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Reaction forces of lightweight mouldboard ploughs at slow speeds of

tillage in Nitosol, Vertisol and Ferralsol soils under two moisture
conditions

Article  in  Soil and Tillage Research · January 1999

DOI: 10.1016/S0167-1987(98)00186-X

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 Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323

Reaction forces of lightweight mouldboard ploughs at slow

speeds of tillage in Nitosol, Vertisol and Ferralsol soils
under two moisture conditions
P.M.O. Owende*, S.M. Ward
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland
Received 16 August 1998; accepted 8 October 1998

Abstract

The mouldboard plough is the standard tillage implement used with animal power in Kenya. Various designs are currently
used indiscriminately in varied soil types and conditions of operation. Their draught characteristics and comparative ability to
achieve or maintain desired depths of operation under inherent edaphic conditions are unknown. The signi®cance of variation
in working speeds, when different species of draught animals are used, is also unknown. This study was therefore aimed at
rating the performance of some common ploughs in order to advise farmers on optimisation of their use. Draught and vertical
reaction (suction) on a per-tool basis were measured for four ploughs commonly used in the region; the Victory1, the
Rumpstad winding-body1 and two types of Rumpstad cylindrical-body1 ploughs, using an instrumented rig. The experiments
were in Pellic Vertisol, Ferralsol and Nitosol soils under two soil moisture conditions. Draught increased signi®cantly with
depth for all four ploughs, hence, regulation of tillage depth is paramount to avoidance of drastic ¯uctuations. Similarly,
vertical reaction increased with depth of ploughing, which implies a more stable operation, hence, when draught can be
sustained over an acceptable work duration, it is desirable to set the ploughs to work deeply. Signi®cant speed±depth
interactions were also recorded, and these imply that speed is important when operating depth is stochastic as is the case in the
dynamics of these ploughs. Overall, the Victory plough had the lowest draught requirement (0.32±1.02 kN) under dry and
moist soil conditions, hence, was the best option for use in areas represented by the three soil types in Kenya. Soil-type had a
signi®cant effect on mean draught and vertical reaction in the order (Draught, Vertical reaction); Vertisol (1.65 kN,
0.70 kN) > Ferralsol (0.66 kN, 0.44 kN) > Nitosol (0.64 kN, 0.01 kN), and Ferralsol (1.17 kN, 0.71) > Vertisol (1.09 kN,
0.23 kN) > Nitosol (0.49 kN, 0.11 kN) under moist and dry conditions, respectively. These results suggest that the duration of
continuous work periods with draught animals should be based on soil-type. # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tillage; Mouldboard plough; Vertisol; Nitosol; Ferralsol; Kenya

1. Introduction

The agronomic importance of using draught ani-

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +353-1-706-7418; fax: +358-1- mals speci®cally for tillage operations in Kenya is
475-2119; e-mail: philip.owende@ucd.ie well recognised (Owende, 1995). Cattle (Bos indicus

