2.4. Distance and Displacement ‘over aertes Lezming Outeome — You should be Understand and distinguish between seal ‘Scalars and vectors Eas VET CEM il) CneeiccatcD- Y¥ Table 2.4 Common scalar and vector quantities Distance Displacement Speed Velocity Mass Acceleration Enerey Force Time Difference between distance and displacement Figure 2.1 shows the motion of an object between two points, A and B. We will use it to illustrate the meaning of distance and displacement. For any object moving, ina straight line (i.e. linear motion), we ean assign its direction from a reference point ‘as positive or negative. For example, in Figure 24, if we assign the direction to the right, of A as positive, the displacement of the moving object is +5 km. 14 Figure 2.4 Distance and displacement between A and B @ Displacement iltiuce * The distance measured in a stra «The total length covered by a moving object line ina speciid direction, = regardless of the direction of motion + Avector quantity (i.e. has both + scalar quantity (i.e. has magnitude oniy) magnitude and direction) ‘+ Sl unit: metre (m) he moving SOE ents metre (rap 2 The distance travelled by the moving object *+ The displacement of the obj 10 km (green path). of the actual path it takes. (ie. A> Bayo oF 20 km (green path O~Worked Example at — — Figure 2.2 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a Ucturn to travel another 3 km. Calculate (a) the distance coveret (b) its displacement. Solution (a) 5 km +3 km 8 km (oy #3 im. 19, ending Doin Een starting pont RK ——— 5 km ‘Taking the direction due east of point 0 as positive, Displacement = 5 km ~3 km 2 km: PT | + 4 Figure 2.2 2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration Learning Outcomes — You should be ablo ‘+ distinguish between speed and velocity; distance travelled time taken “state what uniform acceleration is; + find average speed using ange in velocity ime taken + interpret examples of non-uniform acceleration. ‘calculate the value of acceleration using Speed How would you find out who the faster 100 m sprinter is — Usain Bolt (ihe current fastest man) or a cheetah (the fastest land mammal) Figure 2.3)? To make a fair comparison, we need to find the speed of Usain ‘The magnitude of a displacement is measured from the starting point to the Final point Its ection is from the starting point to the ‘nal point. Bolt and a cheetah over 100m. _ Figure 2.3 How do we use kinematics to identify the faster 100 m sprinter? nein distance travelled time taken Speed = a scalar quantity, Its $I unit Is the metre per second (m s*). ‘Avunit time can be a Second, a minute or sma Q(Q science bites “Ironically boing the fastest can be a curse for cheetahs.” Using the Internet, * verity the above statement with ‘supporting reasons; + find out if there isa correlation between ‘animals’ speeds and their masses, + Average speeds of ferent objects or animals et in 2009, Based on Usain Bolt’s 100 m world record time of 9.58 $ distance travelled Speed be time taken ++ and 30 m s*, $0, 8 The average speed of a chestah is between 20.m $1 and,o8 ME eh cheetah has the edge over Bolt, unless Bot can fish the 5 sin the future. Average speed in “Table 2.2 shows the results for men’s running events at the 2008 Belin Olympics. ¥ Table 2.2 Resuts for men’s running events atthe 2008 Being OMICS a Usain Bott Jamaica soo | 9.69 10.3 Usain Bott Jamaica 200 | 19.30 10.4 LaShawn Merit usa 400 | 43.75 14 Wittred Bungel Kenya 200 | 104.65, 7.64 ‘The speed of each athlete in Table 2.2 is actually his average speed. Average speed assumes that each athlete travels at the same speed throughout the entire distance. % total distance travelled ‘Average speed = "otal time taken In reality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their races. The speed at one instant is different from the speed at another instant. The speed of an object at a particular instant is known as its instantaneous speed. bullet from rieVelocity When we are asked forthe velocity of an object, we have to state the speed Of the object and the direction in which itis traveling. This is because velocity is a vector quantity is speed in a specified direction. displacement time taken Its SI unit is the metre per second (m s+), ‘An object moves at a constant velocity when it moves at a constant speed in ‘one direction. The object is no longer at a constant velocity when it changes direction without changing its speed, or when it changes its speed without changing its direction, ‘Similarly, as in the case of average speed, total displacement Average velocity = “tel displacement, nee io total time taken Worked Example 22 Figure 2.4 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn to travel another 7 km. If the time taken for the whole journey is 0.2 h, calculate the (a) average speed; (b) average velocity of the car. Solution << Tm ending a nt <5 km Figure 2.4 total distance covered ‘otal time taken = (5+ 7) km 02h 10 kam tr (a) Average speed {b) Taking the direction due east of point O as positive, total displacement “total time taken = 8-1 km 02h = -10 km fr Average velocity = 1 the athete in te siagram takes 25 5 to.complete a 200m ‘print event, find her speed and velocity. distance ‘The ‘triangle" method