The instability of rapidly stretching plastic jets

L. A. Romero

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 65, 3006 (1989); doi: 10.1063/1.342718

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 The instability of rapidly stretching plastic jets
L. A. Romero
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185
(Received 9 September 1988; accepted for publication 19 December 1988)
A stability analysis of a rapidly stretching jet satisfying the equations of motion for a perfectly
plastic material is presented. It is found that the stability of the jet depends on a dimensionless
parameter r that measures the importance of the inertial forces relative to the plastic forces.
This parameter is a decreasing function of time. It will be shown that jets with r initially very
large will be stable until r decreases to order unity. These jets will then go unstable and break
up into drops whose axial dimension is comparable to their radius. Jets with r initially small
will always be unstable. It will be shown that these jets tend to break up into drops whose axial
dimension is r-· 1/5 times their radius,

I. INTRODUCTION Subsequent paperslO,ll have taken the inertial effects

Rapidly stretching metal jets occur in a variety of situa-
tions. Two examples are jets produced by shaped charges 1-3
and jets produced when a shock wave is reflected from a
surface with irregularities. 4 In many of these situations the
jets are observed to undergo large amounts of strain with a
nearly cylindrical shape before becoming unstable and
breaking up into fragments. Typically the axial velocity of
particles in these jets increases linearly with the distance
from the rear end of the jet with strain rates of up to 105 S - 1.
Simple kinematics shows that the strain rate and radius of
the jet both decrease with time.
The instability that leads to the breakup of the jet is
similar to that arising in the necking of bars. 5 ,6 The results
concerning the necking of slowly stretching plastic bars can
be summarized as follows: As one slowly stretches a bar be-
yond its yield point, the cross section of the bar decreases. If
there is no work hardening, and no necking occurs, this im-
plies that the integrated stress over a cross section also de-
creases. However, work hardening can prevent the integrat-
ed stress from decreasing. The criterion for a slowly
stretching bar not to neck is that the material work hardens
enough that as the bar stretches, the integrated stress over
the bar increases.
Work hardening is not believed to be a significant factor
in the dynamics of rapidly stretching jets. If the results from
the necking of bars were naively applied to these jets, the
conclusion would be that the jets break up long before they
actually do. The early work 7 ,8 on the jet instability used one-
dimensional models similar to those llsed in the analysis of
necking bars. These ignore the radial pressure gradients
caused by inertial effects. Frankel and Weihs 9 speculated
that these inertial effects could be a significant factor in sta-
bilizing these jets. As evidence of this they analyzed the sta-
bility of a rapidly stretching capiilary jet. They showed that
even though a static capillary jet is unstable, a rapidly
stretching capillary jet can be initially stable. Such a jet is
stable until its radius shrinks down to a size where the capil-
lary forces are comparable to the inertial forces. After
shrinking to this size the most unstable wavelength is found
to have an axial dimension comparable to the current radius
of the jet. Frankel and Weihs speculated that the mechanism
for initially stabilizing shaped charge jets is similar.
into account while attempting to model the jet using more
appropriate constitutive laws, In particular the jet was mod-
eled as a perfectly plastic material. However, approxima-
tions were made so that the jet did not fuHy satisfy the Levy-
von Mises equations for a perfectly plastic material. In this
paper an analysis similar to that of Frankel and Weihs is
done using the Levy-von Mises equations for a perfectly
plastic material. Let p, aU), [JU), and Y be the density,
radius, strain rate, and yield stress of the jet at any time t. The
following are three main results in this paper:
(1) The stability of the jet is determined by the size of
the dimensionless parameter
which measures the imporance of the inertial terms relative
to the plastic terms in the equations of motion. Large values
of r (t) imply that the jet is stretching rapidly enough for the
inertial terms to dominate; small values ofr (t) indicate that
the jet is stretching slowly enough for the plastic terms to
dominate. rc t) is a decreasing function of time indicating
that as the jet stretches and its radius decreases, the plastic
forces become more important relative to the inertial forces.
(II) If initially r (t) > 1, then the jet is initially stable.
As the jet stretches, rU) decreases unW it is small enough
that the jet becomes unstable. Once the jet has gone unstable,
the most unstable wavelength at any time is found to be of
the same order of magnitude as the radius of the jet at that
time.
(III) Jf initially r (t) <t: 1, then the jet is initially unsta-
ble. The most unstable wavelength can now be much longer
than the radius ofthe jet. It is found to be proportional to the
radius of the jet times r- 1/5.
The prediction of the most unstable wavelength is in
qualitative agreement with that of Frankel and Weihs only
in the case where the inertia! terms are initially dominant,
The most unstable wavelength of a stretching capillary jet
approaches a finite number as the stretching rate approaches
zero. However, the most unstable wavelength of a necking
bar approaches infinity as the stretching rate approaches
zero. The fact that the most unstable wavelength increases as
one decreases f' is in qualitative agreement with the experi-
ments of Grady and Benson done on rapidly stretching met-

3006 J, Appl. Phys. 65 (8),15 Aprii 1989 0021-8979/89/083006-11$02.40 (c) 1989 American Institute of Physics 3006

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 al rings. 12 It should be pointed out that for a bar to be consid- 0 0 (0 = Go(O)q(t)-1f2 , (3a)
ered slowly stretching it need only be stretching slowly on P(t) =P(O)q(t)-I. (3b)
the plastic time scale,
The kinematics of the unperturbed jet is now completely
tp = (pa 2 /Y)lf2.
specified. The pressure distribution in the unperturbed jet
Typically Y is very large (in commonly used units such a" wiII now be calculated, In order to do this it is necessary to
egs), so the plastic time scale is usually much shorter than specify a form for the equations of motion and some bound-
the time scale of ordinary human perception. ary conditions at the surface of the jet. These equations will
The main difficulty in analyzing the stability of shaped also be needed when calculating the stability of the jet. It is
charge jets is that the undistributed fl.ow is evolving with assumed that the flow obeys the equations for an incom-
time. This makes it impossible to come up with a precise pressible perfectly plastic material satisfying the Levy-von
criterion for when the system loses its stability or what is the Mises equations 13 and that the surface of the jet is stress free.
most unstable mode. However, it is believed that the follow- The Levy-von Mises equations are
ing analysis shows that one can give reasonably sharp defini-
tions of these quantities, The equations are analyzed by sev-
era! techniques. The results from a finite difference code P
au u ' Vu') =
(Tt+ -Vp+divT', (4a)
using the method of lines are presented. Also, asymptotic
results are given for short wavelengths, long wavelengths,
V·u=O, (4b)
flows with dominant inertial terms, and flow with dominant
where p is the constant material density, p is the pressure,
plastic terms. The asymptotic results are found to be in ex-
and T' is the deviatoric stress. In Cartesian coordinates T' is
ceHent agreement with the results obtained using the code.
given by
The analyses support the conclusions mentioned earlier in
this section. Tij = 2p,€ij' (Sa)
where Eij is the rate of strain tensor,
II. THE UNDISTURBED FLOW
In this section a solution representing the idealized mo-
(au au)/
i3ij= _ ' +_J
BXj ax;
2, (5b)