0167-1987/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0167-1987(98)00186-X
314 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323
L.) and donkeys (Equus asinus L.) are predominantly
used for traction with the preference mostly depending
on tradition in an area. The use of tamed African
buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman) has also been
attempted (Mwanzia, 1995). The mouldboard plough
is the standard tillage implement used for ploughing
and weeding with animal power (Kaumbutho et al.,
1990). Three basic designs of the plough are com-
monly used, these are; the Victory (Datini Mercantile,
Nairobi, Kenya), Rumpstad (East African Foundries,
Nairobi, Kenya) Winding-body and Cylindrical-body
ploughs. The term `lightweight' has been used in this
study to differentiate these ploughs which are typi-
cally 20±50 kg in mass, from the conventional mould-
board ploughs used with tractors.
To adequately utilise periods of soil moisture
availability for crop growth in arid and semi-arid
lands, attempts are usually made to perform much
of the primary tillage operations before or at the
onset of rain in the bi-modal rainfall regime. In
tillage before the rains, soils are usually dry and
therefore offer relatively high draught resistance
with poor penetration, hence, high rate of structural
failure in ®eld equipment present unique problems to
farmers (Wolf and Luth, 1977). Workability of differ-
ent soil types after the onset of rainfall also varies.
Further to these, the tillage seasons are usually the
times when animals used for traction in the arid and
semi-arid areas are weak due to limited supply of feed
during dry spells preceeding rainfall, hence, they
provide limited draught power. The same ploughs
are used for varied soil types and conditions of opera-
tion. However, their draught requirements and com-
parative ability to achieve or maintain the desired
range of operating depth under varied conditions,
hence their geographical adaptability in Kenya, are
not known. The effect of inherent variations in work-
ing speeds on draught and stability of tillage opera-
tions when the same ploughs are used with different
species of draught animals is likewise unknown.
This study was therefore designed to address these
de®ciencies.
The reaction force on a tillage tool is affected by
initial soil conditions, tool shape and manner (speed,
depth and orientation) of tool movement (Gill and
Vanden Berg, 1968). Since initial soil conditions are
highly variable under ®eld operation conditions,
only the shape and manner of movement are con-
trollable in the design and use of animal-drawn
mouldboard ploughs. The power from draught
animals is characterised by limited draught in the
range of 0.3±0.8 kN and speed of movement in the
range of 0.6±1 m sÿ1, which primarily depend on
species and breed (Hopfen, 1969; Goe and McDowell,
1980). Hence, the manner of movement becomes
signi®cant when different animal species and breeds
are harnessed to the same ploughs for traction, since
each animal takes its own pace dependent on the
task being performed, by varying speed in inverse
proportion to the magnitude of draught (Lawrence
and Pearson, 1985). In the use of unconstrained
ploughs, the equilibrium is highly unstable (Inns,
1990) with variations in plough orientation and depth
of operation.
By measuring plough draught requirement and
vertical reaction (suction) for different combinations
of depth and speeds of operation under practical
edaphic conditions, we aimed to get the necessary
data to rate commonly used plough designs and to
identify any required modi®cations. Therefore, the
objectives of this study were:
1. To compare soil reaction forces of draught and
vertical reaction of the Victory, Rumpstad wind-
ing-body and two types of the Rumpstad cylind-
rical-body mouldboard ploughs, at different
depths and speeds of ploughing, and;
2. To determine the effect of soil-type and soil water
content at time of tillage on reaction forces and
therefore to prescribe the optimal use and range of
geographical adaptability of these ploughs in
Kenya.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Thirteen parameters were used (Table 1 and Fig. 1)
to describe the shapes of the four mouldboard ploughs
investigated. The ploughs were mounted on a tractor-
drawn instrumented rig described by Owende and
Ward (1997). Plough draught and speci®c draught
measured with the rig compares well with measure-
ments in the normal mode of operation (Owende,
1996).
 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323 315

Table 1
Characteristics of ploughs investigateda

Plough parameter Plough number and identityb

Rumpstad1 Rumpstad cylindrical Rumpstad cylindrical Victory1

winding body body, wide share body, narrow share

1. Share lift angle ( ) (8) 25 25 25 23

2. Share side angle () (8) 45 45 45 44
3. Mouldboard lift angle () (8) 60 60 60 45
4. Mouldboard side angle () (8) 40 40 40 44
5. Vertical suction (Vs) (mm) 20 18 18 0
6. Horizontal suction (Hs) (mm) 0 0 0 20
7. Cutting width (b) (mm) 200 280 200 240
8. Total width (B) (mm) 400 420 420 300
9. Height (h) (mm) 310 300 300 280
10. Radius of curvature of mouldboard 215 277 277 334
at share wing (R) (mm)
11. Length (L) (mm) 590 590 590 510
12. Length to shin (l) (mm) 280 300 300 280
13. Mass of bottom (kg) 20 17 17 15
a
Dimensions are based on Fig. 1.
b
The use of trade names does not imply the authors' endorsement of the product.

Fig. 1. Schematic views of the mouldboard plough showing lift angle ; share side angle ; mouldboard lift angle ; mouldboard side angle ;
horizontal suction Hs; vertical suction Vs; cutting width b; total width B; height h; radius of curvature R; and lengths L and l.

2.2. Experimental sites
Experiments were conducted at three sites with
different soil types (a sandy clay loam Pellic Vertisol,
a sandy loam Ferralsol and a clay Nitosol) under dry
and moist soil conditions. The Vertisol and Ferralsol
sites were located in Ikanga (Kenya), situated on
latitude 18400 S and longitude 38850 E. The Nitosol soil
site was located at the Kabete Field Station of the
University of Nairobi (Kenya), situated on latitude
316 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323