can help you to recall the relationship between velocity ¥, displacement d and time fy sTonndtime, gy cover tto obtain t= 2 (as shown above). + To find velocity v, cover vto obtain v * To find displacement a cover do obtain This method can also be applied to other similar formulae, in which variable xis direety proportional to variable y but inversely proportional to variable z, 4, where k= constant mae Q(©) change in speed ‘Quick Cheek 4. A string is tied to a stone. Does the stone undergo acceleration when itis whirled in circles? ‘4 Whirling a stone 2. Identity the event(s) that Javalves deceleration: {a) A space shuttle blasting off (b) An eeroplane landing {e) A it approaching the intended tloor (2) An MRT tain leaving 2 station (e) Acar coming to a halt BD ovr Acceleration In other words. ‘An object is accelerating when its velocity Ceo and/or direction the object undergoes acceleration when its 9 change(s) (Figure 2.5). 20ms & {b) change in cretion {) change in both speed and crecton 14 Figure 2.5 Three scenarios in which acceleration occurs Shange in velocity time taken Acceleration = Acceleration is a vector quantity. Its Si unit is the metre per second per second (ms). ‘There is acceleration when velocity increases or decreases over time, For an object whose velocity decreases over time, we can say that it is undergoing deceleration or retardation. Uniform acceleration ‘An object undergoes uniform acceleration when the change (increase or decrease) in its velocity for every unit of time is the same (Table 2.3) ¥ Table 2.3 Object moving with uniform acceleration i a 205120 805-20 2 404420 60% 30 3 608 20 202 9 4 80h 29 20? 20 5 Fro = When the velocity of the abject is increasing by 20 m ¢-1 iy of the obje, is 20ms# every second, the acceleration is 20m s-. When the veloci tis d is decreasing by 20 m s* every second, the decelerationThe following equation can be used to determine the unifon m acceleration a of an object: (@ cuickc check ‘Aro uniform acceleration ‘nd uniform mation the same? Explain your Av vou at Eee Where Uniti veto (ir ms final velocity (in m s-) time at vehich an object is at initial velocity u (in sy t, =the time at which an object is at final velocity v¢in s); ‘change in velocity (in ms“); time interval between t, and t,(in s). Worked Example 2.3 A car at rest starts to travel in a straight path. It reaches a velocity of 12 m s* in 4 s (Figure 2.6). ‘What is its acceleration, assuming that it accelerates uniformly? Solution We assign the direction to the right as positive. Given: initial velocity u = 0 m s+ (since the car starts from rest) final velocity v= 12 m s+ time taken at= 4-4 = 45 me nan sree ts scleatonisesuned'o be niom, ime: Ee a= Yau 2-0)ms4 5 52 qa0s ts4s at ee A Figure 2.6 ‘The acceleration Is 3m s%. Worked Example 2.4 The velocity of a golf ball rolling in a straight line changes from 8 m sto 2m s*in 10 s (Figure 2.7). What is its deceleration, assuming that itis decelerating uniformly? Solution We assign the direction to the right as positive. Given: initial velocity u = 8 m s* final velocity v= 2m s* time taken At= 10 s Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniform, vou _(2-8)ms* at 10s The deceleration is 0.6 m s*. -0.6 ms?‘Non-uniform acceleration An object undergoes nonuniform acceler for every unit of time is not the sam ¥ Table 2.4 Object moving wih nowunior atton ifthe onange in its velocity 1 (Table 2.4)- rm acceleration Owes wipioret From what you have’ learnt so fer, have you {ound the answers to Let's Explore (a, (o) ‘and (cy? 1. Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude only. Examples include distance, speed and time. 2. Vector quantities are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Examples include displacement, velocity and acceleration. 3. Speed is the distance moved per unit time, Its SI unit is the metre per second (m s*) “total distance travelled 4% Average speed = “tal time taken 5. Velocity is the rate of change of aisplacement, {ts SI unit is the metre per second (m $*) displacement “time taken 1G. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Its SI unit is the metre per second peer second (m 5. Veloci {From pln, a boy wala 4 mo the ons, 2 (tresoutn 4 mio tho west and tiraly 3m 1G te morth ia) the tance he wavelet toys stplecamer. 2, Wharisthe oiference between speed and velo a. ne stfeet moving ata constant oti moving in a straight line.” Is the statement true or false? Explain your answer. Note that the change in velocity is not the si moving object is undergoing non-uniform acceleration. 