DC

Technical Reference
Subject Page
DC Motors and Drives ...................... DCR 2 DC Motor Overview .......................... DCR 2 Motor Construction .......................... DCR 4 Motor Maintenance .......................... DCR 4 DC Drive Building Blocks ................. DCR 5 SCR DC Drives .................................. DCR 6 Regenerative Drives ......................... DCR 9 Interface Considerations ................ DCR 10 Selecting the Drive ......................... DCR 14 Cycling Applications ....................... DCR 14 DC Motor Definitions ...................... DCR 16 DC Drive Definitions ....................... DCR 17 Load Definitions .............................. DCR 18
DCR 1

DC Technical Reference

DC Motors and Drives

Penetration in Todays Market
There are many alternatives in today's market when looking for variable speed systems, some of which include: AC induction motors and adjustable frequency drives (AFD), AC and DC Servos, DC Brushless, etc. What may be surprising is that the largest single share of new systems installed are still using the DC brushtype motor and control. This basic design principle was used for the first electric motor produced in 1833. While many of the newer technologies mentioned may offer advantages in particular areas, none have proven to be as well accepted or cost effective in the lower horsepower ranges as the DC drive and motor combination. Why Choose a DC Motor and Drive for Application Requirements? There are many factors in choosing the type of control and motor to be used in an application, factors ranging from specific technical demands to personal preferences. In terms of performance, DC drives and motors provide certain capabilities that can only be matched by much higher cost systems. DC motors can, by design, provide exceptional starting torque, diversified torque and speed ranges, and flexibility for special consideration. DC drives are available in a wide variety of configurations and designs ranging from simplified speed controls to high performance cycling drives. What all DC drives and motors provide, however, can be highlighted by the following points. Reliability The DC motor is an inherently simple device which, as mentioned previously, has been around in its basic state for over 150 years. Over this period of time there have been tremendous improvements made to DC motors in terms of design, components and performance. Today DC motors are extremely rugged, requiring only minimal periodic DCR 2 maintenance to keep operating efficiently. To a much greater degree, the drives used for controlling the speed and torque for brush-type DC motors have improved. The electronic components that make up a DC drive in particular have evolved from large discrete devices which are inserted by hand to small integrated chips and surface mount components requiring only a fraction of the original space and are machine inserted. What these components and design improvements have done is create a highly reliable and robust drive design requiring basically no maintenance. Proven Technology DC drives supply a DC motor with the appropriate voltage and current to meet the application demands. The drive uses the AC line as a primary power source and converts the signal to a form of DC suitable for the motor. To do this, solid-state electronic components are used to convert the AC into the required DC. There are numerous ways to design these converter sections, as well as different components which can be utilized in them. There is a common design, however, that has been proven so successful that there is actually a recognized standard assigned to it; it is referred to as NEMA Code K. The NEMA Code K standard also stipulates what type of components will be used; in this case diodes and SCRs. Diodes and SCRs have also been in use for a number of years in one form or another and are probably some of the most thoroughly tested electronic components available. DC drive manufacturers have taken this documented and time-proven design and integrated it into their AC to DC converter stage. Diversity DC drives and motors are available in various levels of performance and configurations. DC drive versions are available that can fit in the palm of the hand and can provide complete and accurate speed control of a DC motor. Others may be supplied in a NEMA enclosure which can be mounted externally on a machine in an industrial environment exposed to the worst conditions possible. Electrically, DC drives may be as simple as a variable speed control regulated manually by the machine operator, or a speed control with reversing and dynamic braking capabilities completely controlled automatically. An SCR rated DC motor is designed for industrial duty with SCR-type DC drives and physical dimensions to meet recognized NEMA standards. DC motors are also available with special frame sizes, performance characteristics and electrical specifications. The fact remains that well over 90% of the industrial applications using DC motor and drives are applied with standard offthe-shelf designs. Due to these reasons, DC drives and motors are found in a wide range of industrial applications. As an example, applications which Danfoss DC drives and motors have been placed in, include: Metering/Scaling/Batching Machine Glue Pumps (Hot Melt, Liquid) Corrugated Paper, Box Erectors Asphalt Mixers, Wire or Rope Wrapping, Textile Fiber Feeds, Coal Feeders, Boilers, Furnaces Packaging Machines Book Binders, Overwrap Packaging, Cases/Cartoners, Egg, Fruit, Bottles Cans, Pallet Wrappers, Bottle Fillers, Liquid, Solids, Auger Feeders, Chemical Machine Tool Roll Threaders, Screw Slotters Food Industry Auger Fillers, Wine Pumps, Ovens/ Fryers, Freezers

Wire Industry Rewinders, Coil Winders, Insulation Wrappers Conveyors Steam Tunnels, Clothes, Cases, Shot Penners, Buffing Glass, Metal, Hardware, Circuit Board, Etching, Washing, Plating, Newspaper (Mailroom) Equipment, Conveyors, Stackers Mail Sorters Printing Industry Web and Silk Screen Presses, Rewind Stands, Scrap or Product Dampener, Roll Drive Conveyorized Dryers, Paper Slitters/Sheeters Welding Automatic Welding, Welding Rod Feeders Special Machines Automatic Assembly, Material Pleaters, Textile, Filter Material, Can Operated Indexing Drives, Balancing Equipment, Industrial Sewing Machines, Hot Stamping, Laminators, Extruders Low Cost Obviously, cost is typically a primary consideration in the selection of most items. With regard to the fractionalthrough-3HP range of variable speed alternatives, DC drives and motors are typically one of, if not the most, competitively priced. When the level of performance, flexibility and reliability are also factored in, DC drives and motors will invariably provide the most cost effective alternative for a variable speed system.

DC Motors
The DC brush motor remains a mainstay in today's industrial environment. Both shunt wound and permanent magnet (PM) motors are commonly used with DC SCR drives in variable speed applications. Both offer good speed regulation over their operating range; however, the PMDC motor has advantages with higher efficiencies, smaller frame size and simplified connections (no field windings). Figure 1 compares a shunt wound and PMDC percent rated speed versus percent rated torque curve for comparable motor sizes.
120 100

DC Motor Performance Curve A performance curve is shown in Figure 2.