Table 2
Classification and physical properties of soils at the experiment sites

FAO classification Moisture Physical properties by depth rangeb

(soil-type)a condition
Depth range Dry bulk density Moisture content
(mm) (Mg mÿ3) (g/100 g)
Pellic Vertisol (sandy clay loam) Dry 0±100 1.59 11.04
100±200 1.87 15.65
200±300 1.92 16.98
Pellic Vertisol (sandy clay loam) Moist 0±100 1.37 15.76
100±200 1.53 16.92
200±300 1.70 17.08
Ferralsol (sandy loam) Dry 0±100 1.50 4.69
100±200 1.66 8.96
200±300 1.68 12.90
Ferralsol (sandy loam) Moist 0±100 1.72 6.23
100±200 1.79 7.18
200±300 1.80 7.68
Nitosol (clay) Dry 0±100 1.30 21.05
100±200 1.32 21.49
200±300 1.49 21.29
Nitosol (clay) Moist 0±100 1.40 28.35
100±200 1.39 27.71
200±300 1.52 28.53
a
Pellic Vertisol soil had sand (60±2000 mm), silt (2±60 mm) and clay (< 2 mm) concentrations of 58, 14 and 28 g/100 g. Ferralsol soil had sand
(60±2000 mm), silt (2±60 mm) and clay (<2 mm) concentration of 76, 5 and 19 g/100 g. Nitosol soil had sand (60±2000 mm), silt (2±60 mm) and
clay (<2 mm) concentration of 19, 19 and 62 g/100 g.
b
Values are averages of four samples for each depth range using cores of 56 mm diameter and 40 mm height.

18160 S and longitude 368490 E. Six months prior to the
experiments, the sites were ploughed and harrowed
twice, and thereafter left to resettle under fallow. This
was a pre-conditioning for uniformity with allowance
for the soils to regain their rigidity to allow simulation
of the practical conditions encountered in primary
tillage. Sites on each soil-type were prepared as a unit
then divided into two blocks for experiments under dry
and moist soil conditions.
2.3. Experimental details
Soil physical conditions immediately before the
experiments were characterised by moisture content,
bulk density and textural composition (Table 2). The
difference in moisture content between dry and moist
conditions was discernible for the entire range inves-
tigated (0±150 mm) in the Nitosol, and in the 0±
100 mm range in the Vertisol and Ferralsol soils.
Below 100 mm, the differences for the Vertisol were
small and negligible below 200 mm, while for the
Ferralsol, moisture contents for the dry condition were
actually higher. It is the practice in the arid and semi-
arid regions to operate ploughs in air-dry soil in order
to minimise compaction and soil smearing (Wolf and
Hadas, 1987). However, Vertisols tend to be very hard
when dry and unworkable and sticky when wet
(Mayande et al., 1990), hence, their tillage often
presents major problems. On the other hand, a small
decline in water content of hardsetting soils such as the
Ferralsol increases penetration resistance sharply
(Mullins et al., 1987). The magnitude of such increase
recorded in this study is depicted in Fig. 2. These
inherent characteristics of the experimental soils
therefore set stringent (narrow) range to the magnitude
of variation in soil moisture content that could be
practically tilled under ®eld conditions. The peculiar
observation on moisture content in the Vertisol may be
attributed to the poor in®ltration of the soil on re-
wetting, hence, the effect of increased moisture was
con®ned to a shallow depth. Vertisols are also known
to have a high water retention (Van de Weg, 1987),
 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323
Fig. 2. Penetration resistance profiles of experimental sites based
on an average of 15 profile readings, using a recording
penetrometer with 508 cone angle and 100 mm2 base area of cone.
therefore, water content below 100 mm depth under
the dry condition was not different from the moist
condition. The observation with the Ferralsol may be
explained from its predominantly sandy texture of low
moisture retention which probably aided percolation
to depths below 100 mm. High surface water evapora-
tion lead to rapid loss of water from the top pro®le.
Signi®cantly different bulk densities between the
dry and moist conditions of the Vertisol and Ferralsol
were also recorded (Table 2). Higher bulk density for
the dry Vertisol could be attributed to shrinkage, a
property that characterises the drying of the soil (Van
de Weg, 1987). For the Ferralsol, the texture falls
within the limits of a hard-setting soils as described by
Mullins et al. (1987). Since no cracking was observed
on drying of this soil, it is plausible to argue that the
cementing within the narrow moisture range occurred
at constant volume resulting in the moderately higher
317
bulk density (ranging between 0.12±0.22 g/100 g in
the 0±300 mm pro®le) on re-wetting. The observed
differences in bulk density mean that differences in
plough reaction forces cannot solely be attributed to
differences in moisture content. However, in this study
we assumed the main differences in the soil physical
properties were due to the differences in moisture
content.
Mechanical properties of penetration resistance,
soil±soil cohesion, soil±metal adhesion and corre-
sponding angles of internal friction were also mea-
sured (Fig. 2 and Table 3). It is notable that the soil
penetration resistance in the Vertisol was higher for
the moist condition than for the dry condition,
whereas, the dry soil displayed greater soil±soil cohe-
sion strength and greater bulk density. This anomaly
could be due to discontinuities in form of cracks in the
surface pro®le (0±100 mm), an inherent characteristic
of a dry Vertisol. It should be noted that the order
reverses at 110 mm depth. Soil±soil cohesion, and
soil±metal adhesion strengths and corresponding
internal angles of friction were determined using a
shear box (Owende, 1996).
The selection of two soil moisture conditions on
respective experimental plots was rather subjective.
For the moist condition, work was carried out only
when the tractor and rig could be operated in the ®eld
with acceptable sinkage and slippage. For dry condi-
tions, the determining factor was when a plough could
still penetrate the soil. This necessitated several test
runs for identi®cation of extremities for each moisture
condition at each site. It was possible to obtain these
over the `Long Rains' of March±May 1994, the `Short
Rains' from November 1994, which extended to Feb-
ruary 1995, and the intermediate dry season from July
to October 1994.
At each experimental site, a 4  3  3 factorial
experiment in a split±split plot design with three
replications was used. The four plough types (main
plots) were investigated at three depths (subplot) and
three speeds (sub-subplots). Each experiment area
measured 65 m  14 m (minimum) which was ade-
quate for the required 12 runs of 30 m each, while
ensuring that each was made through an area free of
tractor and rig wheel tracks. Ploughing depth was set
outside the test area, to the middle of the desired range.
Three ranges of tillage depth (0±50 mm, 50±100 mm
and 100±150 mm) were investigated. The carriage was
318 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323