50 Jame for every second. The ‘an object undergoes acceleration when its speed and/or direction change(s). change in velocity Aeceleration = Tie taken ‘An object undergoes uniform acceleration aif the change in its velocity for every unit of time Is the same, Le. the rate of change of velocity Is constant, AY, where av: ‘at a tho change ofthe velocity the time interval over vie the change in veto accu. An obec undergoes nonuniorm acceler ithe change nits veocty for every ania time not the same2.3 Graphs of Vic Leaming Outcomes — You should bo abie to * lat and interpreta displacement-time graph: + lot end interpreta volocity-time greph; ‘deduce information about motion from the shape of a displacement-time graph: * deduce information about mation from the shape of a veleety.ime graphy ‘+ determine displacement by calculating the area under a velocity-time graph, Displacement-time graphs Figure 2.8 shows a car travelling along a straight line in one direction, starting away from the starting point O. Ifthe direction to the right is set ag ont positive, then the positive gradients of graphs in (b)-(e) mean that ox —_+___, the cari travelling towards the right. The displacement of the ear is ‘measured for every second. The displacement and time are recorded 4 Figure 2.8 Motion ofa car and a graph is plotted using the data. The results for four possible Journeys are shown below, {a) Car at rest ta ° 1 2 3 4 [os 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 The graph has zero gradient. The displacement is a constant for every second, The magnitude of the gradient gives the speed Of the car. The sign of the gradient gives the direction ofthe car. O wacxtrex ‘Sketch a displacement time graph of another cor that travels at a higher velocity ‘compared to the car in Figure 2.8, The graph has a constant gradient. The displacement increases 10 m every second.rm velocity) unifo (c) Car travelling with increasing veloclt {nom 3 ns o | 4 Lita °o | © ‘he grph has an Increasing gradient ‘The velocity increases: Dspiacamentin the car at = 3 Sis ‘Te instantaneous velocity of Sot ven by te gradient of te tangent at (2) Car traveling with decreasing velocity (nonuniform velocity) The graph has @ decreasing gradient. The velocity decreases. Velocity—time graphs Aboy playing in a video arcade controls his time graphs can be used to illustrate unifor car by stopping on a pedal. Veloity- Fm and noreuni ‘motion in one direction in a straight line, Sam ecole aie (a) Car at rest (6) Car traveling at uniform velocity of 10 m s-t wloctym =* The velocity remains at ms, so The velocity remains the car has zero at 10 m s+, so. acceleration. the car has zero acceleration, a ee tiers iW Tees(0) Car travell 1g with uniform acceleration 50 The velocity of the car increases by 10 m s* every second. Hence, the graph has a positive and constant gradient, and the acceleration is constant. ‘4 By stepping on the pedal all 3 nel the way, the boy moves his car with constant acpeleration. (@) Car travelling with uniform deceleration wloctym 5 so Susisis} The velocity of the car decreases: by 10 m s* every second. Hence, the graph has a negative 3s | and constant gradient, and the deceleration is constant. 44 By releasing the pedel, 9 the Boy moves his car with ‘a constant deceleration. oe The increase in velocity is increasing, with time, Hence, the graph has a positive and inereasing gradient, and the acceleration increases. ‘The instantaneous acelration ofthe car at t= Ison by tho gradient of tho tangent ot tho point ee ‘a By stepping on the pedal slowly, the boy moves his earth an nnn Q ines(f) Car travelling with decreasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) o | azaial | staat | Es | a o | as | sz | 42 | 48 The increase in velocity is decreasing with time. Hence, the graph has a positive and decreasing gradient and the acceleration decreases. ‘4 By roleasing the pedal slowly, the boy moves his car with a decreasing acceleration. Comparisons between displacement-time and velocity-time graphs fend decreasing Velocity-time graphs and displacement-time graphs look very similar, but they ‘socelertion. What are give different information. We can differentiate them by looking at the labels the citferences between On the y-axes. the two? Assume that the car in Figure 2.8 starts from rest and accelerates uniformly in one direction to a constant velocity. The car then comes to a stop at a red light. Figure 2.9 shows the displacement-time and velocity-time graphs of the car and how they are related. Gees one Goad Car accelerates Car moves at constant (Car decelerates uniformly Uniformly from rest. velocity. toastop. ‘The y-axis indicates displacement. Thus, Displacement-time graph ths Is @displacement-time graph. Displacement/m Displacement moved increases uniformly overtime. Hence, {gradient is a postive constant (opresented bya \ straight line), Displacement moved increases ‘at an increasing rate. Hence, ‘radient increases (represented by a concave curve). Displacement moved increases at a decreasing rate. Hence, ‘gadient decreases (represented { bya convex curve). t +t i Time/s A 8 6 The yas indicates Velocity increases Volocity-time graph i veloety. rus, tis UMforiy overtime, Velocity decreases i a velocity-time graph, Hence. Bradient is uniformly over time. Hence, 2 postive constant sradiont 1 a negative + Uepeesented by 3 Velociy/m 5 constant (represented by @ stro ne, straight line), § Velocity constant. Hence, the {raph hor 1s a horizontal ine. Time/sWorked Exampic 2.5 ! - ~ Figure 2.10 shows the displacement-time graph of a car. Assume that the direction of the car ‘moving away from origin O is positive. Diptcoment/n Refer to Figure 2.10. ‘Is the car moving ata uniform velocity forthe stretch of the Journey descrived by curve CF? hae + Compare and comment on the velocity at D and at E + Is the velocity increasing or Describe the