Speed (rpm)
2000 Rated horsepower 1800 1500 80 Current/torque 1000 Speed/torque 40 500 20 Rated motor current 0 0 36 100 200 300 400 500 0 60 100

Current (amps)
120

Torque (in lbs)

Figure 2. Typical 1HP 90 VDC PMDC motor performance curve Performance curves help us understand how a motors nameplate rating is given. Figure 2 represents an example of a 1HP PMDC motor. The motor horsepower rating is derived by the rated torque at the motors rated RPM. The vertical rectangular boxed area identifies the continuous operating range of the motor. In this example, at 1800 RPM, with 36 inch pounds of torque and a rated current of 9.5 amps, the motor will yield approximately 1HP (1750 RPM would give exactly 1HP). If we double the torque and reduce the speed in half, the calculated horsepower remains the same. However, the motor current required to double the torque will also double (current is proportional to torque), and we would be operating outside of the motors nameplate rating. If this were applied to a continuous load, the motor would quickly overheat and fail. The performance curve helps us understand the "hows and whys" a motor carries a set of ratings. It is also helpful in identifying starting torque capabilities and current requirements over a wide torque range.

% Rated speed

80 60 40 20 0

PMDC curve Shunt wound

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

% Rated torque Comparing equal rated horsepower

Figure 1. PMDC vs. shunt speed/ torque curve The shunt-wound motor offers relatively flat speed/torque characteristics compared to the PMDC motor. This will provide a better regulation over wider load ranges. On the other hand, the PMDC has two times the starting torque of the shunt-wound motor. The higher starting torque is very useful in applications with large inertia loads. PMDC motors are excellent for cycling (start/stop) applications, i.e., indexing tables, conveyor transports, etc.; and though their frame size is smaller in comparison to shuntwound motors, they do not require any significant temperature de-rating. This is a result of their inherent advantage in the electrical efficiency of the motor. They are typically found to be 10 to 15 percent more efficient than shunt-wound motors. This is due to the elimination of the field winding, thus no copper losses.

DC Technical Reference

DCR 3

DC Technical Reference

DC Motor Construction
A permanent magnet DC motor assembly is shown in Figure 3. The major components include the armature assembly (includes the shaft bearings, phase windings and commutator), housing assembly (permanent field magnets and shell) and the brushes.

for conduction, and the application it is being operated in. Motor ratings are specified based on an ambient temperature. If motors are to be operated outside of their temperature rating, they must be derated appropriately. This will require consulting the manufacturer for the proper derating.

than normal brush wear. This is due to increased frictional forces and brush bounce. Although there is not a defined graph plotting brush wear over speed (other factors such as temperature extremes, commutator wear, etc. will effect brush life), brush wear could be plotted exponentially to speed. As mentioned previously, temperature extremes will adversely effect brush life. "Filming" of the brush on the commutator is necessary to insure long brush life. If the motor runs excessively hot, the moisture (filming action) will evaporate and the normal contact associated with frictional wear will not be present. This will cause poor commutation and uneven brush wear. Conversely, if the motor is oversized and runs too cool or subjected to cold-room environment, no moisture will be present and friction will quickly wear the brushes down. The minimum brush replacement length varies with various motor types and manufacturers. Table 1 examines a typical inspection interval for Danfoss permanent magnet DC motors.
Table 1. Inspection Rates based on Hours of Actual Operation
Duty* Hours Moderate 2,000 Heavy 1,000 Extra Heavy 500

Rear end bell assembly

Brush access cover (2) Shell and magnet assembly Front end bell Bearings
-12.64

Tie bolt (2)

Terminal cover

Foot mount base

Armature assembly

Figure 3. PMDC basic motor construction (typical TENV) The industrial environment in which motors are used or will be placed often requires consideration when specifying the motors packaging design. The Totally Enclosed NonVentilated (TENV) motor design is one of the most commonly used today. Its design requires no internal fan for circulation of air passing from the outside through the inside motor housing. It is designed to protect the motor from all but the most severe falling water and dirt. Another commonly found design is the Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) motor. This design package is supplied with an external fan mounted on the rear shaft. The TEFC motor provides circulating air to pass over the outside housing for additional heat transfer. This effect allows added power for a given motor frame size. A motors life depends almost exclusively on maintaining its temperature limits. Factors that influence motor temperature limits include the insulation rating, type of bearing grease, heat transfer paths DCR 4 The permanent magnet motor can accommodate a face or foot mounting application. Today, manufacturers comply with NEMA to provide universal standards for motor dimensions and mounting designs. Standard NEMA mounting designs include 48C, 56C and 82C for most common C-face reducers. Along with face mount designs are a number of rigid mounting bases (foot mounts). It is good practice to check the motor mounting dimensions when sizing for the proper reducer or couplings.

* Cycling applications are normally considered heavy to extra heavy duty, depending on rates.

DC Motor Maintenance
To insure long uninterrupted motor operation, brushes, commutators and other factors effecting motor life must be inspected periodically. Brushes Brush wear is the most common failure found on DC motors today. Brush wear can become excessive from the beginning, depending on the type of application the motor is operated in. A motor running at speeds above its rating tend to cause more

When removing brushes for inspection or replacement, always blow out any brush dust that may accumulate around the brush holders and motor housing. This is of critical importance when the motor is mounted with the brush orientation at the 6 and 12 oclock position (Figure 4). If left unchecked, dust build-up will create a conductive path from the brush to motor housing. This will cause a short to ground condition causing the DC power supply to fail.
Rear endbell Brush
12

1.

Determine the AC voltage supply and the associated DC power supply. Danfoss DC SCR drives operate at 120 or 240 VAC with 90 or 180 VDC output respectively. Verify horsepower, based on torque and speed requirements from sizing data or from the existing system. Select motor based on variable speed or cycling application. Danfoss has specific motors designed for cycling. Determine the type of enclosure required, i.e., TENV or TEFC. Consider any special environmental concerns such as wash down, splash proof, sanitary, etc. Consider the operating ambient temperature conditions. Remember, if too high, it could cause motor overheating and too low could cause excessive brush wear. Determine mounting dimension requirements for coupling to reducers, gearheads or special custom mounts. Review other considerations such as a tachometer, brush life, noise or thermostat requirements.
P N

DC Drive Building Blocks

Rectification Circuits Today, the majority of industrial DC motor applications derive their DC voltage and current through some form of AC to DC conversion technique. This is generally accomplished by means of semiconductor devices consisting of diodes and SCRs integrated into logic control circuits. Rectification in its simplest term is defined as the process of changing an AC voltage and current to a DC voltage and current. The P-N diode serves as a basic model when studying rectifier circuits in AC to DC conversion. The P-N diode is a two-terminal device that "turns on" when its anode voltage is forward biased (positive with respect to its cathode). Figure 5 shows the circuit symbol for a P-N diode. Half-Wave Rectifiers Figure 6 shows a rectifier circuit used to change an AC sine wave input voltage into a half-wave rectifier sinewave. The silicon diode (D1) conducts when the input voltage equals or exceeds +0.7 volts during its positive half cycle. The load voltage will equal approximately the input voltage (less the 0.7 volt drop). When the input sinewave drops below +0.7 volts, the diode will no longer conduct and the load voltage will go to zero. Essentially, the diode will act as an open circuit containing the negative half cycle. If the input AC sinewave

2.