tion of the jet will be obtained. The remainder of the paper f.l is the effective viscosity,
will be devoted to analyzing the stability of this solution. As Ji = Y(2€kl€kl) --1/2, (5c)
in Ref. 9, the dynamics of the jet tip is ignored and it is
assumed that the jet is infinitely long. The axial velocity of and Y is the yield stress of the material. Equations (5) ex-
any material point in the jet is assumed to be independent of press the fact that the flow is incompressible, the strain rates
time and to vary linearly with distance from the origin. The are proportional to the deviatoric stresses, and the second
jet is assumed to be cylindrical and the radial velocity of invariant ofthe deviatoric stress tensor equals the yield stress
points inside the jet is chosen so that the resulting velocity (T kI T kJ2) = y2.
field is that of an incompressible fluid. In what follows it will be convenient to use the equations
To express this mathematically let (g "',0"*) be the initial in cylindrical coordinates. Assuming we have axial symme-
axial and radial positions of a point in the jet, ao(O) be the try, the momentum equations are
initial radius of the jet, andp(O) the initial axial strain rate. BU+
( - u-
p au+ vau)
-
Zero subscripted variables are used for the undisturbed flow. at ax Br
For the undisturbed flow it is assumed that the axial and
ap al';x aT;x T;x
radial velocities of a point in the jet are given by = --+--+--+- (6a)
Uo(g*,u*,t) =g*P(O) , (1a)
ax ax or r
voCg*,u*,t) = -f3(O)u*qU)-3!112, (lb)
p(avat + u ~ + v ali)
ax ar
where op aT ;. aT ;x (T;r - T so )
+ 1. - - + - - ' +--+ (6b)
q(t) = /3(O)t (Ic) Or Or ax r
The positions in terms of the Lagrangian coordinates and the equation of continuity is
(4'*,0-*) are
~ + (l-) a(rv) = o. (6c)
X(t*,v"',t) = q(t)g*, ax . \ r or
R(g *,u*,t) = a*qUr- 1/2 • In the above (x,r) are the cylindrical coordinates and (u,v)
In terms of cylindrical Eulerian coordinates (x,r), the veloc- are their corresponding velocities. The constitutive equation
ities are given by (5) is still valid provided the strain rates are evaluated using
cylindrical coordinates:
uo(x,r,t) = f3(O)xq(t) -1 • (2a)
vo(x,r,t) = -p(O)rqU) -1/2. (2b)
.
€rr = - ,
au (7a)
ar
The radius of the jet and the axial strai.n rate are both de- • V
creasing functions of time given by Eeo = -, (7b)
r
3007 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, i 5 April 1969 L. A. Romero S007

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 (7c)

(7d) (l3a)

The assumed motion (3} of the jet clearly satisfies the conti-
nuity equation (6c). The strain rates, and hence the devia-
toric stresses, are independent of all spatial coordinates, so
the divergence of the deviatoric stresses vanishes. In order to ( 13b)
satisfy the momentum equation and the stress-free boundary
condition at the surface ofthe jet, the pressure must be given In (13b) the following continuity equation has been used to
by simplify the right-hand side:
po(x,r,t) = - 3p,8(t)2[yZ - 0 0 (t)2]18 - Y /3 1/ 2 • (8) a8u
ax
+ (.l)r a(r8u)
ar
=0. (13c)
It is interesting to compute the axial stress integrated
over the cross section of the jet, Equations (13) must be supplemented by the boundary
conditions that express the fact that the surface of the jet is
FU) = f°(t) O"xx(r)rdr= 31/2a~(t)Y[1- r 2 (t)/16] , stress free, and the boundary condition that relates the time
rate of change of the free surface to the velocity field at the
(9) boundary. The stress-free boundary conditions can be writ-
where ten as

r2(t) = 311~a5 (t)f32(t)/Y. ( lOa) (T;x,r;r - p) ,1) = 0,

. ( -a~R
r (t), the dimensionless parameter mentioned in Sec. I, mea-
sures the relative importance of inertial forces to plastic (T~" -p,T;x)' ( ~~R ,1)=0 on r=R(x,t).
forces. It is a decreasing function of time, showing that as
time progresses inertia becomes less important, Ignoring the quadratically small terms in the perturbations,
(lOb) these boundary conditions can be written as