motion of the car at each stage: decreasing from Eto F? (a) & () 8 ) ¢ (@) DtoE (e) EtoF Solution The motion of the car is described in Table 2.8. {¥ Table 2.5 Motion ofthe car * Displacement is 40 m from 0. () | A | « Velocity is zero, () | 8 | + Velocity is uniform. * Displacement is 90 m from 0. (2) | © | + Velocity is zero. * Car travels in the opposite direction back towards O. (6) | Dt0€ | « Displacement decreases at a decreasing rate. + Velocity Is non-uniform and decreasing. i" + Displacement remains at 28 m from 0. (0) | BAF | velocity is zero, @ science ties rey tart fo etn Martont > Swissotel The StamfordWorked Example 2.6 ‘The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.11. Describe the motion of the car. Velooty/m e+ Whon intorpreting the motion of the ear In a veloaty-time raph, explain what is happening interval by Interval Solution The mation of the car is desorited in Table 2.6. Table: Motion ofthe eae i ‘+ Velocity increases uniformly from O m sto 45 m s* o=ss | * Acceleration is uniform at (45-o}ms* ss =ams? 5— 105 | * Velocity increases irom 15 m s* to 20 ms" at a decreasing rate Acceleration is nonuniform and decreasing. a5 5 | * Velocity s uniform and is et a maximum, 10-185 | «Acceleration is 2000 * Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m sto O ms * Acceleration Is uniform at (0-20) ms* or ‘Therefore, deceleration (or retardation) is 4 m 52. 15-208 ames, 25 5 | + Velocity Is 2e10. 20-285 | © socoieration is 2er0, * Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m sto 10 m $*, 25-20. | * Acceleration is uniform at (20-0)ms* isa Sa =2ms? = a5 5 | * Velocity decreases from 10 m s* to 0 m s+ ata decreasing ate 20-385 | © deceleration is nonuniform and decreasing,Area under velocity-time graph Figure 2.12 shows the velocity-time graph for an obj: uniform velocity. t moving with Yelocity/m s+ e[ SIH e er ao aa ae as. Time/s ol 14 Figure 2.22 Velocity-time graph of an object moving with uniform velocity ‘The velocity is 6 m s* from time {= 0s to t= 14 s. What is the total displacement from ¢ = 0 s to t We can calculate it as follows: v=6ms%,t=10s 2 d=vxt=6ms*x10s= 60m The product of velocity and time gives the displacement. From Figure 2.13, you can see that the product of 6 m s and 40 s is the area of the shaded rectangle. jocity/m s* vet 4 i * Only the area under a velocity-time granh gives the displacement. The a under a cisplacement= time graph does not give displacement. “+ We can derive the total displacement from 3 ‘displacement-time graph by reading the values directly of the y-axis. ‘4 Figure 2.13 Displacement ofthe object isthe area ofthe rectangle under the veloctytime graph,Q ~: Now, consider the following velocity-time graph (Figure 2.14) for an object that accelerates, moves with uniform velocity and then decelerates. Velocity/m 5 60 40 Velocity-time graph Time/s ‘A Figure 2.14 Velocity-—time graph of an object that accelerates, moves with Uniform velocity and then decelerates Calculation of total displacement Total displacement of the object is the total area under the velocity-time graph = Area of the trapezium $x (s+ 245) x36ms# 5 4m Calculation of average speed Average speed of object _ total distance travelled _ 594 m ~total time taken 245 = 24.8ms4 Description of motion From time t= 0s to t=6s, * Velocity increases uniformly from 0 ms to 36 ms, + Acceleration = SS—OMS* _ gm 52 (6-08 From time t= 6 sto t= 15s, * Velocity remains constant at 36 m s* + Acceleration = 0 ms? From time t= 15 s to t= 24s, ‘* Velocity decreases uniformly from 36 m sto ms" (0-36) ms* * Acceleration = FE =-4ms?Worked Example 2.7 f——~ ‘An MRT train moves off from Aljunied station and travels along a straight track towards Paya Lebar station, Figure 2.15 shows how the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey. Veloctty/m s-* Steerer Time/s ‘A Figure 2.45 Velocity-time graph of an MRT train (a) Determine the average speed of the train between (b) Describe the motion of the train between () t=Osand (il) t= 40s and (ii) ‘Solution (a) Displacement between t= 0s and t= 70. Yelociy/m s* area under velocity-time graph between =Osandt=70s area of shaded trapezium (on the right) Te(o0s+ 709)x18ms" “975m time/s Average _ total distance travelled 10 O30 speed “time taken _975.m "70s =13.9ms* (b) (I) The velocity-time graph of the train has a gradient ‘that Is positive and constant. This means that the We can also find the same ‘rain is undergoing uniform acceleration. shaded area under the velocity= (i) The velocity-time graph of the train is a horizontal | time graph by adding the area line. That is, its gradient is zero. This means that | of the small shaded triangle and ‘the acceleration of the train is zero. ‘area of the shaded rectangle lil) The velocity-time graph of the train has a negative and decreasing gradient. This means that the | j2 ror senr using tne method volocity of the train decreases ata decreasing rate. | Shove. Check iit aves the same The train is undergoing decreasing deceleration. ‘answer as in the solution to Worked Example 2.7. Try computing the totalWorked Example 2.8 ‘A motorist approaches a traffic light junction at 4 km fr*. The traffic light turns red when he is 30 m from the junction. If he