Table 3
Mechanical properties of experimental soils from samples excavated at 0±100 mm depth range

Site/moisture Average moisture Soil±soil cohesion Soil±soil internal Soil±metal adhesion Soil±metal internal
condition content (g/100g) strength (kPa) angle of friction (8) strength (kPa) angle of friction (8)

Vertisol-dry 14.56 11.1 12 0.3 3

Vertisol-moist 16.58 4.1 3 0.0 3
Ferralsol-dry 9.47 2.4 4 0.1 2
Ferralsol-moist 7.03 0.1 4 0.1 2
Nitosol-dry 21.28 0.7 4 0.0 5
Nitosol-moist 28.20 1.4 0 2.0 2
Values for Ferralsol-dry are averages from the crust (0±50 mm) which was hard and brittle, and sample below the crust (50±100 mm). The
variation of strength characteristics for this test condition is depicted in Fig. 2.

drawn through the speed range of 0±1.12 m sÿ1 over
30 m runs in gradual increments, with the greatest
speed attained towards the end of each run. In the
moist Nitosol, a reduction of vertical reaction with
speed was observed in trial runs conducted prior to the
experiments under moist conditions. This phenomena
re¯ected the gradual build-up of soil on the ploughs, as
the higher speeds were attained towards the end of
each run. It was controlled by reducing the length of
each run to between 20 and 25 m and close monitoring
of any soil build-up. To eliminate variation associated
with travel direction which could introduce errors
(Nicholson et al., 1984), the runs in each site were
made from the same direction. The datalogger pro-
gram execution rate to record values of draught,
vertical reaction (suction), depth and speed of opera-
tion was set at 64 Hz, which was the maximum for the
system used. With this setting a sampling frequency of
22 Hz was achieved. Since the experimental plots had
been preconditioned, soil properties were assumed to
be uniform for each set of experiments.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) in draught and
vertical reactions was done for data from experiments
in each soil-type and for each of the two soil moisture
conditions separately. Duncan's Multiple Range
Test and Least Square Difference test were used
to examine the effects of plough-type, speed and
depth of tillage, and useful interactions found to be
signi®cant in the preceding ANOVA. Costat statistical
software was used in these analyses (CoHort, 1990).
The t-test (Minitab, 1991) was used to test equality of
means for the two moisture conditions for each soil-
type, and for the soil types under similar moisture
conditions.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Plough reaction forces in the Pellic Vertisol,
Ferralsol and Nitosol
In the Nitosol under moist condition, the experi-
ment could not detect a difference in draught between
the four ploughs (Table 4), while draught signi®cantly
increased with depth of tillage. The interaction
between plough-type and depth of tillage was signi®-
cant in the 100±150 mm depth range in the order,
Victory (0.58 kN) < Rumpstad winding-body
(0.73 kN) < Rumpstad cylindrical narrow-share
(1.23 kN) < Rumpstad cylindrical wide-share
(1.43 kN). Tillage speed had signi®cant effect on
draught for variation greater than 0.6 msÿ1 (2 kph).
Vertical reaction decreased signi®cantly with speed,
indicating a potential instability in plough control.
However, this observation was attributed to adhesion
of soil on plough surfaces. Under the dry soil condition
plough-type was highly signi®cant. Effect of depth
was also signi®cant depending on plough-type, as
indicated by the highly signi®cant plough±depth inter-
action. The experiment could not detect a difference
between plough types in respect to vertical reaction.
Vertical reaction increased signi®cantly with depth of
ploughing, but was independent of plough-type.
In the moist Vertisol, plough-type was signi®cant
for draught (Table 4). Speed±depth interaction was
signi®cant in the 100±150 mm depth, and draught
increased signi®cantly with speed in this range. Var-
iation in vertical reaction among plough types was also
highly signi®cant. The effect of depth on vertical
reaction was highly signi®cant and also dependent
 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323 319