Note that the jet is in compression until r2(£) < 16, and (14a)
that the integrated stress F(t) has a ma,ximum when
r2(t) = 4. By analogy to the necking of static bars it is
(14b)
tempting to suggest that the jet becomes unstable when the
function F(t) passes through its maximum. The analogy is To ensure that the velocity at the free surface is consistent
far from perfect, but it will be seen that it is close to the value with the motion of the free surface one must require that
of 12 (t) where long wavelengths go unstable (it is a factor of
2 too small). DR JR aR
-=-+u-= V at r=R(x,t).
Dt at ax
Ignoring the quadratically small terms, this boundary condi-
tion call be written as
m. THE PERTURBED EQUATIONS
In this section the linearized equations governing the a8a- + x[3(t) -aoa- = Dv - (1)
- - /3(1)80 at r = aoU) .
evolution of axisymmetric disturbances to the mean flow at ax 2
will be derived. The perturbed velocity, pressure, and shape (14c)
of the jet are written as Finally, one must require that
u(x,r,t) = uo(x,r,t) + Du(x,r,t) , (lla) /)v is finite as r approaches zero. (14<1)
v(x,r,t) = vo(x,r,t) + 8v(x,r,t) , (lIb) The differential equations (13) and the boundary con-
p(x,r,t) = po(x,r,t) + Dp(x,r,t) , (lIe) ditions (14) are the equations governing the evolution of
small disturbances. Note that there is an explicit dependence
R (x,t) = ao(t) + 8a(x,t) . (lid)
on r, x, and t in these equations. It is desirable to scale the
A simple calculation shows that the perturbation to the de- dependent and independent variables so the equations are in
viatoric stress tensor is given by dimensionless form. In order to do this it is best to scale the
DTij = 2J.lOEij + 28J.lEij equations not by the initial length and time scales of the
problem, but by the evolving length and time scales. This
= 2J.l (8Eij - EijDE.ul{3(t)] , (12) method of scaling is initially more tedious. but the resulting
where 8Eij is the perturbation to the strain rate tensor, p. is equations have several desirable features. In particular,
the unperturbed effective viscosity, and Eij is the unper- there is no explicit dependence on the axial coordinate, and
turbed strain rate. Substituting ( 11) and (12) into (6) and the only dependence on time is through the physically mean-
ignoring quadratically small terms yields the equations for ingful parameters r and a (to be introduced shortly).
the evolution of small disturbances: To achieve the dimensionless form, axial and radial

3008 Jo AppL Physo, Vol. 65, No.8, 15 April 1969 LA.Romero 3008

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 lengths will be scaled according to different lengths. All axial aw = 3a 2 ( san
-a<I> + a .2 (s)_ )- at 17= 1, U8b)
lengths will be scaled according to au at '. as
L(t) = q(t}L(O) = q(t)lk(O) , (lSa) an =
- q:t at 17 = 1, (l8c)
where L(O) is the initial axial length scale and L(t) is the as
changing length scale that takes into account the fact that I.V is finite as a approaches zero. ( 18d)
the jet is stretchi.ng axially. The parameter k (0) will later be Equations (17) and (18) are in dimensionless form de-
chosen to be the initial wave number of a disturbance. All pending only on the dimensionless parameters r2(s) and
radial lengths will be scaled according to the evolving radius a 2 (s). The equations are also independent of g so they can
of the jet,
easily be Fourier transformed. It can now be assumed that
GnU) = ao(O)/q(t) i!Z. (I5b) t
the dependence in the equations is given by
A dimensionless time scale s can be defined such that <I>(S,O",s) = ¢(a,s)e i ,;, (l9a)
increments of time are scaled according to the current strain
W(t,if,5) = l/J(u,s)e {:" i
( 1%)
rate
A(S,a,s) = A(l7,s)e i4 , ( 19c)
ds = /3(t)dt.
Solving this equation for s gives the dimensionless time
!l(?,I7,s) = {t)(a,s)eif; . (19d)
Substituting ( 19) into ( 17) and ( 18) one arrives at the equa-
s=ln[q(t)] =!n[p(O)t+ 1]. (15c)
tions governing the evolution of disturbances with initial
Now, using these evolving length and time scales, one can wave number keO):
define dimensionless spatial coordinates (g,O") by
g = x/Let) = xq-1k(O) , (l6a) aif; + if; = - a 2 (s)iA. + r--2(s)(..!..)
as a
0" = r/a o(!) = rql/2/ao(O) , (16b)
dimensionless velocities (<P,I.V) by
X a(ua::aU) + a 2 (.l')r- 2 (s)¢, (20a)

cp = 8u/[LU)(JU) 1 = 8uk[O)I(J(Ol , (16c)

alj; _ 21/; = - aA _ a 2 (s)r- 2 (s)1/;, (20b)
l.lJ = 8v/[ao(t)fJ(t) J = 8vq3/2/[ao(O)p(O)] , (16d) as aa
a dimensionless pressure A by i¢ + (..!.. )8(m,b) = 0, (20c)
A = 8pl[pa5 (t)/3 (t)] 2
= 8pq3/[p05 (0)/3 2
(0)] (16e)
(J / au
and the boundary conditions,
and a dimensionless perturbed radius n by
n= 8a/a o(l) = 8aq l!2Iao(O) . (16f) 2[ ~~ + ( ~ )t¢] - r2(s)A
The coordinates (5,0") are Eulerian coordinates that
evolve with time. For the mean flow these coordinates are +(!){t)r1 (s)=o at 0'=1, (21a)
identical to the Lagrangian coordinates (g '" ,17* ). Equations
( 13) now take on the simpler form a¢ + ia 2 (s)¢ = 3ia 2 (s)uJ at 17 = 1, (2Ib)
al7
a<l> + <l> = _ a(s)2 aA + r- 2 (s) (1/17)
Bill
as as _=,1. at 1 (21e)
as 'I'
(1'=
,
a ,
X-(a<P,,) - a~(s}<l>f';'
aO" . (17a) 'if! is finite as (7 approaches zero. (21 d)

aw .ii - aA 2 a2q:t It should be emphasized that Eqs. (20) and (21) ana-
--2'!:"=--+a(s) r
_.?
-(5)--, (17b) lyze disturbances whose wavelengths are increasing with
as au ag 2
time. The wavelengths are constant in the Lagrangian co-
J$ + (~)a(uw) = 0, (17c) ordinates of the unperturbed jet motion. The parameter a(s)
as \ 0" aif is the wave number of the disturbance scaled according to
where res) and a(s) are given by the current radius of the jet. That is
r2(s) = r 2 (O)e- 35, ' b
wave Iengt h 0 fd Istur ance = 21Ta()(S)
.
a(s)
a(s)2 = [ao(s)IL(s) f = [ao(O)IL(O) j e - 2
35.
Again, both a(s) and res) are decreasing functions oftime.
The parameter a(s) is a measure of the evolving radial
length scale compared to the evolving axial length scale, and IV. FINITE DiFFERENCE APPROXIMATION
as stated earlier, r (s) is the ratio oftheinertial stresses to the
plastic stresses. The boundary conditions can be written as A finite difference code was written to integrate (20)
and (21). The radial variable u was differenced using a sec-
2[BIfJ + (1-)a~ 1_ r2(s)A ond-order accurate difference scheme with equally spaced
au 2 at J grid points. The resulting equations form a system of linear
+ (! )nr 2
(s) =0 at 17 = 1. (18a) differential algebraic equations with time as the independent
variable. The algebraic part of the equations arises from the