takes 0.4 s before applying the brakes, and his car slows down at a rate of 3.75 m s, determine whether the motorist is able to stop his car intime. under various driving conditions. The assumptions are: + The car travels at a uniform velocity of 54 km hr until the brakes are applied. * Its deceleration of 3.75 m $7 is uniform. ' Note: First, convert $4 km hr into @ speed in m s“, 54 km _ 54000 m “Th =~ 3600s Velocity-time graph of vehicle: 54 km ht 15mst wins Can the car stop 35 in time? | Does the car stop within 30 m? ts ' i To answer that, we need to tnd its Find: time interval At between the pont at which the motorist applies isplacement, ‘the brakes and the point at which the car stops. | Given: uniform deceleration = 3.75 ms? (ie. acceleration a = -3.75 m s*4) Its displacement is change in velocity Av = final velocity the area under its =-15ms* velocity-time graph. | To find the area, we need to find At. Displacement = area under velocity-time graph rea of trapezium $x (045+4.45)x15 ms —Soiv he probe.) 6m Since the displacement of his car is more than 30 m, the motorist is tunable to stop his car in time.Speed-time graph against veloctty- Consider a volleyball that is tossed vertically ups to fall freely with negtigibie air resistance. Wi the ground as positive ime graph ards (Figure 2.16) and allowed ign the upward direction from timet=t, 7 r velocty sof ‘4 Figure 2.46 The upward and ‘downward journey of 2 volleyball Figures 2.17 and 2.18 show the speed-time graph and the velocity-time graph of the volleyball respectively. What do you notice about the areas under the ‘two graphs? ‘otal distance travelled ‘Total displacement by the ball ‘ofthe ball, Distance travelled Distance travelled h Displacement Displacement ‘raring its upward during its dowaware Increases during its decreases during ts journey to the journey from the Lpward journey to the downward journey fom highest point highest point highest point the highest point. Yelocity/m s-* Time/s Time/s 1 Figure 2.17 Speed-time 1 Flue 2.18 Yelcy-tme sae Sesbal a Fe 2.18 volo ime graph, For the velocity-time graph, total displacement of the volleyball = total area under the velocity-time graph For the speed total distance travelled by the volleyball total area under the speed-time graph Ata, bt Ay =hth +h) =2h ‘+ in the displacement ofthe volleyball during Its downward Journey negative? Sketch the velocty-time graph if the downward direction is defined as positive me @> Explorel From what you 4. (a) The gradient of a cispiacemert-time grash eves fiaeicartes en (b) The gradient of a tangent an «die have you found th velocty gives the instantaneous vstoo trv teat. (a). Foran objct at rest the cisplacemertctm enor 8) Foran object trveling et uniform velocity. the dso a straigt line wth constant grecient (o) Foran object waveling at increasing velo, the displecemen is a curve with increasing gradient. (6) Foran object traveling at decreasing velocty, the displacement-time graph is @ curve with decreasing gradient. 3. (a). The gradient ofthe velocity-time gronh gives the acceleration of an object. (®) The fradient ofthe tangent on velocity-time greph for nonuniform velocity gives the instantaneous acceleration of on object at that Instant. 4, The displacement con be determined by calculating the erea under ts vlocity-time greph. Ime graph 1. Study the displacement-time graph shown in Figure 2.19, Displacement/m Time/s S10 18-20-25 30-35, 20 4 Figure 2.19 isplacement-time graph of an object. For each time interval, specify whether the object is moving at uniform velocity, moving at non-uniform velocity or at rest. Calculate the average velocity for the given time intervals. 2. How do we tell whether an object is stationary from its displacement-time graph? 3. How do we determine the velocity of an object using its displacement-time ‘greph? 4. Figures 2.20 and 2.21 show the displacement-time and velocity-time graph of ‘car, For both graphs, describe the motion of the car from {a) point 0 to point A; (b) point A to point B; (6) point B to point. (@) point ¢ to point 0. Displacement/m Velocity/m s+ Time/s al ‘4 Figure 2.20 Displacement 44 Figure 2.24. Velosity-time Workbook Link time graph of a ear gapnotacar Time/s2.4 Accelerat Leaming Outcomes — You should be ati + state thatthe acceleration of tree fall near 10ms% - arth’s surface is approximate ¥ ‘describe the motion of tree-ating bodies with and without aie ‘+ apply the term terminal velocity when dest bing the motion of Galileo’s discovery If we drop a large stone and a small pebble from the same height at the same time, which object will hit the ground first? In the 47th century, Galileo Galilei discovered through a series of experiments and careful observations that all objects, regardless of mass or size, fell at the same acceleration due to the Earth’s gravity, Galileo's finding was contrary to the widely accepted claim made by Aristotle that a heavier object fell faster than a lighter object. Aristotle's claim Galileo's finding 1s Ifyou were a scientist in the 47th century, would you have ‘accepted Gale's finding? Why? Acceleration due to gravity gis a constant. For objects close to the Earth's surface, the value of g is generally taken to be 9.8 m s*. For simplicity in calculations, we approximate this value to 10 m s* throughout this book, Unless otherwise stated. (@ science Bites Openmindedness To be a goad scientist, one has to have an open mind, that i, to be wing to consider alternatives even it thay are contrary to what is widely ‘Secopted. Galea’ willingness to challenge the laims of fistatle, a famous philosopher ed 10 his discovery thatthe accoleraton ofall objects, regardless of mass oF Size, due tothe Earth's froviy isthe same. This discovery Is core to our Sciontie knowledge today. 