3.

Commutator

4. 5.

Shaft

6.
6

Ground plane

Brush dust accumulation

Figure 4. Commutator The commutator must be free of oils, grease or solvents that diminish or remove the filming action with the brushes. The commutator should be checked for wear when the brushes are inspected or replaced. If a visual inspection shows signs of pitting, then turning or undercutting is highly recommended. The commutator on Danfoss permanent magnet motors should be turned when the diameter is worn more than 1/32 of an inch. A simple rule of thumb is to turn the commutator at every fourth brush replacement. Selecting the Correct Motor When selecting a motor for your application, several key parameters must be considered. The following steps will aid in reaching a decision on the proper motor for the job.

7.

8.

+
Anode

Cathode

Figure 5. P-N diode symbol

DC Technical Reference

D1

Volts

AC input

L o a d

Half-wave rectification

Time

Figure 6. DCR 5

DC Technical Reference

frequency is 60 cycles/second, then the half-wave rectifier seen at the load is considered a pulsed DC voltage and current operating at 60 cycles/ second. Through mathematical analysis, the average DC voltage for the rectifier is .318 x Vpeak. As an example, if the RMS voltage equals 120 VAC at 60 Hz, the peak voltage is approximately 170 VAC and the average voltage would equal 54 volts. Full-Wave Rectifiers Figure 7 shows a more efficient rectification process that utilizes the full input waveform called the fullwave rectifier. In this circuit, the AC sinewave input is converted to an output load that contains both the positive and negative portions of the input. It is important to note that both these output pulses are positive even when the input goes negative. During the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 will be forward biased and the polarity will be positive at D1 with respect to D3. During the negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 will be forward biased and the polarity will be positive at D2 with respect to D4. Ignoring the small forward voltage drops, the full-wave rectifier circuit passes not only the AC inputs positive half cycle, but also reverses the polarity of the negative half cycle and passes it to the load. The output of the full-wave rectifier consists of two identical single polarity pulses for each input cycle; therefore, the repetition frequency at the output will be twice that of the input waveform, i.e., 60 cycle/second input equals 120 cycles/second output. The average voltage then becomes twice that of the half-wave rectifier; or in the case of the example above, it would equal 108 volts.

Volts

D4 AC input D3

D1

L o a d

D2

Full-wave rectification

Time

Figure 7. Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) The SCR is a PNPN semiconductor device with three terminals: anode, cathode and gate. The SCR construction and circuit symbol are shown in Figure 8. Like the P-N diode, the SCR is normally operated with a forward bias from anode to cathode. However, the SCR must be triggered "on" by applying a positive gate voltage and current, large enough to cause the SCR to conduct. Once the SCR conducts or latches on, the gate current may be removed and the SCR will remain "on". The SCR can be turned "off" several different ways including mechanically opening the anode circuit, or the most common method, by reverse biasing anode to cathode (anode negative with respect to cathode). The latter method will be done automatically if connected to an AC sinewave voltage. The advantage of using SCRs as power control devices is the fact that a very small gate voltage is required compared to the load the SCR will conduct. Voltage gains of 100 or greater are possible.

Anode

Anode P N P Gate

Gate

Cathode Cathode

Figure 8. SCR symbol

SCR DC Drives
Zero Crossing Detection The zero crossing detection circuit is a fundamental circuit in SCR phase control designs. Without some form of phase detection circuit for the sinewave input, triggering the SCR at the phase angle necessary to control motor speed and torque (voltage and current) would be compromised significantly, especially regarding repeatability over temperature ranges. Figure 9 shows a simplified zero crossing detection circuit using a voltage comparator. The comparator is comparing the varying input sinewave to a grounded reference. In this way it is able to sense the sine waves zero voltage crossing.
V out

+ +
V in 0

Zero crossing

time

Zero crossing

Figure 9. Zero crossing detection DCR 6

The output of the positive half cycle input will be seen as a sharp rising positive pulse held to the comparators positive saturation level. When the sinewave decreases below zero, the output will switch to the comparators negative saturation level. All the output pulses could easily be conditioned positive by adding fullwave rectification to the input. In the actual circuitry, a stepped-down AC sinewave is conditioned into a positive sawtooth waveform through the comparator circuit. The zero crossing output is then compared to the speed/torque feedback signals to develop the required pulse width for the SCRs gate trigger which is essential for good speed regulation.

SCR Phase Control The previous discussion introduced other feedback signals compared to the zero crossing circuit. Figure 10 shows a complete block diagram of a typical SCR phase control circuit. The speed command can come from the DC drives power supply voltage to drive an external potentiometer. In effect, the desired speed reference, the motors back EMF and the armature current (shunt resistor) are all summed through a comparator in the regulator circuit. The resultant of these feedback signals is then compared to the zero crossing sawtooth waveform detection circuit.

The current feedback is an indication of the motors torque. It is derived from a shunt resistor in series with the drives DC output. The maximum current supplied to the motor is controlled by a current limit adjustment trim potentiometer. Its most important function is to limit motor currents to safe operating conditions in circumstances that would normally draw more than the motors nameplate rating, i.e., excessive running torque. The voltage feedback provides an error signal indication of the motors back EMF which is proportional to motor speed. The voltage error signal is used to retard or advance the firing

