, The Regulations of
Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Imagawa Ryoshun (1412 A.D.)
Sourcebook (https://www.amazon.com/dp/1 Imagawa_Ryoshun
590305728) by Thomas Cleary 288 pages Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, 1st
Shambhala (May 13, 2008) ISBN 1-59030- Baron Redesdale,
572-8 ISBN 978-1590305720 Final_Statement_of_the_47_Ronin (1701
Katsumata Shizuo with Martin Collcutt, "The A.D.)
Development of Sengoku Law," in Hall, The Message Of Master Gokurakuji — Hōjō
Nagahara, and Yamamura (eds.), Japan Shigetoki (1198A.D.-1261A.D.)
Before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation Hojo_shigetoki
and Economic Growth (1981), chapter 3. Onoda, Hiroo, No Surrender: My Thirty-Year
K. A. Grossberg & N. Kanamoto 1981, The War. (http://www.trivia-library.com/b/history-
Laws of the Muromachi Bakufu: Kemmu of-survivor-hiroo-onoda-the-last-samurai-par
Shikimoku (1336) and Muromachi Bakufu t-1.htm) Trans. Charles S. Terry. (New York,
Tsuikaho, MN Monographs (Sophia UP) Kodansha International Ltd, 1974) ISBN 1-
Hall, John C. "Japanese Feudal Laws: the 55750-663-9
Magisterial Code of the Hojo Power Holders Code of the Samurai: A Modern Translation
(1232) ." Transactions of the Asiatic Society of the Bushido Shoshinshu of Taira
of Japan 2nd ser. 34 (1906) Shigesuke by Oscar Ratti, Thomas Cleary
"Japanese Feudal laws: The Ashikaga ISBN 0804831904, (September 15, 1999)
Code." Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Archived copy. ISBN 0804831904.
Japan 1st ser. 36 (1908):
A History of Law in Japan Until 1868 (http Tales of Old Japan by Algernon Bertram
s://www.amazon.com/dp/9004104534) by Freeman-Mitford (1871) reprinted 1910
Carl Steenstrup; Brill Academic Osprey, "Elite and Warrior Series" Assorted.
Publishers;second edition (1996) ISBN 90- [2] (http://www.ospreysamurai.com/)
04-10453-4 Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2006
Budoshoshinshu – The Code of The Warrior 0315180114/http://www.ospreysamurai.co
by Daidōji Yūzan (ISBN 0-89750-096-2) m/) 2006-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
Hagakure-The Book of the Samurai By Stephen Turnbull, "Samurai Warfare"
Tsunetomo Yamamoto (ISBN 4-7700-1106-7 (London, 1996), Cassell & Co ISBN 1-
paperback, ISBN 4-7700-2916-0 hardcover) 85409-280-4
Go Rin No Sho – Miyamoto Musashi (http Lee Teng-hui, former President of the
s://web.archive.org/web/20060220004601/ht Republic of China, "武士道解題做人的根本
tp://www.nhk.or.jp/kumamoto/musashi/imag 蕭志強譯" in Chinese，前衛, "「武士道」解
es/musashi_poster.jpg) (1645) (ISBN 4- 題―ノーブレス・オブリージュとは" in
7700-2801-6 hardback, ISBN 4-7700-2844- Japanese，小学館，(2003), ISBN 4-09-
X hardback Japan only) 387370-4
The Unfettered Mind – Writings of the Zen Alexander Bennett (2017). Bushido and the
Master to the Sword master (http://www.sam Art of Living: An Inquiry into Samurai Values
uraimaster.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/0 (https://japanlibrary.jpic.or.jp/books/publishe
6/TheUnfetteredMind.pdf) by Takuan Sōhō d/philosophyandreligion/001812.html).
(Musashi's mentor) (ISBN 0-87011-851-X) Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry
The Religion of the Samurai (1913 original Foundation for Culture.
text), by Kaiten Nukariya, 2007 reprint by
ELPN Press ISBN 0-9773400-7-4
External links
Sakujiro Yokoyama's Account of a Samurai Sword Duel (https://web.archive.org/web/2005021
6191125/http://home.att.net/~hofhine/Samurai.html)
Death Before Dishonor (https://web.archive.org/web/20031231014646/http://www.japantimes.c
om/cgi-bin/getarticle.pl5?fl20021215a1.htm) By Masaru Fujimoto — Special to The Japan
Times: Dec. 15, 2002
An interview with William Scott Wilson about Bushidō (https://web.archive.org/web/200903061
80335/http://www.kodansha-intl.com/books/html/en/9784770029423.html)
Bushidō Website (https://web.archive.org/web/20050413003324/http://mcel.pacificu.edu/as/stu
dents/bushido/bindex.html): a good definition of bushidō, including The Samurai Creed (https://
web.archive.org/web/20050829074806/http://mcel.pacificu.edu/as/students/bushido/bcreed.ht
ml)
Sunset of the Samurai (http://www.historynet.com/satsuma-rebellion-satsuma-clan-samurai-ag
ainst-the-imperial-japanese-army.htm)--The True Story of Saigo Takamori Military History
Magazine
The website of William Scott Wilson (http://www.williamscottwilson.net/) Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20090305073148/http://williamscottwilson.net/) 2009-03-05 at the Wayback
Machine A 2005 recipient of the Japanese Government's Japan's Foreign Minister's
Commendation, William Scott Wilson was honored for his research on Samurai and Bushidō.
Hojo Shigetoki (1198–1261)and His Role in the History of Political and Ethical Ideas in Japan
(https://www.amazon.com/dp/070070132X) by Carl Steenstrup; Curzon Press (1979)ISBN 0-
7007-0132-X
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04.06.