3009 J, Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, i5 April 1989 L. A. Romero 3009

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 continuity equation. This system of equations was integrated
using a differential algebraic equation solver. Results from
this code will be referred to throughout the rest of this paper.
To begin integrating Eqs. (20) and (21), initial condi-
tions must be given. Once one specifies ¢(O',O), all the other
variables are known initially. In particular, ¢(O',O) is known
from (20c), w(D) is then known from (2Ib), 4(0',0) then
follows by solving Poisson's equation derived by differentiat-
i.ng (20c) with respect to s and eliminating the time deriva-
tives using (20a) and (20b). The boundary condition for
A ( 1,0) is obtained using (21 a). The initial conditions for the
finite difference code are obtained by a discrete analog ofthe
above process. Unless otherwise stated, all the calculations
are done assuming that ¢ (0',0) is a constant.
It was usually sufficient to use 20 grid points to discre-
tize 0'. However, for very short wavelength disturbances it
was necessary to use as many as 200 grid points. For large
values of a it is difficult to integrate the equations using a
uniform radial grid since there is a region of rapid decay
within several wavelengths ofthe free surface. Fortunately it
is not important to integrate the equations for very large
wave numbers since the asymptotic behavior of the equa-
tions is well understood in this regime.
v. THE BEHAVIOR OF SHORT WAVELENGTHS
In this section the behavior of short wavelength distur-
bances to the mean flow will be examined. The beginning of
this section gives some analytical results showing that the
short wavelength disturbances undergo no significant
growth. Following this, corresponding numerical solutions
are given confirming this.
For a wavelength to be considered short it must be
shorter than the radius of the jet. This is satisfied if
a(s) >1 .
In order to precisely define what is meant by a short wave-
length the wavelength must also be compared to other length
scaies in the problem, It will be shown that provided
a(s) > 1, then the size of the parameter
solutions are evolving rapidly with time. (b) The large terms
on the right-hand side almost cancel out, indicating that the
behavior of the equations is independent of the left-hand
sides. In this case the left-hand sides can be ignored, and the
equations are essentially quasistatic.
Possibility (a) will be examined first. In this case the
time dependence of r and a can be ignored since the solu-
tions are evolving rapidly compared to the time scale during
which these quantities undergo significant changes. This
simplifies the problem since the equations are now indepen-
dent of time and one can analyze the growth of the perturba-
tions by assuming that the perturbations have an exponential
dependence on time. Also, since the wavelengths are small
com pared to the rndi us of the jet, the curvature of the jet can
be ignored and the problem can be analyzed as though it
takes place in a semi-infinite region rather than in a jet with
finite radius. In this case it is best to rescale the radial posi-
tions and velocities using the wavelength as a length scale
and to rescale the time using a time scale based on energy
dissipation.
tk=pl(k2j.L), j.L=y/p.
It is convenient to rescale the pressure using a length scale
that is based on the wavelength of the problem,
Pk =p(kYp-l{3-1)2.
A new independent variable is defined as
z=a(I7-1) . (23)
Also, new dependent variables are defined using the wave-
length as a length scale and the time scale t k as a time scale.
The solutions are assumed to vary exponentially in time with
growth rate r (in the new dimensionless time scale);
¢(z,s) = a2r--2¢*(z)eysa"/rl , (24a)
¢(z,s) = ar- 2 t,&*(z)eYm '/f" , (24b)
,i(z,s) = a 2 r-- ,i *(z)e
4 ysa
'/r
2
, (24c)
6) (s) = w*a --leysa'/r' • (24d)

(22) Substituting (24) into (20) and keeping the highest-order

terms in a, one gets
determines if the wavelengths are short relative to all rel-
evant length scales in the problem. The parameter G can be rcft*(z) = -iA*+cft!+¢*, (25a)
thought of as the ratio of the pressure gradient in the mean r¢* = -,iz - t,&*, (25b)
flow to the pressure gradient determined by the wavelength. + ¢: =
i¢* O. (25e)
That is,
Similarly, substituting (24) into (21) one gets
G = 3 112 (Pm! ar;-lHh k ) -1/4,
2[!Pz + (1/2)i¢*] -,i" + 31/2Gw* = 0, (26a)
where Pm! is the pressure determined by the mean flow pa-
rameters, ¢: +i¢* =0, (26b)

Pm! = p/3 2a~ , yw* = l/J* at z=0. (26c)

and Pk is the pressure determined by the wave number, den-
sity, and viscosity,
Pk = p(kf.JP~ 1)2,
where the viscosity f.-t is given by Y 1f3.
When a(s) > 1, the right-hand sides of Egs. (20a) and
(20b) contain some very large terms. There are two possibil-
ities: (a) The left-hand sides are also big, indicating that the
All quantities are also required to remain bounded as z ap-
proaches minus infinity. Equations (25) and (26) give an
eigenvalue problem for the growth rate y.
In the above Gis the parameter defined in (22). It is seen
that the only way that the radius influences the short wave-
lengths is through the parameter G. When the wavelengths
are sufficiently short the perturbations do not feel the pres-
ence of the mean pressure gradient. The details of obtaining

3010 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, 15 April 1989 LA. Romero 3010