AC line

Step-down transformer

Zero crossing detection

DC power supply Comparator

Gate control logic circuit +V IR comp Current Limit

AC to DC converter NEMA Code K

+
Field

- DC

motor

External pot

Speed Command & Accel/decel

Regulator Circuit

Current feedback

Current shunt resistor Motor voltage Tach feedback

Voltage feedback

DC Technical Reference

Figure 10. SCR phase control block diagram

DCR 7

DC Technical Reference

circuit to insure that the motor speed matches the reference speed input. To improve the overall speed regulation further, a positive feedback circuit can be added. This circuit is referred to as "IR COMPENSATION" and can provide a drive with better than +/- 2% speed regulation. The effect of this circuit is to readjust the firing circuit to produce more armature voltage when the motor changes from minimal load to full load. Power Converter Figure 11 shows a single-phase, fullwave converter used to produce DC voltage and current for a DC SCR drive. This converter is known as a "NEMA CODE K" consisting of two SCRs and three diodes. The NEMA CODE K design offers fullwave rectification to the motor enhancing overall performance. The diodes and SCRs are rated in terms of their average forward current. Motor power output is proportional to average current where as motor losses (I2R) come from the rootmean-square (RMS) current. The ratio of RMS over average current is termed the drives form factor; and based on the NEMA CODE K design, is considered a distinct advantage over half-wave designs. The additional diode (D3) is termed "freewheeling". Its function is to carry the inductive current when the SCR is turned "off". This allows the current to flow back into the motor which provides a better form factor as well as preventing high voltages from appearing across the motor when its field collapses. Pure DC has a form factor of 1.0. Figure 12 shows the relationship between peak, RMS and average voltages for a sinewave input. The form factor for the half-wave rectified sinewave is 1.57 and 1.11 for the full-wave rectified sinewave. This is derived through considering conduction of the complete 180 degree cycle. However, the form DCR 8

Volts Time AC input Time SCR1 SCR2 D1 diode D2 diode DC motor D3 freewheeling diode

Volts

Time

Gate logic control circuit

Figure 11. NEMA Code K

Voltage
180 135 90

E RMS
45 0 0 45 90 135

E AVE

E PEAK

180

225

270

315

360

Degrees E RMS = E PEAK * 0.707 E AVE = E PEAK * 0.637 E PEAK = E RMS * 1.41

Figure 12. Full wave rectified sine wave graphical analysis factor will vary based on the actual degrees the SCRs conduct. NEMA CODE K has a form factor of 1.35 based on the motors base speed. The form factor rating is also based on a 120 or 240 VAC line with a ripple frequency at 60 Hz power source and an armature voltage rating of 90 and 180 respectively. This design takes into account motors rated between 1 to 5 horsepower. Caution should be taken with motors that do not comply with this form factor (rated for pure DC operation, or have lower form factors). These motors will have a tendency to significantly overheat if operated at their full load rating. Operation with a 50 Hz AC power source has slightly higher ripple currents, but can be compensated for by derating the continuous load at the base speed of the motor by five percent. Danfoss uses the NEMA CODE K configuration design, and all 3200 and 4200 series PMDC motors are SCR rated with a form factor of 1.4.

Defining Speed Regulation Quality, process throughput and control are important considerations for proper machine operations. Speed regulation plays a key role when determining an application requirement for one or all of the above topics. Understanding when and how a DC drives speed regulation is defined will aid in the decision-making process for the proper type of DC motor control. Figure 13 shows a graph of the speed error with armature and
Speed error (rpm) +36
Armature feedback Percent

+2% of base
speed

+9 +4 -4 -9

Tachometer feedback Set speed (rpm) 800 900 1800

+0.5%
Percent of set speed

-0.5%
Tachometer feedback Percent of base speed

-36

Armature feedback

-2%

Figure 13. Speed error with armature and tachometer feedbacks tachometer feedback. The center horizontal line represents the motor speed from zero to its base speed of 1800 RPM. The left vertical axis is the speed error for an armature or tachometer feedback. The right vertical axis is the manufacturers speed regulation based on the type of feedback applied. When a speed regulation is given as +/- 2% in armature feedback, it is based on the motors base speed of 1800 RPM unless otherwise stated. The graph shows 36 RPM as worst case (2% x

1800 RPM). The motor speed can vary from no load to full load as much as five to seven percent. This, however, can be compensated for by adjusting IR compensation. This will insure that the speed regulation is maintained at its rated regulation performance. Speed regulation also varies from the motors cold start-up to its nominal operating temperature. Some adjustments may have to be made during the initial warm-up operation to maintain proper speed regulation. If better than 2% speed regulation is needed, tachometer feedback will be required. The speed regulation for the tachometer is based on a set speed and is given as +/.5% or 4 RPM (whichever is greater). For example, if the speed is set at 1000 RPM, the error would be between 995 and 1005 RPM. The tachometer feedback does not require any IR compensation or motor warm-up interval. Mounting a tachometer to the motor insures excellent closed-loop speed regulation and allows greater flexibility in demanding applications, i.e., automatic process control.

the voltage and current flow to the armature of the DC motor, thus Quadrant II
Deceleration Regeneration back to power line Motor R400 Torque

controlling both the speed and torque. Quadrant I

Acceleration Motor R400 Torque

Motor Rotation Elevator

Motor Rotation Elevator

Quadrant III
Motor R400 Torque

Quadrant IV
Deceleration Regeneration back to power line Motor R400 Torque

Motor Rotation Elevator

Motor Rotation Elevator

Quadrant I Forward motor rotation; forward torque: When the elevator is accelerating in an upward direction, the torque and speed are in the same direction. Quadrant II Reverse motor rotation; forward torque: When the elevator is decelerating in a downward direction, the speed of the elevator is also going downward, but the torque is in the opposite direction and is braking the speed of the elevator. The motion energy from the elevator, motor and gravity are being regenerated back to the power line.

Quadrant III Reverse motor rotation; reverse torque: When the elevator is accelerating (faster than the gravity) in the downward direction, the torque and speed are in the same direction. Quadrant IV Forward motor rotation; reverse torque: When the elevator is decelerating in an upward direction, the speed of the elevator is still going upward, the torque is in the opposite direction and is braking the speed of the elevator. The motion energy from the elevator and motor are being regenerated back to the power line.

Regenerative (Four Quadrant) Control

Regenerative DC Drives are able to provide complete control of a DC motors speed and torque simultaneously. A regenerative drive has the capability to produce torque in either braking or motoring modes, while operating a motors speed in a consistent direction of rotation. The capability to provide braking torque is a result of the drives ability to operate in all four quadrants of the motors speed/torque curve as depicted in figure 14. A four quadrant drives ability to operate in a regenerative mode is primarily provided by the additional power section included in the design. Four additional SCR devices are utilized in comparison to a standard NEMA Code K type converter, Figure 15. These four additional components allow for the complete control of both

DC Technical Reference

Figure 14. Four quadrants of a DC motors speed/torque curve.