Table 4
Mean reactions (kN)a and mean difference by soil moisture condition for four light mouldboard ploughs in tillage of the Nitosol, Pellic Vertisol
and Ferralsol soils

Plough Mean force reaction by soil-type and site (kN)

Nitosol (Kabete) Pellic Vertisol (Ikanga) Ferralsol (Ikanga)

Dry Moist DÿM Dry Moist DÿM Dry Moist DÿM

(D) (M) (D) (M) (D) (M)

Draught
Rumpstad winding body 0.39bc 0.56a ÿ0.17*** 1.47a 2.16a ÿ0.48ns 0.74c 0.54bc 0.24*
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.70a 0.78a ÿ0.06ns 1.14a 1.82ab ÿ0.68*** 1.74a 0.86a 0.86***
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share 0.54ab 0.79a ÿ0.25* 1.11a 1.64b ÿ0.92* 1.18b 0.76ab 0.43***
Victory 0.32c 0.44a ÿ0.12*** 0.64a 1.00c 0.11ns 1.02bc 0.47c 0.55***
Vertical reaction
Rumpstad winding body 0.08b 0.00b 0.09*** 0.28a 0.91aÿ 0.63*** 0.57b 0.31b 0.28***
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.09ab 0.13a ÿ0.04ns 0.17a 0.73ab ÿ0.55*** 0.73a 0.35b 0.39***
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share 0.11ab ÿ0.03bc 0.14*** 0.06a 0.71b ÿ0.65* 0.73a 0.53a 0.20*
Victory 0.15a ÿ0.07c 0.21*** 0.39a 0.47c ÿ0.07ns 0.81a 0.60a 0.24***
a
Average of three replications at three speeds and three tillage depths. Entries in the (D ÿ M) columns which do not equal the difference
between means under dry and moist condition implies that data had values with opposite signs. The means within a column followed by the
same letter do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.
***
Significant at 0.5% level.
**
Significant at 1% level.
*
Significant at 5% level.
ns; Not significant.