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 r
the eigenvalues will not be given. Only the main results wiU
be stated.
There are two eigenvalues, Y I (G) and Yz (G), for each
value of G. The real parts of these eigenvalues are always
negative indicating that the solutions are stabk The real
parts of these eigenvalues are plotted in Fig. 1, where it is
seen that the eigenvalues merge into a complex conjugate
pair near G = 0.15. As G approaches infinity, the imaginary
parts of eigenvalues rl and Y2 approach the frequency of
gravity waves with a gravity field given an appropriate value
to match the pressure gradient in the mean flow.
The main conclusion of this analysis is that the very
short wavelengths do not undergo rapid growth (as they do
for example in inviscid Rayleigh-Taylor instability). Any
rapid changes in the perturbations will be due to decay.
To complete the analysis of the short wavelengths one FIG. 2. Plots ofln aI(s) as a function of a- I (s) for several different values
of reO). On curve A, 0.75 <r(s) < 13; on curve E, O.143<f'(s) <5.2; 011
must consider case (b) In this case one can again consider
<
curve C, 0.035 < f(s) < 1.3; and on curve D, 0.028 < res) <0.65.
the flow to take place on a semi-infinite interval and one can
solve the equations in Cartesian coordinates rather than cy-
lindrical coordinates. It is appropriate to scale the equations of r (0). It is seen that very little growth or decay occurs
as in case (a) except time should not be rescaled. The left- until a(s) decreases to about 2. Once a(s) is less than 2,
hand sides of the equations of motion can be ignored, and the rapid growth occurs if res) is also small. The smaller r(s)
equations are essentially quasistatic, The analysis is simple, is, the more rapid the growth. Ifns) is not small, then rapid
but uninteresting. It is then found that the perturbations to growth does not occur even if a(s) is small. More details on
the radius evolve somewhat over dimensionless time periods this will be given in Sees. VI and VII.
of order one. However, the variations in the radius are mea- The results of this section are summarized as follows:
sured relative to the wavelength, not the radius, so the per- Disturbances cannot undergo any appreciable growth as
turbed radius changes very little with time when it is com- long as their wavelengths appear short compared to the radi-
pared to the radius of the jet. us of the jet.
The main result of the analysis of (b) is the short wave-
length disturbances to the mean flow cannot undergo signifi- VI. INERTIALLY DOMINATED FLOWS
cant growth. As the jet stretches the wavelength of a distur-
bance increases [a (s) decreases with time], so a disturbance
In this section the behavior of perturbations for r (s) 1 »
win be analyzed. Some analytical bounds on the growth rates
that starts out as a short wavelength will not undergo signifi-
win be presented that show that if r> 1, no wave number
cant growth until the jet has stretched enough that the wave-
experiences significant growth. In the limit as r approaches
length is no longer small. To demonstrate this point, the
infinity, the jet behaves like an incompressible inviscid fluid
growth of short wavelength disturbances were tracked using
and it is possible to ignore the presence of the plastic stresses
the finite difference code for several different values of r (0).
in the equations of motion and in the boundary conditions.
These results are presented in Fig. 2. The plots show
In this case Eqs. (20) can be replaced by
In[w(s) J as it function of a-I(s) for several different values
a</J A. -a2( SI1A,
-+",= ,'1
(27a)
as
aif; -2if;= -OA, (27b)
as au
-.1
if/; + (.l) a(r.np) = 0 .
CT aCT
(27c)

The tangential stress boundary condition can be dropped

leaving only the kinematic boundary condition and the nor-
mal stress boundary condition (without the plastic stresses
in it). Thus, Eq. (21) can be replaced by
a(U
- = if; at 0'= I, (28a)
as
A = 3w/4 at 0' = 1. (2gb)
-.5 L...-------.:e.l.......-------',4 It is easily confirmed that
G
a [e s
(
2
a (s)itf; - :~)] / as = 0 ,
FIG. 1. Growth rate Re( rl as a function of G for the short wavelength
approximation. This is merely a statement of the fact that no vorticity is

301 i J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, 15 April 1989 L. A. Romero 30i1

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 generated by an ideal fluid. To begin with, it will be assumed To analytically show that the solutions to (32) are well
that the flow is initially irrotational. This allows one to re- behaved, one can multiply Eq. (32) by a(d(vlds)Io(a)1
duce the equations governing the disturbances from partial II (a), and manipulate the equations to show that
differential equations to ordinary differential equations.
Once this situation is analyzed the more general case of rota-
tional disturbances will be analyzed.
(~ )d {( alo(a)(~:) / 1 (a) 1 r
Assuming that the initial disturbances are irrotational + (! )a w I o(a)1II (a)} /
3 2
ds
they will remain irrotational for all time, so the velocities can
be derived from a potential:
4>(u,g,s) = ia2(s)7T«(T,s)ei~ , (29a)
= - [(~: )10 (a)aI1 (a) 1 r
¢(a,g,s) = eiSa1T(U,s)/8u . (29b) (3)
i--W
8
2 d [a 3 I o(a)/I j (a) 1
ds
<.0 (33)
Substituting (29) into Eq. (27c) yields the equation
The inequality fonows from the fact that dalds < 0, and
[(!)a(a~~aa)] -a 2
(s)7T=O. d[ZlIo(z)II1(z) Vdz> O. The inequality (33) shows that w
and do)lds cannot experience significant growth. An in-
= 0 we get
Requiring that the solution be regular at u equality similar to (33) that applies to Eqs. (27) and (28)
can be derived without assuming that the flow is irrotational.
1T(U,S) = x(s)a-2(s)Io[a(s)aJ/1o[a(s) 1 • (30)
To derive such an expression one can multiply (27a) by
where 10 is the modified Bessel function of zero order. Substi- e- su~, (27b) by a 2 e- sutf, add the equations, and integrate
tuting this into (29a) and (29b) and evaluating the bound- with respect to a from 0 to !. After using (28c), (28a), and
ary conditions (28a) and (2gb), one gets (28b), one can arrive at the expression
dX
ds
+X= - ( ~)a2(S)(j)(S) ,
\4
(31a)
(~ )~J e·\ f (¢¢ + o.2 ¢¢)ada + (! )a e- ui]
2 s

ds
dw
-=xsa
( ) -I( s )I1 [a(s)] .
Io[a(s)]
(3Ib)
= (8'3) a
w2as(a2e-S) - (3)
2' Jot ¢tPudue-'<O.
- .
One can eliminate X from this expression to get an equation It is seen that the norm
for w,
d [dwlds 0.[0(0.)11 1 (0.) J
ds
e -s f (¢¢ + a 2 ¢1ft}adu+ 3/4a2 e-"w2