DC Volts AC Volts

AC Time DC Gate and direction circuits with regenerative capabilities + Armature Voltage Output Waveform at Full Load Time

Figure 15. Regenerative control power section. DCR 9

DC Technical Reference

Interfacing Considerations
Many DC drive applications are designed around external process control systems consisting of relays, proximity switches, programmable logic controllers (PLC) and/or microprocessor-based work stations with dedicated I/O controlling and monitoring the system. These control systems can also provide the drive with the speed or torque (current) command signal and continuously monitor the feedback from the process under control. Because these types of applications are so dominant in todays industrial setting, a knowledge of the DC drives input logic is essential. Isolation Ground, as we know it, does not normally carry current. A ground wire is used to connect equipment (machines, motor housings, drive chassis, etc.) to earth. This provides safety to personnel in the event of dangerous line voltages coming in contact with the equipment. Common or return lines, however, are an active part of the circuit and can carry potentially high currents. General purpose DC SCR drives are designed such that the logic and speed input commons share the same reference as the SCRs (unless stated as isolated from one another). If these commons are connected to ground, or a grounded reference from an external switch or power supply, failure to the drive or external logic device will ultimately result. The most common over-looked mistake when interfacing external logic or speed command signals is not providing some form of isolation to non-isolated inputs. Figure 16 shows one common method of isolation using optoisolators. Optical isolators use light energy to couple the control logic to the load. This light energy is derived from an infrared emitting diode (IRED). The opto-isolator shown is known as a phototransistor and takes advantage of the IREDs ability to focus on the DCR 10
From process logic circuitry

Process output module

DC drive logic input Start

IRED

Interconnect wiring Common Photo-transistor

Figure 16. Optical isolation

DC drive logic circuit +V DC drive opto-isolation LASCR

AC power

+ -

Diode

+
DC motor

Figure 17. Simplified DC drive internal isolation circuit transistor light-sensitive base. This then allows the transistor to conduct and act as a switch "turning on" and allowing current to flow. This form of isolation separates the logic commons and is practical for nonisolated DC drive logic circuits, i.e., start or stop circuits. DC drive manufacturers will often provide the user with some built-in isolation. Figure 17 shows a typical optoisolator called a light-activated SCR (LASCR). The output voltage from the logic circuit provides relatively low current needed to activate the LASCR. Note that there is no direct electrical connection between the logic circuit and the load circuit. This isolation will protect solid state inputs to the drives logic circuitry. Similar optoisolators are used to provide isolation from process signals that provide 010 volt or 4-20 mA input for speed or torque command reference. Always check with the manufacturers when interfacing logic and/or process signals to insure that proper isolation is used or required. Relay Contacts Relays come in many packages and sizes. Contrary to belief, there is not one relay that can satisfy all applications. Some relays contacts require an arc to keep them free from oxidation, sulfidation or contaminates. These types of contacts should be avoided in low-level logic circuits due to the fact that they require arcing to wipe the non-conductive film from the contact. This can also cause intermittent failures which are often hard to troubleshoot. DC drives logic voltages are typically 12 to 24 VDC with 10 to 20 mA current draw. A gold-plated low-level voltage contact is recommended for interfacing to these logic inputs. Occasionally, contacts are used to break the connection between the motor and drive, i.e., dynamic braking. A motor should never be connected or disconnected by means of a contact during operations when a run command is active and voltage or current is present at the armature output of the drive. However, if the

circuit is designed to make or break the contact with the run command disabled, the contact must be rated for the DC motor horsepower. When disconnected from the power source, a DC motor will act like a generator as it comes to a stop. The voltage that is generated can cause destructive arcing to exist between the contacts causing early failure. It is recommended to use contacts or DC contactors that are rated for "specific use" with DC motors. Dynamic Braking Figure 18 shows a common method of dynamically braking a DC PMDC motor. If a DC motors power supply is removed and connected across the resistor as shown, the motor will act as a loaded generator that develops a counter or retarding torque which will rapidly stop the motor. The mechanical energy will be converted into electrical energy that is then dissipated as heat in the brake resistor. Dynamic braking is used in indexing applications as well as applications involving moving heavy loads that are difficult to stop in the required time. Dynamic braking action is only active during motor rotation and should not be confused with an electric holding brake. During normal operation, when the motor is at its fixed speed, the armature develops a counter or back electromotive force (CEMF). When the power supply is removed and the brake resistor is connected to the motor, the CEMF causes current to flow through the armature winding and brake resistor. The current causes heat to dissipate in the brake resistor as electrical watts. This removes the energy from the system and slows the motor rotation down. The smaller the resistance value, the greater the rate of energy dissipated and the faster the motor will stop. The generated CEMF lessons as motor speed decreases and as the motor speed nears zero, braking action is minimal. Like any circuit, safeguards must be taken to insure adequate operation.

L1 AC input L2 A+

CR1 Speed CR1

+ DC drive
Brake resistor ATime DC motor
Typical DB curve

Figure 18.

Regulator Schmidt trigger

+V

Oscillator

Object being sensed

Coil

NPN transistor

Common Integrator

Figure 19. This will require removing the armature power supply through the run logic circuit of the drive and providing a contactor that is rated for specific use with a DC motor and SCR drive. A more common approach today is utilizing solid state devices and logic circuits for dynamic braking applications. This method is relatively inexpensive and provides a much higher reliability than contactors. DC drive manufacturers offer these packages as stand-alone options or with the dynamic brake and logic circuit as an integral design with the drive. The contactor is replaced with an SCR and the logic circuit is directly linked to the drives control circuitry to insure proper sequencing of events. Solid State Sensors Solid state sensors are popular in a broad range of industrial applications. They have the advantages of providing higher reliability; they are more versatile and are more responsive than most of the mechanical counterparts. In process control systems, solid state sensors interface with the I/O modules to provide information of variables being measured or controlled. In DC drive applications, sensors are commonly used to detect linear or rotary displacements. The noncontact proximity sensor is designed to sense the physical closeness, presence or proximity of an object. They are designed around technologies including ultrasonics, magnetic fields, light beams and even air streams to detect the presence or absence of objects within the measuring range of the sensing head. This information is then conditioned electronically to drive solid state devices providing the switching of the DC drives logic circuit. Figure 19 shows a common proximity sensor equivalent circuit. This type of proximity sensor is called an all-metal responsive sensor (RF inductive). Most RF inductive devices operate on Eddy Current Killed Oscillator (ECKO) principles. The oscillator is an LC tank circuit (tuned) DCR 11