on plough-type. The effect of speed on vertical reac-
tion was also dependent on plough-type at all depths
investigated. Within 50±100 and 100±150 mm ranges
of ploughing depth, vertical reaction was inversely
proportional to the speed of ploughing except for the
Rumpstad winding-body. This indicates the impor-
tance of steady speed of operation as variation in the
magnitude of 0.28 m sÿ1 (1 kph) may lead to instabil-
ity in plough control, i.e., reduced suction. For set
speeds, vertical reaction increased with depth for all
ploughs. Under a dry soil moisture condition, the
experiment could not detect a difference in plough-
type with respect to draught. The effect of depth on
draught varied signi®cantly with type of plough.
Depth was insigni®cant only for the Rumpstad cylind-
rical (narrow-share) plough, while the largest increase
occurred in the 50±150 mm range for the rest. With
vertical reaction, the experiment could not detect a
difference in plough-type, while depth had a highly
signi®cant effect dependent on plough-type. The dif-
ference in vertical reaction between ploughs was only
signi®cant at the deepest depth of ploughing (100±
150 mm), with the Victory plough registering the
highest mean value, signifying the most stable plough
for the condition. The experiment could not detect a
difference between ploughs in respect to draught and
vertical reaction under the dry condition, due to high
variations in the data. The variations were probably
due to unde®ned characteristic failure of Vertisols in
dry conditions. Wolf and Hadas (1987) explained that
in dry Vertisols, fragmentation results from tear of
natural clods from each other, and stress and translo-
cation, rather than cutting, shearing and inversion of
the soil slice as is the case for moist or ductile soils.
However, the functional design of the mouldboard
plough is based on classical analysis of tilling ductile
soils. These observations suggest that mouldboard
ploughing is inappropriate for tillage of Vertisols
under dry soil conditions as its functional principles
are not compatible with inherent soil failure charac-
teristics.
In the wet Ferralsol soil, plough-type and depth of
tillage had signi®cant effects on draught measured
(Table 4). The latter indicating the importance of
regulating depth of ploughing to avoid drastic varia-
tions in draught. Depth±speed interaction was signi®-
320 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323
Table 5
Two-way table for speed±plough-type interaction for draught (kN) in the dry Ferralsol
Plough Speed range (m sÿ1)
0.28±0.56
Rumpstad winding-body 0.74c
Rumpstad cylindric al wide-share 1.33a
Rumpstad cylindrical narrow-share 1.13ab
Victory 0.92bc
Average 1.03
Each value is an average of three replications.
Mean separation in a columns by DMRT at 5% level.
LSD0.05 value for comparing means in a row is 0.09 kN.
cant, although the effect of speed was insigni®cant.
Plough-type was also highly signi®cant in respect to
vertical reaction. The effect of depth on vertical
reaction was highly signi®cant dependent on type of
plough, with the Victory plough registering the highest
suction (0.94 kN). Effect of depth was signi®cant in
50±150 mm range for all ploughs except the Rump-
stad cylindrical (wide-share). Under a dry soil condi-
tion, the effect of plough-type on draught was also
signi®cant (Table 4). Speed±plough interaction was
highly signi®cant, indicating that some of the ploughs
could be distinguished by their draught response to
speed of tillage. Increase of draught with speed of
tillage was highest for the Rumpstad cylindrical
wide-share (Table 5), probably re¯ecting the large
size of its shear. For vertical reaction, plough-type
was signi®cant (Table 4). Depth of tillage was highly
signi®cant with the highest vertical reaction recorded
for the deepest tillage depth range (100±150 mm),
which implies that stability in plough control
improves with increased depth of operation. The
effect of tillage speed on vertical reaction was
highly signi®cant and the magnitude also varied
signi®cantly with plough-type. An increase in vertical
reaction with speed at ®xed range of tillage depth, and
an increase with depth at ®xed ranges of speeds
were observed with all the ploughs. However, only
the latter was signi®cant consistently. The peculiar
observation with the Ferralsol soil, which hardened
on the surface with a small reduction in moisture
content (3%) as indicated in the penetrometer pro®le
for this condition in Fig. 2, implies that vertical
loading by the operator is required for work at shallow
depths.
Average
0.56±0.84 0.84±1.12
0.76c 0.72c 0.74
1.87a 2.04a 1.74
1.24b 1.18b 1.18
1.02bc 1.11b 1.02
1.22 1.26
3.2. Effect of soil moisture condition on plough force
reaction
To investigate the effect of soil moisture condition,
and hence tillage season, on mean draught and vertical
reactions, data for the two moisture conditions for
each soil-type were compared by t-tests (Table 4). In
the Nitosol soil, tillage under the dry condition
required less draught than tillage under the moist
condition and all differences were signi®cant except
for the Rumpstad cylindrical-body (wide share)
plough. A possible reason for higher draught under
the moist condition was attributed to higher soil
adhesion, hence dominant soil±soil friction, which
is higher compared to soil±metal friction that prevails
under dry condition. On the contrary, vertical reac-
tions under the moist condition were signi®cantly
lower except for the Rumpstad cylindrical (wide-
share) plough, which was indifferent to soil moisture
condition. The Rumpstad cylindrical (narrow share)
and Victory ploughs registered negative values, which
implies that these ploughs experienced dif®culty in
penetrating or maintaining depth under the experi-
mental condition. In the use of animals, the higher
draught requirement under moist conditions probably
implies a need to prescribe shorter work durations. It is
also advantageous to till Nitosol soils under dry con-
ditions as long as the desired operating depth can be
maintained.
In the Pellic Vertisol, tillage under a dry condition
required less draught than under the moist condition.
The corresponding vertical reactions on the ploughs
were lower but positive, which implies that achieving
or maintaining desired tillage depth was also possible,
 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323 321