is decreasing with time. The time dependence of the nonn

+ (dW) 0.10 (0.) + (2.)a 2 = O. (J)
ds 1 1 (a) 4 ing with time, but one can conclude that any growth will in
The manipulations used to get Eq. (32) are almost iden-
tical to those used in Ref. (9) to analyze the stability of an
expanding capillary jet. At this point it is worthwhile to use
the solutions to Eq. (32) to check the performance of the
finite difference code when r> 1. In Fig. 3 are some plots
comparing the results obained with the finite difference code
with results obtained by numerically integrating Eq. (32).
The plots show the calculated perturbed radius as a function
of a -I (s). It is seen that as the initial value of r gets larger
the agreement between the infinite r case and the finite r
case gets to be quite good. It is also seen that the perturba-
tions do not exhibit any rapid growth even once a(s) is less
than 1.
al bl ,,)
(32) makes it impossible to conclude that the solutions are decay-
fact be at most linear with time {remembering that
s=1n(.8(0)t+ In.
VII. THE BEHAVIOR OF LONG WAVELENGTHS
In this section the behavior of long wavelength distur-
bances to the flow will be analyzed. By means of a heuristic
asymptotic expansion it wiH be shown that long wavelength
disturbances are stable if r is large, but are unstable if r is
small enough. For values of r yielding unstable solutions,
the growth rates of the very long wavelength disturbances
approach zero, so the moderately long wavelengths grow
faster than the extremely long wavelengths. In this and the
following section these conclusions will be confirmed using
the finite difference code.
A long wavelength approximation to the equations of
motion win now be derived assuming that the perturbations
to the axial velocity are independent of the radial coordinate.
To show that this is a reasonable assumption, note that set-
ting a equal to zero in (20a) and (2ib) gives

¢, + ¢ = r-2(s)(.l)~(aa¢), (34a)
u au au
FIG. 3. The plots show rues) as a function of q- J (s) for different values of o¢ =0 at U= 1. (34b)
reO). On each plot the results are compared to the resl!lts for r equal to au
infinity. (a) 7 <res) < 104; (b) 3.5 < r(s)< 52; (e) 1.75 <res) <26. A simple change of variables can transform (34) into the

3012 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8. 15 April i 989 L. A. Romero 3012

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 (l.) + (d(vlds) 2]
2 2
diffusion equation showing that tjJ is evolving to a constant as d [a H(s)UJ
time progresses. This evolution occurs faster when r(s) is 2 ds
small.
As a starting point in deriving a long wavelength ap-
= _ (dW)2 + ()J2d [a 2 (s)H(s) 1
ds ds
proximation one can derive an exact, but underdetermined,
system of ordinary differential equations for the evolution of = R(s) .
the integrated velocities and pressure. To do this multiply Provided r(s) is large enough so that H(s) is greater than
Eqs. (20a) and (lOc) by 0', (20b) by cr,
and integrate these zero, then R(s) <0, and the solution cannot grow. Once
equations from 0 to 1 to obtain H(s) becomes less than zero the solution starts experiencing
exponential growth. Due to the fact that in Eq. (38) H(s) is
dA +A = multiplied by a 2 , it is seen that the extremely long wave-
ds lengths (a < 1) will grow very slowly (assuming H < 0) .
To check the validity of this long wavelength approxi-
+ a 2 (s)r- 2 (s)A, (35a) mation, the solutions to Eq. (38) were compared to the solu-
tions obtained from the finite difference code. In Fig. 4(b) is
dB -2B= -A,(1) +2C-a 2 (s)r- 2 (s)B, (35b)
ds a plot of a solution with a(O) = 1.6, and rcO) = 0.65. It is
iA + ¢'(l) = 0 (35c) seen that the agreement between the long wavelength ap-
proximation and the solution to the full set of partial differ-
where ential equations is quite good. In Fig. 4(a) is a solution with
A(s) = f u¢>(u,s)da,
aCO) = 0,8, and rcO) = 0.65; in this plot the two solutions
are almost indistinguishable.
ri
B = 1 cr'I/J(u,s)dO' , vm. THE MOST UNSTABLE WAVELENGTH FOR
INITIAllY STABLE JETS
C(s) = f aA(u,s)du. In this section the most unstable wavelength for jets
with r initially large will be determined. Due to the fact that
Eliminating C from (35a) and (35b), and using boundary the flow is evolving with time it is not possible to give a single
conditions (21) to eliminate A (l) and J¢ (1 ) I au, one gets value for the most unstable wavelength. The procedure used
in this section is to determine the most unstable wavelength
2( ~~ + A) + ia\s) ( ~~ - 2B) as a function of the amplification, That is, we determine the
first wavelength to increase its amplitude by a fixed amount.
= ia2(s)w[6r-~2(s) - 3/4J It will be seen that the most unstable wavelength does not
+ 2a 2
(s)r-2(s)A - ia4 (s)r-- 2 (s)B vary dramatically as a function of the amplification. In par-
ticular, the most unstable wavelength is between 21T and 41T
- a 2 (s)¢( 1,s)r- 2 (s) , (36a) times the current radius of the jet.
d(tJ It is worthwhile to summarize the results of the previous
- = ,pO,s) . (36b)
sections: (a) Any mode whose wavelength is short com-
ds
Equations (36) give two equations in the four un- pared to the current radius of the jet is stable (Sec. V). (b)
knownsA, B, <p( 1,s), and UJ. A long wavelength approxima- As long as res) is bigger than 1, aU modes will be stable
tion may be derived by assuming that (Sec. VI). (c) Once res) is less than 1, the long wavelengths
will be unstable, but the longer the wavelength, the slower
4>(O",s) =/(s) . (37a) their growth will be (Sec. VII),
Under this assumption (2Oc) implies The most unstable wavelength is a function of time. To
I/1(O",s) = - iu/(s)/2, (37b) illustrate this, Fig. 5 shows some plots of modes with differ-
ent initial wave numbers integrated out to a fixed time, aU
and also
A (s) =/(8)/2, (37c) .. ) b)

~-71
I--~r--~-l
B(s) =- i/(s)/8 . (37d)
If one substitutes the assumed forms (37) into (36), and /, I
keeps only the leading order terms ina(s) in front of each of
100.
~10a. r /1 I
the derivatives of (tJ, one gets
.. P . "f
d 2()J
-0-
ds·
+ -d()J + a-(s)H(s)UJ
ds
"
= 0, (38)
c.~~-~ o.LL_-L-~~1f . .$ 3. f.S 3.
S S
where
H(s) = 3/8 - 3r- 2 (s) . FIG. 4. These plots show w(s) as a function s for different values of a(O).
On each graph the results are compared to the results using the long wave-
This is the approximate equation governing the evolution of length approximation. (a) nO) =,0.65 a(s) <0.0125; (b) reO) = 0.65
long wavelength disturbances. From (38) one can see that a(s) <0.2.