DC Technical Reference

DC Technical Reference

with the (L) portion of the tuned circuit formed by a sensor coil and ferrite core mounted at the head of the sensor. When a metal object is placed in front of the head, eddy currents are induced into the metal object by the RF field. These eddy currents disrupt the AC inductance of the tuned circuit and kill the oscillation. An integrator is used to convert the oscillation to a DC signal and a schmitt trigger conditions the DC into a digital signal to turn the transistor on or off. These sensors come in two-wire packages that can be interfaced directly to a DC drives logic. They are used in many applications including electrical endof-travel switches, rotary indexing tables for in position locations, part sensing on assembly lines and pickin-place robotics applications. The photosensor is another common detection device used for sensing objects. The solid state light source photosensor uses a modulated light emitting diode (LED) principle. The LED control operates on a pulsed infrared beam emitted from the LED to the receiver unit placed at some distance from the emitter. The receiver circuit is tuned to the emitters modulating frequency. When the object blocks the emitter and receiver path, the receivers logic output circuit changes state. Figure 20 shows a photosensor connected to a process controller which controls the DC drive and motor for a materialhandling conveyor. This type of sensor is easily interfaced to low level logic circuits and has many useful applications. Some of the applications include counting batches or groups of products prior to packaging on a conveyor line, controlling the diameter of a reeled roll of material or preventing collisions where two conveyors merge (each conveyor is monitored by a photosensor that provides motion control to power the other).

Transmitters

Receiver

Receiver

To conveyor motor 2 Process controller

To conveyor motor 1

DC drive

DC drive

Figure 20.

+v Ic Collector Logic circuit Ia Emitter Base Collector Drive input logic

Base Ib

Emitter Logic common

NPN Transistor

Equivalent Circuit

Figure 21. NPN Transistor In many types of solid state devices a transistor is used as the output to interface with the logic of another input. A common type of switching transistor is known as the NPN open collector sinking output. Figure 21 shows the open collector NPN transistor and its conventional current flow. The transistor will typically be in a "cut-off" state (off) or in a state of "saturation" (on). This is determined by the amount of voltage and current from the base to emitter junction. By connecting the collector across a DC drives positive logic command input (start, stop, etc.) and the emitter to the DC drives logic common

terminal, a switch is created. Current will flow from the collector to the emitter (switch closes) when current flows from the base to emitter. The base current is controlled by the solid states logic circuit and the supply voltage. When no current is flowing through the base (switch opened), a small leakage current will still be present from the collector to emitter. This leakage current must be less than the DC drives leakage current specification to insure proper switching of the logic circuit. Most solid-state outputs can be sized by knowing the maximum current, maximum leakage current and logic supply voltage of the DC drive logic inputs.

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Shielded Cable The most often asked question regarding shielded cable is, "When is it appropriate to use?" The simple answer is to use it when noise is interfering, or is suspected to be interfering, with the operation of the drive. Noise can cause erratic motor operations, unwanted speed variations, or in some cases, drive failures. Noise can come from switching high current loads in wires next to control wiring, from AC power source frequencies (50/60 Hz) next to control wires, or by ground loops (more than one ground path). Noise can be coupled capacitively, inductively or through direct conductive paths. Providing a common point ground to the system will eliminate suspected ground loops. Figure 22 shows the common point method. Noise can be inductively coupled into a drives speed input from other equipment around the process signal itself. This can cause a motor to speed up or slow down depending on the amplitude and polarity of the noise
L1

signal. Using a twisted pair conductor with a shield for process signals will normally provide enough attenuation to eliminate the unwanted noise. When using shielded wire, it is important to connect only one end of the shields to ground leaving the other end open. Connecting both ends to ground can cause ground loops. It is best to tie the shield to the source ground or common point ground nearest to the control. There may be circumstances when shielding does not eliminate the noise due to other factors, i.e., noise frequency, signal level, noise source, etc. This will require identifying the source of noise and providing external circuitry, i.e., low pass filter. The task is often difficult and may require isolating one device at a time to locate the source of noise. An oscilloscope is a very useful tool for visually identifying the problem. Armed with the knowledge of the noise source and frequency, a solution to noise problems can be found.

Process Signal Linearity There is sometimes confusion when talking about tachometer feedback in process control applications. The speed regulation is given for the motors set speed, but does not indicate the input signals relationship with this regulation. Often it is an assumption that these specifications are one and the same, but this is not the case at all. There are many industrial applications that employ simple open-loop controls that do not require more complicated automatic closed-loop systems. An example would be an operator setting a potentiometer to a percentage scale on a dial plate to control motor speed. The motor may or may not reach its desired speed to control the process based on the load, dial plate resolution, potentiometer linearity, etc., but the operator can make corrective adjustments. Process signal linearity is the relationship between the input signal (speed command) and the motors armature voltage output. Figure 23 shows a typical process signal linearity graph for an input process signal voltage versus motor armature voltage.
180

Motor armature voltage

L2 GND

162 144 126 108 90 72 54 36 18 0

0.3% 0.4% 3%
5%

Wire way

Area of worst case linearity 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Cabinet

Controller

Process signal input voltage

DC motor DC drive

Figure 23. Process signal linearity isolation and tachometer used This information is useful for applications where automatic control is supervising the process. The specification is given in a percentage error that is considered worst case. Figure 23 shows the area where the linearity is least acceptable. This is very useful for a process signal that needs defined parameters for controlling speed such as the block diagram in Figure 24. DCR 13

DC Technical Reference

DC drive

DC motor

Ground bus common point

Figure 22.

DC Technical Reference

I.

Controlling method. Will manual control be used, or will a system controller provide the signals to the drive controller? Environments. Will all or part of the drive be subjected to hazards, abrasives, moisture or other extremes? Duty cycle, including number of starts and stops per hour. If the reflected load inertia is several times greater than the motor inertia, or if the duty cycle involves multiple starts and stops a minute, it will require a cycling drive.

J.