although at comparatively lower stability. The lower
vertical reaction was attributed to the higher soil
resistance to plough penetration or deformation.
In the Ferralsol soil, tillage under moist conditions
required less draught than under dry conditions and
the differences for all ploughs investigated were sig-
ni®cant. Ploughing under moist conditions is therefore
more ef®cient, since corresponding lower draught
requirement may permit longer work durations with
animal power. Although vertical reaction was signi®-
cantly higher for all ploughs under the dry condition,
maximum depth of tillage was possible under both
moisture conditions.
3.3. Effect of soil-type on plough force reaction
The effect of soil-type on draught and vertical
reaction was also investigated by comparison of paired
means in a t-test on data across soil-type for each of
the two soil moisture conditions separately (Tables 6
and 7). Effect of soil-type on draught and vertical
reaction was signi®cant under moist and dry condi-
tions.
Under the moist condition (Table 6), the order in
average draught by soil-type for the ploughs investi-
gated was; Nitosol (0.64 kN) < Ferralsol
(0.66 kN) < Vertisol (1.65 N). However, the experi-
ment could not detect any difference between the
Nitosol and Ferralsol soils. The Victory plough had
the lowest mean draught in all soil types. Ranges of
mean draught varied from 0.44±0.79 kN, 1.00±
2.16 kN and 0.47±0.86 kN in the Nitosol, Vertisol
and Ferralsol, respectively. Plough vertical reaction,
which indicates potential ability to penetrate or main-
tain working depth, was in the order Nitosol
(0.01 kN) < Ferralsol (0.44 kN) < Vertisol (0.70 kN).
Differences in mean vertical reaction between soil
types were all signi®cant, except between the Vertisol
and Ferralsol soils for the Rumpstad cylindrical (nar-
row-share).
Under the dry soil condition (Table 7), the order of
the mean draught by soil-type was; Nitosol
(0.49 kN) < Vertisol (1.09 kN) < Ferralsol (1.17 kN).
Differences in mean draught between the Vertisol and
Ferralsol soils were signi®cant for all ploughs except
for the Victory. The range of mean draught by plough-

Table 6
Mean reactions (kN)a by soil-type and mean difference between soil types for four light mouldboard ploughs in tillage of Nitosol, Pellic
Vertisol and Ferralsol soils under moist conditions

Plough Mean reactions by soil-type (kN) Mean difference (kN)

Nitosol (n) Vertisol (v) Ferralsol (f) nÿv nÿf vÿf

Draught
Rumpstad winding body 0.56a 2.16a 0.54bc ÿ1.60*** 0.03ns 1.62***
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.78a 1.82ab 0.86a ÿ1.04*** ÿ0.08ns 0.96***
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share 0.79a 1.64b 0.76ab ÿ0.78** 0.03ns 0.81***
Victory 0.44a 1.00c 0.47c ÿ0.56* ÿ0.03ns 0.53**
Average 0.64 1.65 0.66
Vertical reaction
Rumpstad winding body 0.00b 0.91a 0.31b ÿ0.91*** ÿ0.31** 0.60***
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.13a 0.73ab 0.35b ÿ0.60*** ÿ0.22** 0.38**
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share ÿ0.03bc 0.71b 0.53a ÿ1.02* ÿ0.55*** 0.46ns
Victory ÿ0.07c 0.47c 0.60a ÿ0.53** ÿ0.66*** ÿ0.13*
Average 0.01 0.70 0.44
a
Average of three replications at three depths of tillage and for three speeds.
Mean differences which do not equal the difference between mean force reaction by soil-type implies that the data had values with opposite
signs.
The means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.
***
Significant at 0.5% level.
**
Significant at 1% level.
*
Significant at 5% level.
ns; Not significant.
322 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323

Table 7
Mean reactions (kN)a by soil-type and mean difference between soil types for four lightweight mouldboard ploughs in tillage of Nitosol, Pellic
Vertisol and Ferralsol soils under dry conditions

Plough Mean reactions by soil-type (kN) Mean difference (kN)