4 Gallo Galilei (1564-1642) Find out if an object that Is projected sideways takes more time to hit ‘the ground, 4. Set up a ruler and two coins as shown below. 2. Press on the ruler and tap the end as shown, 0 that coin A falls vertically while coin B Is projected sideways. 8, Observe whether they Int te ground at the ‘same time. ar ;.)Objects falling without air resistance An object can only be in fee fall if the only force acting on itis its ‘own weight. Figure 2.22 shows the path taken by a feather and by ‘a hammer falling in a vacuum (ie. in free fal). displacement ¢, Weight of feather, ‘Weight of hammer, HM, displacement s, (>5,) displacement 5,(>5,) 2omst ‘Figure 2.22 A feather and a hammer in fee fll vim ‘wadient gives 40} acceleration, From Figure 2.22, we can make the following deductions: 30 + The velocity of the two objects under gravity increases by 10 m st every second. That is, both objects undergo a constant acceleration of 20: 10 ms" ‘+ The direction of their motion is downward (i.e. towards the centre of 10 the Earth) * The acceleration of the free-falling objects does not depend on their Tse a mass oF size. In other words, all objects fall freely at a constant 4 pews 2.29 velosy-tine acceleration of 10 m s?. Figure 2.23 shows the velocity-time graph granu recanee een that describes the motion of the two free-falling objects. chapter 2Worked Exampls 2.9 = a ‘A sendl fl off abarmboo pole tom the thir oor while it was being puto The time taken for te sandal to reach the ground wee 1-24 © I aitesitance wae neil, {a)_ nd the velocity ofthe sandal just before it tthe ground (0) fina the helgnt of the tira foo om ts guns {e) do you expect any change inte vlocty-tme geph if sock la instead? Solution ‘Since the air resistance is negligible, the sandal isin free fall © ((e. accelerating at 10 m s*) Given: time taken f to reach the ground is t, = 1.34 s sandal To visualise the problem, we sketch the path and the velocity-time graph of the free-falling sandal. (a). Gradient of v-t graph = constant acceleration due to gravity (y-0)ms* (1.34-0)s \, =10ms? -s Path of the freefaling sandal 13.4ms* vymst The velocity of the sandal just before it hit the ground was 13.4m s**. (b) Displacement = area under v-t graph Help of tire oor rom the ground = 4y,, Liasamsteists 9.0m {e) No. Both the sandal and sock would give the same ee velocity-time graph, since acceleration is constant at 10 ms-*, the freefaling sandal Objects falling with air resistance ener oes feel air brushing against you? You are experiencing, air resistance. Air resistance is a frictional force. It has the following | characteristic ‘= It always opposes the motion of moving objects. i resistence + Itincreases with the speed of the objects. « It increases with the surface area (or size) of the objects. «+ Itincreases with the density of air. > Airresistance pushes upwards ‘gainst the open parachute {Grcounter the wolght ofthe parachutist and his 663" weight of parachutist and gear enhe same acceleration they experience [ow ight and has 2 lovee The paper falls ata et balls) fll through air att time. This is because ‘a plece of paper is ater air resistance ‘Small dense objects (e.8- Stet and hit the ground at the same air resistance. In comparison, surface area. It experiences BFe lower acceleration. the motion of a tocity-time graph and t spectively. Figures 2.24 and 2.25 show the vé piece of paper falling through air res displacement 5, displacement s, (> S,) displacement 5, (> s,) displacement 5, (> 5) us R= air resistance, which increases with velocity eee W= weight of paper, which is constant ‘A Figure 2.24 Velocity-time graph of 4 piece of paper falling through ait ‘A Figure 2.25 How the velocity of a falling piece of Paper and air resistance acting on it change over time Table 2.7 below summarises the forces involves and acceleration, and the displacement of the time intervals. sd, the changes in velocity piece of paper at different -y Table 2.7. Summary of the forces involved, changes in velocity and Seceleration, and displacement of the paper falling tough air Om fee teost |W >A, |+ Yeocty increases trom zo tov, teas. | {Thete ts aceleration, Velocity increases from , to v, Av smaller Le. (v,~ v,) <{y, -0) ‘Acceleration is lower than that " Velocity increases from v, to vj. + Avsmaller Le. (¥4~ ¥,) < {v4 ~¥) + Acceleration Is lower then that * Velocity stays constant. + Av=0, Le. ¥,= ¥,= terminal velocity + Acceleration Is zero. ikea ice Caen (atea under graph) t=28 | R>R 8A) (Sx> 8 only slighty)Objects experience higher air resistance when their speed increases. When the air resistance against an ob 8 object equals its weight, the abject