K.
PLC Process controls

Process signal input

Process signal input

Tach feedback

DC Drive Power wiring

Tach

DC motor

Cycling Applications
Indexing applications presents some unique types of requirements on a control system. By its nature, the application involves the frequent cycling of a mechanical drive-train to provide a rotary or linear sequencing motion. Normally, between each sequence is a dwell period where the product or device is stationary in a "home" position and some procedure or work is performed. One complete machine cycle will consist of the start and acceleration out of one dwell period, run to, and stopping into the next dwell period. Indexing applications such as these may require machine cycles up to 60 times per minute. It is not uncommon for these applications to require the power of a 12 to a 3 HP motor to meet the load requirements. Due to the severe shock loads during starts and stops that the system is subjected to, DC motors are typically incorporated into indexing applications. DC motors can withstand the intermittent overloads and recover from them quicker than their AC counterparts. DC motors also provide the additional benefit of producing exceptional starting torque, which enables the systems inertia to be accelerated quicker, resulting in a shorter overall machine cycle time. Traditionally, the motor was left to run continuously at its base speed and the drive train was

Tach feedback

DC Drive Power wiring

Tach

DC motor

Figure 24. In this configuration, the tachometer is fed back to the drive but is passive to the process control. In effect, the loop is closed to the drive but open to the process. This form of control fulfills the vast majority of automatic controlled applications with DC SCR general purpose drives. B. Minimum and maximum speed requirements for the load.

C. Direction requirements, unidirectional or bidirectional. D. Acceleration/Deceleration desired. E. Speed of drive response to changes in speed and direction commands. Minimum and maximum speed adjustments required. It is necessary to limit minimum and maximum speed capabilities if the drive has a wider speed range than the load.

Selecting the Correct Drive

Applications for DC drives are many, and the requirements for the drive to perform specific tasks must be well defined. Getting to know the drive will simplify the drive selection process. The following parameters contain most of the factors that should be looked at before the drive selection process begins. A. Maximum horsepower requirements of the driven load and how the required power varies with speed. F.

G. Speed regulation due to load changes and due to other variables such as temperature, humidity, line voltage fluctuation and drift. H. Maintenance capabilities available.

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cycled by engaging and disengaging a clutch/brake mechanism. The advantage of this method is high starting torque and fast deceleration time. The disadvantages, however, are: limited flexibility in cycle times, shocks to the mechanics and frequent maintenance. An alternative to the clutch/brake method mentioned is to provide variable speed and rapid cycling on the motor and drive without the need of mechanical components. A typical DC drive can easily handle the variable speed duty, but the cycling activity presents some unique requirements. Figure 25 shows a speed-versus-time graph for a typical indexing cycle.

starting torque. This will allow the drive to supply the current necessary for the starting torque requirements before the Current Limit circuit becomes active and limits the current to the motor. Normally, this "start boost" will be required for a brief period of time (approximately 250 mSec) to insure that the initial breakaway torque of the load and acceleration to the desired run speed is satisfied. Since the typical requirement in an indexing application is rapid response, the acceleration time shown between point T0 and T1 is fixed at a minimal (0.1 - 0.2 Sec) level. Run speed, point T1 to T2, is the velocity desired for the indexing applications sequence between stations. In this example, run speed is being shown as the motors nominal rated base speed of 1800 RPM. During this time, the DC drive will perform in a typical variable speed manner. A distinct difference from a standard DC drives performance, however, will be the absence of an adjustable IR Compensation. In most indexing applications, the time the motor actually spends running at the reference speed is minimal, and the load is usually very consistent. Trying to set the IR Compensation will be of little use. At point T2, a "Stop" command will be received and the motor speed is brought to zero as fast as possible. To accomplish this, the DC drive utilizes a dynamic brake. Ideally, the dynamic brake will, or should, be an integral part of the DC drives design to insure consistent performance. It should be noted that between points T2 and T3 on the indexing cycle profile, the line is not linear. This is caused by the lessening effect that the dynamic braking has at lower speeds due to the depletion of energy. The time it takes to reach a stop condition, point T3, is dependent on speed, total system inertia, dynamic brake resistance, and frictional torque.

In order to provide the proper starting and stopping capabilities for an indexing application, it is important that the DC drive contain the appropriate control logic. The logic monitors input commands and output power to insure that the Current Limit is activated at the proper time after a start boost. Also, once the dynamic brake circuit is activated, a run command will not be active until a stop condition (T3) is achieved. Monitoring criteria such as this is necessary to maximize the life expectancy of the control by preventing overloads on the power components. Many indexing applications involve a rotary indexing table where a special three-wire Start/Stop-type control scheme called cycle-on-demand is used. The Danfoss Cycletrol Series of DC drives have been designed with the appropriate input logic to meet this configuration. The cycle-ondemand logic requires that "Start" has the ability to override "Stop" and that a "Stop" Command is an "edge sensitive" input, not "level sensitive". This is primarily due to the fact that solid-state dynamic braking usually stops a motor fast enough that the position sensor on the tables cam that provides the "Stop" command is still in an "ON" state. By only sensing the initial opening transition (edge) of the "Stop" and allowing "Start" to override a "Stop" command, the Cycletrol DC drive will recognize the momentary "Start" signal. The "Start" signal is usually provided by a manual pushbutton, one-shot timer or a pulse signal from a PLC.

Speed (rpm)

Accel Motor base rated speed 1800

Decel with Dynamic Range

Time T0 T1 T2 T3

Figure 25. Typical indexing cycle

At point T0, the initiation of the start command is received. From T0 to T1 the motor and system is accelerated. During the acceleration time, the mechanics of the system (motor armature, gearbox, etc.) may present a large inertia. In order to overcome this inertia and begin accelerating as quickly as possible, torque above the motors nominal rating will be required. If the motor and drive have been sized properly, this over-torque requirement for starting will be present for a brief period of time (250mSec). When utilizing a DC drive which has a Current Limit feature, a controlled current boost will be required to provide the extra

DC Technical Reference

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DC Technical Reference

DC Motor Definitions
Armature The rotating portion of the motor containing a laminated iron core with multiple turns of wire around it. Base Speed The rated speed obtained at the rated load (torque) and rated voltage. The base speed is found on the motor nameplate and corresponds with the motor rated horsepower. Brush Conducting material consisting of copper, graphite and/or electrographite materials which passes current from the motor terminals (A+, A-) to the rotating commutator. A term used to describe non-uniform angular velocity. It is found at low motor speeds and is caused by the motor "stepping" from pole piece to pole piece. The condition appears as a jerkiness. Commutation The action of steering currents or voltages to the armature phases so as to produce optimum motor torque. In brush motors, commutation is done via the brushes and commutator. Commutator A mechanical cylinder consisting of alternating segments of conductive and insulating material. The cylinder passes current from the brushes into the armature windings and provides commutation as the armature rotates.

