Learning Material

General Chemistry 2

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you are able to:

Explain the first law of thermodynamics

Calculate changes in internal energy

KEY CONCEPTS
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances. It is composed of a solute and a solvent.

The concentration of a solution can be expressed in percen by mass, percent by volume, percent by
mass-volume, mole fraction, molality,molarity, or parts per million.

The colligative properties of solutions are vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depressions,boiling
point elevation and osmotic pressure.

Lesson Proper

THERMOCHEMISTRY is the study of energy or heat flow that accompanies a chemical

reaction and or physical transformation

Thermodynamics is that branch of science that deals with the quantitative relationship
between heat and other forms of energy.is

that branch of science that deals

 Some basic terms of thermodynamics
Heat- form of energy transfer between two objects as a result of their
difference in temperature.

System and Its Surroundings

System :- a specified part of the universe that

is under observation.
Surroundings:- the part other than the
system is known as the surroundings

Types of systems
Open system :- the system that can
exchange matter as well as energy with the
surroundings.
Closed system:- the system which cannot
exchange matter but can exchange energy
with the surroundings.
Isolated system:- the system which cannot
exchange matter as well as energy is called
an isolated system.

Intensive and extensive properties

Intensive properties are those properties whose
value is independent upon the amount of
substance present in the system . Eg:-
temperature. Intensive
Extensive properties are those properties
whose value does depends upon the amount of
substance present in the system.

Macroscopic and microscopic properties

Macroscopic properties
are those
properties which arise from the
bulk behaviour of matter.
Eg:- temperature , viscosity.
Microscopic properties
are those
properties which arise from the
microscopic particles of the
system .
Eg:- intermolecular forces .

State of the system

The condition of existence of a system when
the macroscopic properties have definite value
is called the state of the system. condition of
existence of a system when the macroscopic
properties have definite value is called the state
of the system.

State Functions
is a property of a system that depends on
only its present state, not its history

Direction of Heat Flow

Chemical equations in which heat is shown as either a reactant or a product
called thermochemical equations

Figure 2. The thermite reaction produces so much

heat that the iron it produces comes out molten, a
property that makes this reaction useful in
welding
During the reaction, so much heat is produced that
the iron liquefies. Eventually, the system cools; the iron solidifies as heat is
transferred
to the surroundings.
A process in which heat (q) is transferred from a system to its
surroundings is described as exothermic. By convention, q<0
for an exothermic reaction.
When you hold an ice cube in your hand, heat
from the surroundings (including your hand)
is transferred to the system (the ice), causing
the ice to melt and your hand to become cold.

When heat is transferred to a system from its

surroundings, the process is endothermic. By convention, q>0 for an
endothermic reaction.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The relationship between the energy change of a system and that of its surroundings
is given by the first law of thermodynamics, which states that the energy of the
universe is constant
We can express this law mathematically as follows:

where the subscripts univ, sys, and surr refer to the universe, the system, and the surroundings, respectively. Thus the change in
energy of a system is identical in magnitude but opposite in sign to the change in energy of its surroundings.

However, since energy is never created nor destroyed (thus, the first law of
thermodynamics), the change in internal energy always equals zero.
If energy is lost by the system, then it is absorbed by the surroundings. If energy is
absorbed into a system, then that energy was released by the surroundings:

Because heat and work are the only two ways in which energy can be transferred
between a system and its surroundings, any change in the internal energy of the
system is the sum of the heat transferred (q) and the work done (w):

where in: ΔU is the total change in internal energy of a system, q is the heat
exchanged between a system and its surroundings, w is the work done by or on the
system
For example:
1. A gas in a system has constant pressure. The surroundings around the system
lose 62 J of heat and does 474 J of work onto the system. What is the internal
energy of the system?
Solution:

2. A sample of an ideal gas in the cylinder of an engine is compressed from 400

mL to 50.0 mL during the compression stroke against a constant pressure of
8.00 atm. At the same time, 140 J of energy is transferred from the gas to the
surroundings as heat. What is the total change in the internal energy (ΔU) of
the gas in joules?

Work It Up
A. Identify whether the following processes are endothermic or exothermic.
Justify your answer.
1. Combustion of hydrogen gas
2. Photosynthesis
3. A bucket of water evaporates.
4. Cooking hotdogs in a frying pan.
5. Burning of coal
6. Ice cube melts after leaving in a glass
7. Heating causes NaHCO3 to decompose
8. Neutralization between an acid and a base
9. Combustion of gasoline
10. Explosion of s firecracker triggered by a spark.
B. Answer the following problems.
1. A gas release 35 J of heat as 84J of work was done to compress it.
2. What is work done by a system when it absorbs 47 J of heat and gain 12 J
of energy.
3. How much heat is released by a system when 45 J of work is done on it to
decrease its energy to 23 J?
4. Calculate the work done by a gas when its volume expands from 3.0L to
8.0 L under atm. How much heat did it absorb it its energy did not change.