starts to travel at a constant speed known as terminal velocity, This mean object has zero acceleration. aa alibi {fan object falls through a short distance, it may not reach terminal velocity before hitting the ground, Worked Example 2.10 FO ‘A window cleaner drops a sponge from a window at time t = 0 s. Figure 2.26 shows the velocity-time graph for the motion of the sponge. Velocity w/m s (a) Describe the motion of the sponge between A and D. (b) Find the displacement of the sponge between t= 0s and t= 0.6 s. Solution (a) From Ato B, the velocity of the sponge increases uniformly and the acceleration is a constant 10 m s~, From B to D, the velosiy is still increasing but at a decreasing rate. The acceleration decreases. After D, the acceleration soon becomes zero and terminal velocity of 12 m s* is reached, (b)_ Displacement = area under velocity-time graph = + x (0.6 5) x (6.0 ms) =18m(Science Bites ‘What is the physics of skydiving? Just lke @ piece of paper felling through air, when @ ‘Shydiver leaps off a plane, two forces act on his body =the Earth’s gravity (Le. a downward force) and ai resistance (ie. an upward force). The amount of air resistance a shydiver experiences depends on his Speed and surface area. ‘Speed of a skysiver Ar resistance increases with the skyver's speed. gains speed, the air resistance increases until it eventually equals his weight. At this point, he fais at terminal velocity and his eccelerstion is zero, ‘Surface area of a skydiver How # shydiver positions his body during his fall is important. A larger surtace area will ereate more ai resistance. A skydver falls in a spread-eagle position to maximise his surface ares. In this way, he can achieve a lower terminal velocity and stay in the air longer. To fall faster, he simply reduces his surface area by falling head or feet frst. During he nil part of his descent, the savers wht ls eater than te a restanc, Hane, he ih ecclaon var the gourd he fal wit acceleration ovards the Be For the rescue attempt mentioned at the beginning, ofthe copter, Grgary oberon ated Ns bay {> al eed ft He erences Ms spec to cath up vw tneunconsclos Dele Willams Upon nearing ter ne went nto. spree positon oslow dovn before grbing her an pening her parachte. oberon an Wire landed oy, Perens sei) Clery From wht you have leamt so fer, have you found the answers to Let's Explore (e)? 2. (entes J In the absence of air resistance (Le. in vacuum), all objects fall under {ravity at constant acceleration g, It is approximately 10 m s near the Earth's surface. In the presence of air resistance, the velocity of a falling object Increases at a slower rate (ie. decreasing acceleration), 3. An object falling through air achieves terminal velocity when its weight equal to the air resistance against It Visit tp:/ fan, dse.disenvery.com to ‘watch a video on the physics of skyiving. Use heywords such as video" and “okydiv". 1. An object is released from an unknown height and falls freely for 5 s before it hits the ground, (a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for a time interval of § s, ‘assuming, there is negligible air resistance, (b) What is the velocity ofthe object just before it hits the ground? (©) What is tho unknown height? 2. Why does a feather reach terminal velocity faster than a hammer, even though both are released from the same height? 0 ~:The Moving Man Visit http://phet.colorads ete ‘on/moving: Glick on Run Now! to start the simulation program. 2n to watch a simulation of a moving man, Part 4 Getting familiar with the program 41. Select the introduction tab on the top left comer ofthe program window. 2 (a) Drag the Position, Velocity and Accoeration sliders to change the values of these variables. * Position slider from 1.20 m to 1.20 m * Velocity slider trom 1.20 m s to ~1.20 ms* + Acceleration slider from 1.20 m s* to -1.20 ms? (b) Check the Velocity Vector and/or Acceleration Vector boxes to visualise the man’s movement. (€)_ Click the Play button at the bottom of the window to start the motion of the man according, to the variables specified, At the end of the simulation for one setting, click on the Pause button followed by the Clear button before entering the values of the next setting. 4. Observe and describe how the motion of the man changes with time for individual settings. ut 2 Predicting and sketching displacement-time (s-t) and velocity-time (v-t) graphs 4. Select the Charts tab on the top left corner of the program window. 2. Explore the different tabs and buttons as was done in Part 4. 3, Without running the simulation, predict and sketch the s-t and v—t graphs for the following two scenarios. Scenario 1: At -8.0 m from his mother, a toddler started to walk towards his father at a constant velocity of 4.2 m s*. He bumped into his father, who was 10 m away from his mother. Scenario 2: A departing tourist stood ~5.0 m from the departure hall at the airport, looking for her passport. It was 4 s before she started walking towards the hall at a constant velocity of 0.50 m s*. After 4 5, she decided to walk faster at an acceleration of 1.0 m S? before stopping at a souvenir shop. 4, Enter the relevant values into the program, and run the simulation to check if your graphs match the ones generated by the program. Part 3 Collaborative learning 4. Ifany of your predicted graphs differ from those generated by the program, discuss and clarify your doubts on the chapter with your classmates and teacher. 