Field Weakening A method of extending the operating speed of a DC shunt motor. This is accomplished by reducing the field intensity, using current to decrease motors magnetic field (reduce field current). Field Wound Motor DC motor that uses an electro-magnetic field wired in parallel to the armature circuit. The shunt field can share the armature power supply or be connected independently. Full-Load Current The armature current of a motor operated at its full load torque. Full-Load Speed The speed that the output shaft of a DC motor obtains with rated torque connected and the drive providing rated output at rated speed. No-Load Speed The speed that the output shaft of a DC motor obtains with no external load connected and the drive providing rated output at rated speed. PMDC Motors A motor consisting of a permanent magnet (PM) stator and a wound ironcore rotor.

Stator

The stationary portions of the magnetic circuit and the associated windings and leads of a motor. It may include a frame, winding supports, ventilation circuits, coolers and temperature detectors.

Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Refers to the motor enclosure style. The motor is protected by the housing from all but the most severe falling water and dirt. The motor is cooled by a fan mounted on an armature shaft extension at the rear of the motor. The fan speed is governed by the motor speed. Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilating (TENV) Similar to a TEFC motor with the exception that the motor is designed so that no further cooling is required. Tachometer An electromagnetic generator typically coupled mechanically to the motor whose main function is to generate a voltage signal proportional to motor speed. The generator output is then electronically conditioned by the drive to control the motor speed regulation to within 1/2% of set speed.

Cogging

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DC Drive Definitions
Acceleration/Deceleration Adjustment The adjustable rate at which the motor increases or decreases in speed from zero to the motors rated speed or rated speed to zero. Typical adjustment rates are 0.25 to 5 seconds. Anti-plug Protection An electronically controlled circuit to prevent motor reversal until motor speed has been reduced to near zero. Current Limit Adjustment An adjustment that prevents drives output current from exceeding the motors full load current rating. Values are most commonly expressed in percentage of nominal drive output ratings. Dynamic Braking A technique for stopping a permanent magnet or shunt wound motor. The motor windings are shorted together through a resistor which results in a motor braking with an exponential decrease in speed. DC SCR Drives A phase control rectifying system using SCRs for power conversion to supply the armature and/or shunt field circuits of a directcurrent motor for providing adjustable and regulated speed control. Follower Slaving of a Motor and Drive from an external signal utilizing a process control transducer, tachometer or other device to provide feedback for process control. Form Factor The ratio of RMS current to average current. Motor heating is a function of RMS current. NEMA CODE K form factor is typically 1.35 at base speed.

Full Wave Rectification Rectifies both the positive and negative half cycles of the sinusoidal AC signal so that the DC output contains two half-sine pulses/cycle. Half Wave Rectification Rectifies only one-half of each incoming sinusoidal wave and does not pass the negative half-cycle. IR (Drop) Compensation An adjustable compensation for the IR losses across the armature resistance. This improves load regulation characteristics. Master Drive A drive that sets the refrence input for one or several slave drives to follow. Maximum Speed Adjustment Adjustment used to set the fastest speed the motor will be allowed to run at when the (command signal) is set at 100%. Minimum Speed Adjustment Adjustment used to set the slowest speed the motor will run at when the (command signal) is set to zero. Operating Overload The drives ability to withstand currents beyond its rating. Normally expressed in a percentage of full-load nominal current for a specified time. Phase Control The process on a DC drive of varying the point within the AC cycle to allow forward conduction through the SCRs. This is expressed as either the reduction in DC voltage or the angle of retard or advance.

Process Signal A controlling input to the drive from a transducer providing a current or voltage reference to command a motor speed proportional to the signal input. Regenerative (Four-Quadrant) Control Regenerative DC drives are able to provide complete control of a DC motors speed and torque simultaneously. A regenerative drive has the capability of producing torque in either braking or motoring modes, while operating a motors speed in a consistent direction of rotation. The capability to provide braking torque is a result of the drives ability to operate in all four quadrants of the motors speed/torque curve. Regulation The amount of speed change from no-load to full-load conditions stated in a percentage of no-load speed.
Regulation =
No-Load Speed - Full-Load Speed No-Load Speed x 100

Reversing A technique to reverse motor shaft rotation by use of magnetic contractors or solid state devices reversing the DC polarity of the motor armature or field.

DC Technical Reference

SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) A semiconductor device used to control motor power. A common application is their use for adjustable speed drives for PMDC motors. Speed Adjustment Potentiometer A three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact used as an adjustable voltage divider for commanding the motor speed or motor torque. DCR 17

DC Technical Reference

Speed Range The ratio of the minimum and maximum speed where the published regulation is in effect, i.e., with a speed range of 50:1 and an 1800 RPM motor, the motor can maintain 36 RPM at constant torque and regulation. Slave (Follower) Drive A drive or drives connected in series or parallel to a master drive. The follower(s) respond in proportion maintaining the speed ratios when the master control calls for a speed change. Speed Mode Mode of operation on a DC drive where the input command, by a process signal or potentiometer, controls the motor speed output. Torque Mode Mode of operation on a DC drive where the input command, by a process signal or potentiometer, controls the motor torque output. Transient Protection Protection from transients that affect the performance or life of a motor drive system. Typical protection devices consist of transformers, surge suppressors, MOVs and RC filter networks. Wiring Diagram A diagram which locates and identifies electrical devices, terminals and interconnecting wiring in an assembly.

Load Definitions
Acceleration The change in velocity as a function of time. This is commonly a positive rate at which the load travels from a lower to a higher speed. Cycle Rate A measure of total machine movement time plus any dwell time. Typically measured in cycles/minute. Deceleration The change in velocity as a function of time. Expressed as a negative rate at which the load travels from a higher to lower speed. Horse Power Work done. The product of torque and speed divided by a constant:
HP = Speed (RPM) x Torque (ft.lb) 5250

Overhauling Loads A load that, under certain conditions, will actually move faster than the motor. This normally causes the motor to turn freely and is considered unacceptable. Torque The turning or twisting effort produced at the shaft of the motor. The torque is directly proportional to the force exerted on the rotor (magnetic repulsion) and the radial distance through which the forces act. Torque is usually measured in ft.lbs. Mathematically, torque (T) is equal to the product of force (F) trying to produce rotation times the distance from the center of rotation to the point of application of the force (radius R) such that: T=FxR Torque can exist even if there is no rotation. If there is no rotation, no work can be performed; yet there can exist a torque trying to produce rotation.

Inertia

The property of an object to resist changes in velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. The greater the inertia, the more torque required to accelerate the load. Inertia calculations are based on the mass and shape of the object.

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