3013 J. Appl. Phys .• Vol. 65, No.8, 15 April 1989 L. A. Romero 3013

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 100.r------------r------------~~
S 50.
2. 4.
S
FIG. 5. This plot shows eveS) as a function of s for 1(0) = 1 and for differ-
ent values of a(O).
with nO) = 1.3. The very long wavelengths start growing
immediately; the longer they are, the slower they grow. As
one decreases the initial wavelength, one reaches a point
where the wavelengths are initially stable. These wave-
lengths start out stable, but once they become unstable they
grow rapidly and quickly outgrow the longer wavelengths.
However, if the initial wavelength is too smaH, growth be-
gins too late to catch up with the longer wavelengths on the
fixed time interval. If one increases the time interval, the
modes with initially shorter wavelengths will be the most
unstable. For each time interval, there is an initial wave-
length that will grow the most during that time interval. The
initial wave number of the most unstable mode varies consid-
erably as the time interval is varied. but the final wave num-
ber of the most unstable mode is a fairly weak function of the
time interval.
To characterize the data for the most unstable wave-
length one can find the first mode to increase its amplitude
by some number Gr, and plot the wave number of this mode
as a function of Gr. Figure 6 gives a plot of this wave number
as a function of InCGr). The wave number plotted is
fi(Gr) = a(s), where.5 is the time at which the mode has
increased its initial amplitude by Gr, It is seen that varies
with Gr, but that it never differs by more than a factor of 2,
and as Gr becomes large, there is little variation in The
1.
,8
.6
(1:1
.'*
.2
O.
2. 1.1.1 11.1
IflGr
FIG. 6. A plot ofa as II function ofln( Gr}.
3014 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, 15 Aprii19S9
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values ofa in Fig. 6 are aU with rcO) = 0.65. There is little
difference between this plot and plots done with higher val-
uesofr(O) because very little growth can occur until res) is
less than 1. Figure 7 shows a plot of the most unstable wave
number (the first mode to increase its amplitude by 1000 X )
as a function of r (0). The conclusion is that if r (0) is large,
then once the jet goes unstable, the most unstable mode will
have a about equal to 0.5. This indicates that the wavelength
will be of the same order of magnitude as the radius of the jet.
IX. SLOWLY STRETCHING JETS
In this section results are presented concerning jets
where inertial effects are almost negligible (r <; 1). It will be
shown that the most unstable wavelengths of these jets are
proportional to r - 1/5 times the radius of the jet. This shows
that a slowly stretching jet can have a most unstable wave-
length much larger than the radius of the jet.
One can see that in Eqs. (20a) and (20b) that as r
approaches zero the right-hand sides are mUltiplied by a very
large number. This suggests that the left-hand sides will also
be large, indicating that the flow evolves rapidly compared
to the time required for the jet to stretch significantly. This
suggests that one should rescale the time according to
s* = r- 2s,
and the pressure by
A. 01< = r 2A. •
This scaling of the pressure is equivalent to making the
pressure dimensionless using the yield stress of the material,
rather than the inertial pressure. It should be noted that
since the flow is evolving so rapidly, the parameters r and a
can be considered to be fixed parameters that do not vary
with time. With this simplification, the equations governing
the perturbations are autonomous and can be analyzed by
solving a linear eigenvalue problem.
To begin, assume that the time dependence of the per-
turbations is exponential:
!l1(s*,u) = eys"(j)(u) ,
a cp(s*,u) = eYs*cp(u) ,
a.
tI 1.
o. ~------------~------------~
.85 1.3
f'
FIG. 7. A plot of the first wave number to increase its amplitude lOOOX asa
function of f'( 0) .
L. A. Romero 3014
 ¢(s*,a) = eYS'¢(a) , a*(r) = 2(18) iilOrl15 + .. , , (42a)
...t * (s*,a) = eYS"...t *(0-) . r*(r) = 2I! za*(r)r . (42b)
Substituting these forms into (20a )-( 2Oc) and keeping only This asymptotic form is evaluated in the third column of
the highest order terms in r one gets Table I, and is found to be in excellent agreement with the
numbers in the second column. It should be noted that the
(39a) growth rate r* (r) in (42b) is slow on the time scale s*, but
it is still rapid compared to the time for the jet to stretch
appreciably, so the assumption of ignoring the time evolu-
(3%)
tion of a and r is still valid.
These results were also checked using the finite differ-
(39c) ence code. For r -< 1 the most unstable wavelength is almost
independent of the time interval on which it is evaluated. In
The boundary conditions (21a) and (20b) can be written as
the fourth column of Table I are the values of the most unsta-
2[ :~ + ( ~ )i¢] - A '" + ( !)¢r 4
/r = 0 , (40a)
ble wavelength predicted by integrating the full set oflinear~
ized partial differential equations governing the motion of

o¢
au
+ ia2¢ = 3ia 2 ?y . (
40b)
small disturbances. It is seen that the results are in excellent
agreement with the results in the second column.
The perturbed radius has been eliminated in the above equa- X. CONCl.USIONS
tions using (2Ic).
Equations (39) and (40) give an eigenvalue problem for It has been shown that a stretching jet is stable until the
the determination of y. As one lets r approach zero, the parameter r becomes less than one. If r is initially large, the
boundary conditions simplify to most unstable wavelength is of the same order of magnitude
as the radius ofthejet. Ifr is initially small, the most unsta-
2 [:~ + ( ~ )¢] - A '" = 0 , (41a) ble wavelength is proportional to the radius times r-l/ 5 .