Nitosol (n) Vertisol (v) Ferralsol (f) nÿv nÿf vÿf

Draught
Rumpstad winding body 0.39bc 1.47a 0.74c ÿ1.08*** ÿ0.33*** 0.76***
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.70a 1.14ab 1.74a ÿ1.03*** ÿ0.33*** ÿ0.60*
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share 0.54ab 0.65b 1.18b ÿ0.11* ÿ0.64* ÿ0.54*
Victory 0.32c 1.11ab 1.02bc ÿ0.79*** ÿ0.70*** 0.09ns
Average 0.49 1.09 1.17
Vertical reaction
Rumpstad winding body 0.08b 0.28a 0.57b ÿ0.20*** ÿ0.50*** ÿ0.30***
Rumpstad cylindrical-wide share 0.09ab 0.17a 0.73a ÿ0.08*** ÿ0.64*** ÿ0.56***
Rumpstad cylindrical-narrow share 0.11ab 0.06a 0.73a 0.05ns ÿ0.62*** ÿ0.66***
Victory 0.15a 0.39a 0.81a ÿ0.24** ÿ0.67*** ÿ0.42***
Average 0.11 0.23 0.71
a
Average of three replications at three levels of tillage depth for three levels of speed in each range.
Mean differences which do not equal the difference between mean force reaction by soil-type implies that the data had values with opposite
signs. Under each force reaction, the means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p < 0.05.
***
Significant at 0.5% level.
**
Significant at 1% level.
*
Significant at 5% level.
ns; Not significant

type varied from 0.32±0.70 kN, 0.65±1.47 kN and
0.74±1.74 kN in the Nitosol, Vertisol and Ferralsol
soils, respectively. The difference in average vertical
reaction was insigni®cant between the Nitosol and
Vertisol soils for the Rumpstad cylindrical (narrow-
share). However, the difference was signi®cant
between both the Nitosol and Ferralsol, and the
Vertisol and the Ferralsol soil for all ploughs inves-
tigated.
From these observations it is arguable that soil-type
has signi®cant effect on draught and vertical reaction.
In the moist Nitosol, a negative vertical reaction was
recorded, hence, plough penetration may be impaired.
This observation was attributed to soil adhesion,
which could be reduced by increasing the frequency
of cleaning this plough under such conditions of
operation. The highly signi®cant differences in plough
draught by soil-type for speci®c moisture condition
implies that optimal duration of continuous work
periods with draught animals should be based on
soil-type. Results from this study suggest that, under
moist soil moisture condition, continuous ploughing
periods in a Vertisol should be shorter than in Ferralsol
and Nitosol soil types, as draught was higher for the
range of ploughs investigated. Under dry conditions,
the period should be shorter for the Vertisol and
Ferralsol soils as compared to the Nitosol.
Although mouldboard ploughing of Pellic Vertisols
(sandy clay loam) and Ferralsols (sandy loam) in
semi-arid and arid moisture conditions is practised
in Kenya, soil inversion implements are generally
inappropriate for dryland farming. Their use results
in high losses of soil and soil moisture throughout the
ploughing depth, and their energy requirements are
also exceptionally high. However, before suitable
alternatives are identi®ed for conditions in Kenya,
optimal use of the options in mouldboard ploughs
should be addressed. The recommended tillage system
for these soils, considering the texture, climatic moist-
ure conditions, and major soil conservation problems,
is ploughing soon after harvest of post-rainy season
crops to form a stale-bed or a rough seedbed (Mayande
et al., 1990). Periodic chiselling may be necessary to
alleviate the natural compaction and high bulk den-
sities which may result from continuous traf®c or
grazing (Lal, 1985). Since chisel ploughing requires
lower speci®c draught (kN mÿ1) than the use of the
mouldboard plough (Willcocks, 1984), it may lead to
 P.M.O. Owende, S.M. Ward / Soil & Tillage Research 49 (1999) 313±323
more economical use of draught animal power, espe-
cially when it is limited.
4. Conclusions
Overall, reaction forces of the ploughs used in this
study were signi®cantly different, which implies rela-
tive advantages between them with regards to optimal
use of draught animal power. The Victory mouldboard
plough had the lowest draught requirement, hence, is
the best option for areas represented by the three test
sites. However, it experienced the highest impedance
in penetrating or maintaining depth in moist Nitosol
soil types.
Although the importance of speed variation on
draught has usually been down-played for soil manip-
ulations in the 0±1.12 m sÿ1 that is peculiar to opera-
tions with animal drawn implements, signi®cant
speed±depth interactions makes speed an important
consideration in the overall dynamics of soil engaging
tools.
Soil-type had a signi®cant effect on mean plough
draught, which suggests that it may be used as the
criterion to determine optimal duration of continuous
work periods with draught animals. Further research is
underway to determine what soil conditions should be
aimed for in regard to soil and water conservation
requirements under respective conditions.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Netherlands Project
of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Uni-
versity of Nairobi and Action-Aid Ireland. Assistance
from F. Wahome with the ®eld experiments is greatly
acknowledged. Our gratitude is also due to Dr. Parin
Kurji and Dr. John Connolly for useful discussions on
the experimental set-up and statistical analyses.
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