22, 16:05 Bushido - Wikipedia

Major figures associated with bushido

Myth and reality

major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the

Towards the 10th and 11th centuries we began to

The world of warriors which developed […] in the

"One should put forth great effort in matters of

Nabeshima Naoshige (1538 – 1618) says similarly, that it is

By the mid-16th century, several of Japan's most powerful

The Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) codified aspects of the

During this period, the samurai class played a central role in

Budo Shōshinshu (武道初心集) by Taira Shigesuke, Daidōji

that bushido lies only in "becoming as a spear" on the

In Koyo Gunkan (1616), bushido is a survival technique for

Dr. Hiroko Willcock (senior lecturer at Griffith University,

— 5th scroll of the Kashoki by Saitō Chikamori (1642)[1]

In 1685, the ukiyo-e book Kokon Bushidō ezukushi ( 古 今 武 士 道 絵 つ く し , "Images of Bushidō

The aging Yamamoto Tsunetomo's interpretation of bushidō is

Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and

Chinese writer Zhou Zuoren regarded the bushido promoted

The researcher Oleg Benesch argued that the concept of

The entrepreneur Fukuzawa Yukichi appreciated bushido and

Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they

As Japan continued its modernization in the early

— Fred Borch, Military Trials of War Criminals

The bushido spirit exists in Japanese martial arts.[11] Modern

"Being Japanese, bushido is my roots, and is an important part of my country's culture.

Japan Self-Defense Forces

The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) are the successor of the

Bushido types and tenets

The essence of bushido was defined by Saitō Chikamori as:[1][7]

Sincerity - do not lie, do not be insincere, do not be superficial

Eight virtues of bushido (as defined by Nitobe Inazō)

Righteousness (義, gi)

Heroic Courage (勇, yū)

Benevolence, Compassion (仁, jin)

Respect (礼, rei)

Honesty (誠, makoto)

Honour (名誉, meiyo)

Duty and Loyalty (忠義, chūgi)

Self-Control (自制, jisei)

Filial piety (孝, kō)

In May 2008, Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on bushidō by warriors,

Author English Title Japanese title Date

Kōsaka Masanobu Kōyō Gunkan 甲陽軍鑑 1616

Saitō Chikamori Kashoki 可笑記 1642

Miyamoto Musashi The Book of Five Rings 五輪書 1645

Kokon Bushido Ezukushi (Bushido

To those who Fight: Japan's Cause and 戦う者たちへ (日本の大

Major figures associated with bushido

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bushido&oldid=1090730775"

This page was last edited on 31 May 2022, at 02:11 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

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In 1685, the ukiyo-e book Kokon Bushidō ezukushi ( 古今武士道絵つくし , "Images of Bushidō