a¢ + ia 2¢=O.
au
The eigenvalue problems (39) and (41) determine the
behavior oftne solutions as one lets r approach zero with a
fixed. As will be seen, one has to keep an additional term to
determine the behavior of the solutions as both a and r
approach zero. One can show analytically that the eigenval-
ue problem given by (39) and (4] ) has the following proper-
ti.es: (a) The eigenvalues r are real; (b) when a is zero, the
largest eigenvalue of the system is zero. Numerically it is
possible to show that (c) when a is nonzero, all the eigenval-
ues are negative,
From this one can conclude that all modes with a
bounded away from zero are stable. However, as a ap-
proaches zero, there is a mode that has y< 1, so one cannot
r
ignore the term rZa z/ in (40b). If one keeps this term one
ends up with the eigenvalue problems (39) and (40), This
ACKNOWL.EDGMENTS
(4lb)
The author would like to acknowledge Denni.s Grady
for bringing the subject matter of this paper to the authors
attention, and for many useful suggestions during the course
of the work. This work was performed at Sandia National
Laboratories and supported by the U.S. Department of En-
ergy under Contract No. DE-AC04-76DP00789.
APPENDIX A
In this Appendix the asymptotic form of the eigenvalue
problems (39) and (40) will be examined as y*, r, and a
approach zero. In particular, the asymptotic form of a* (r)
will be examined, where a:l< (r) is the value of a at which the
growth rate r takes on its maximum value. To determine this
asymptotic form, one can first express the functions </>, "1/;, and
A '" in terms of a power series in a:
00

eigenvalue problem was solved numerically, and it was ¢;(u) = I. ¢;k«', (Ala)
found that for small values of a there is in fact an unstable k~O

mode. For each value of r one can find the value a* (r) that
gives the largest growth r'" en.
Some values of a'" are listed ¢(u) =
k
L""-~O
¢k~' (Alb)
in the second column of Table 1. In the Appendix it will be 00

shown anaiytically that as r approaches zero, A *(u) = 2: A r~ , (Ale)

k=O
Substituti.ng these forms into (39) gives the recursion for-
TABLE I. Most unstable wavelength as a function of r (r <1 ) . mulas

r a* a* (asymptotic) a" (finite difference)

(k+ 1)"I/;,( +i</>k_l =0, (A2a)
(r+ a 2
)rA_. i = - kA t, (A2b)
O.13X to·' 1.3 1.1 1.1
O.l3x 10- 2 0.68 0.68 0.69 (r-a )<pk .. 2 +ia2A~_2 =k 2¢k'
2 (A2c)
O.13X 10 ·3 0.44 0.44 0.43
O.13X 10- 4 0.28 0.28 0.28 It is easily shown that all the even terms of ¢k' the odd terms
O.13X 10- 5 0.17 0.17 0.17 of </> k' and the odd terms of A. k all must vanish. The first
several terms in the series can be shown to be

3015 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.6, 15 April 1989 L. A. Romero 3015

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 ePo = 1 , (A3a) Combining this relation with
Ao=A, (A3b) r*2 + 1'*a*6/192 - 3a*2r 2 = 0,
tPl = - i12, (A3c) one gets
ePz = (/4)[ (r -a 2
) + ia A] 2
, (A3d) y*2 = 2a*2r2 .
AZ = (y + a )iI4,
Z
(A3e) Since we are interested in the most unstable mode, this im-
1/!3 = - (i/16)[ (y - a 2
)+ ta A] ,
2
(A3f) plies that
¢J4 = (1/64) [1.,2 - 31'a 2
+ ia2A (y - a 2
)] , (A3g) r* = 2l/2a *r . (42b)
,1,4= (i/64)(y+a 2 )(y-a 2 +ia 1A) , (A3h) Substituting this expression into (48) yields
1/;5= - (i1384)[f-3ya 2 +ia2A(1'-a2 )] , (A3i) a* = 2(l8)1/Wrl/5 . (42a)
2 2 2 2
eP6 = (1/2304 ){(y - a ) (y - 3ya + ia A(y - a )] These last two equations are the equations in Sec. VI,
and are the final conclusions of this Appendix.
- a 2 (y + a 2 )(y _ a 2 + ia 2A)}. (A3j)
In the above A is an arbitrary constant that is deter-
mined by the boundary conditions. In order to determine the
leading order behavior in a* (r) one needs only the above IG. Birkhoff, D. MacDougall, E. Pugh, and G. Taylor, J. Appl. Phys. 19,
terms. Substituting these expressions into (41a) one finds 563 (1948).
that to lowest order 2E. M. Pugh, R.I. Eichelberger, and N. Rostoker, J. Appl. Phys. 23, 532
( 1952).
(A4) 3D. E. Grady, The 1986 Hyperoelocity Impact Symposium, Oct. 21-24
1986, San Antonio, TX.
Now, substituting (45) and (46) into (40b), and keeping 4J. R. Asay and L. D. Birthoff, Sandia National Laboratories, Report No.
only the lowest order terms in front of y, one finds that SAND-78-1256 (1978).
y + ya /192 - 3a2r2 = o.
6 5 A. Considere, Ann. Ponts Chaussees 9, 574 ( j 885).
(AS) 6E. W. Hart, Acta Metall. 15, 351 (1967).
Equation (4-7) is the equation that determines the growth 71'. C. Chou and J. Carleone, J. Appl. Phys. 48, 4187 (1977).
"J. M. Walsh, J. App!. Phys. 56,1997 (1984).
rates for small values of a and r. Let a*(r) and y*(r) be
91. Frankel and D. Weihs, J. Fluid Mech. 155, 289 (1985).
the most unstable wave number, and the growth rate asso- IOJ. P. Curtis, J. App!. Phys. 61,4978 (1987).
ciated with it for a given value ofr. Usi.ng implicit differenti- "D. C. Pack, J. App!. Phys. 63,1864 (1988).
ation, it is clear that 02D. E. Grady and D. A. Benson, Exp. Mech. 23, 393 (1983).
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3016 J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 65, No.8, 15 April 1989 L. A. Romero 3016

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