2. In groups of four, discuss how a velocity-time graph can be drawn if you are given @ displacement-time graph. ~— @Iino Distance (Stunit: m) Some Dipleconen) [" veocky |” Acoeraton “siuntemss) | GShuntimy | Stuntems4) ) (Slunitms”) | mE om ST —— Ea (in Sa total distance Se © Gradient of velocity-time graph eee, |= Total time taken | —> acceleration ere ‘total time taken “+ Acceleration due to gravity g = without sir resistance, object paepincalnety falls with constant acceleration I ime taken. with ar resistance, object falls | Gradient of with decreasing acceleration | displacement-time graph ‘and may reach terminal velocity rotocity | ‘State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Ravise the ‘elevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer. | = se) (a) | Velocity is @ scalar, and hence has magnitude and direction, Ba (b) An object travelling at a uniform velocity has @ displacement-time graph that has a sort poate bao 22 (2 | Wen te see of an te chars sweeten Sree ze (| Those un ovesprtne gap ofan cb es aon 23 (| te wet-tine pon fa festa hoa ne, 23 op | fie otc cng ona ae hoe one va pa iw tem te 2a [Answers are available at the back ofthe book, o~- Loe Section A: Muitipte-2hre 2. The average speed of 9 oa far can it travel in 45 minutes? A 0.78 km 26.25 km © 129km D467 km 5 kun Ws, How Acar accelerates uniformly from 5 m sto 413 ms* in 4.0, What is the acceleration of the car? A 0.50ms? B 080ms? © 125ms? D 200ms? 3. Aball that is thrown vertically upwards at 1.2m s* docolerates uniformly at 10 ms How long will it take to reach 2er0 velocity? A 0128 B 24s © 60s D 420s Which one of the following velocity-time graphs represents the motion of an abject slowing down, at a non-uniform deceleration? A Velocity B Velocity Tine Time © eocity D Yelocity Tie Tine ‘5. Which of the following velocity-time graphs represents the motion of an object faling to the round in the presence of ar resistance? A Yetocity B yelocity Tine Time © Yolocty D Yotociy Tie setion & tured Questis fine average speed. (b) Figure 2.27 shows a cytlist's route. He started from point A at 6 am and went past theo other points 8, C and D, before Feturning to point A at 6 pm. Spmsan a2 noon Figure 2.27 Calculate the average speed of the cyclist (from Ato 8; (i) from 8 to C: (lil) for the whole journey. 2. Avvain travels along a straight track from one Station to another. Figure 2.28 shows how the velocity ofthe train varies with time over the whole journey. Velocity s+ 246 % 10 42 14 16 + Figure 2.28 (a) State the time interval aver which the train Is docolerating. (b) Determine the acceleration of the train during the fst two seconds of the journey. {e) Determine the (displacement between the two stations; (i) average speed of the train, ne @3, Figure 2.29 shows how the velocity of a moving body varies with time t Volociy/an * oto 2080 a0 4 Figure 2.29 (a) Determine the acceleration of the body uring the frst 10 s. (b) Botwoen t= 30 s and t= 45 s, the body docelerates uniformly to rest. (Complete the grap for this time interval (1) From the graph drawn in (W), obtain the velocity of the body when t= 37.5 s. (c) Determine the displacement of the body between t= 30 s and t= 45 s, Figure 2.30 shows the veiocity-time graph of a car in motion. \elocty/m 5 OS 40 15 20 28 30 35 Timo/s 4 Figure 2.30 Describe the motion of the car between (a) t=0s and t= 10 {b) t=40 sande (©) (215s and t= 20s; (d) t= 20s and t= 30s; (e) f= 30s and t= 35s, 2 Section C: Free-Rospon: Que: Figure 2.31 shows 2 smooth track ABCD. The twack has a horizantal section BC caliorated in metres. A smooth, stee! ball bearing of mass 0.3 kg was released from a point on the slope AB. A ‘steal ball bearing o 0 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m a Figure 2.31, AA stopwatch was used to time how long it took the ball bearing to go past the various calibration, marks. The times were recorded in the Table 2.8, ‘The timing on the stopwatch started some time after the ball bearing went past B. : : (a) Using graph paper. plot a displacement-time ‘graph for the steel ball bearing. (0) Calculate the average speed of the ball baring between the 3.0m and 4.0 m marks. (6) Assuming there was negligible fiction between the ball bearing and the track, calculate the displacement ofthe ball bearing trom B just before the timing sterted ‘on the stopwatch (a) What wes the acceleration ofthe bearing as itrolled along 80? Explain your answer. {©} The bal bearing slowed down on its way Lup slope CD and stopped momentariy at T before rolling back down the slope. Given that aT the reading on the stopwatch was 13 s,caloulate the deceleration ofthe bal bearing as it rolled upslope CD. A feather was released from rest in vacuum, and then in air. In both situations, the feather was released from a significant height. (a) Compare and comment on the motion of the feather in vacuum and in alr (b) Sketch the velocity-time graphs of the ‘motion of the feather in vacuum and in air, Workbook Link ‘Worksheet 26