Instrumentation Competency Based Learning Materials

Sector: ELECTRONICS
Instrumentation and Control

Qualification Title:
Servicing
Calibrate Instrumentation and Control
Unit of Competency: Devices
Calibrating Instrumentation and
Module Title: Control Devices
Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

March 2014 Issued by:
Date Revised:
Instrumentation
February 2012
and Control Developed by: Metrologyx
Page 1 of
Servicing NC II
J. Zamora Revision # 01
HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING
MATERIALS
Welcome.
The unit of competency, Install Instrumentation and Control Devices,

is one of the competencies of Instrumentation and Control Servicing NC II, a
course which required the knowledge, skills and attitude of an
Instrumentation Technician.
The module, Installing Instrumentation and Control devices, contain

training materials and activities related to interpreting work instructions for
installation, identifying tools, equipment, testing devices and materials
needed for installation, install and testing instrumentation and control
devices for you to complete.
In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning

activities in order to complete each learning outcome. In each learning
outcome are Information Sheets, Self Checks, Task Sheets and Job Sheets.
Follow and perform the activities on your own. If you have questions, do not
hesitate to ask assistance from your facilitators.
REMEMBER TO:
 Read the information sheets and complete the self-checks. Suggested

references are included to supplement the materials provided in this
module.
 Perform the Task Sheets and Job Sheets until you are confident that
your outputs conform to the Performance Criteria Checklist that
follows the sheets.
 Submit output of the Task Sheets and Job Sheets to your facilitator
for evaluation and recording in the Accomplishment Chart. Outputs
shall serve as your portfolio during the institutional competency
evaluation. When you feel that you have sufficient practice, ask your
trainer to evaluate you. The result of your assessment will be recorded
in the Progress Chart and Accomplishment Chart.
You must pass the Institutional Competency Evaluation for this

competency before moving to another competency. A certificate of
achievement will be awarded to you after passing the evaluation.

Date Revised:
Instrumentation
February 2012
Page 2 of
Servicing NC II
Instrumentation and Control Servicing NC II
COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS
List of Competencies
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code
Installing
Install Instrumentation
1. Instrumentation and
and Control Devices
Control Devices
Calibrate Calibrating
2. Instrumentation and Instrumentation and
Control Devices Control Devices
Configure Configuring
3. Instrumentation and Instrumentation and
Control Devices Control Devices

Date Revised:
Instrumentation
February 2012
Page 3 of
Servicing NC II
MODULE CONTENT
UNIT OF COMPETENCY: Calibrate Instrumentation and Control

Devices
MODULE TITLE : Calibrating Instrumentation and Control

Devices
MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This module is designed to enhance the

knowledge, skills and attitude of the trainees in
installing and testing the installed
instrumentation and control devices
NOMINAL DURATION: 80 Hrs
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module you MUST be able to:
LO1. Interpret work instructions for calibration
LO2. Identify tools, equipment testing devices and materials needed

for calibration
LO3. Identify the PPE and OHS policies and procedures required for
the calibration job
LO4. Calibrate instrumentation and control devices
LO5. Test calibrated instrumentation and control devices
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Communication skills to interpret work instructions are defined
and demonstrated according to the established procedures
2. Work signs, symbols and conventions are defined and explained
according to the set standards
3. Work instructions and procedures are demonstrated according to
the set standards
4. Materials needed for installation are identified and prepared
according to the work instructions

Date Revised:
Instrumentation
February 2012
Page 4 of
Servicing NC II
5. Tools and equipment types and functions needed for installation
are identified and demonstrated according to set standards
6. Testing devices and instruments operations needed for installation
are explained and demonstrated according to instruction manual
7. Personal protective equipment are used in accordance with the
occupational health and safety guidelines and policies
8. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) needed for installation are

identified and prepared according to the work instructions
9. Use of PPE needed for installation are demonstrated according to

the set standards
10. Occupational and Health Safety (OHS) needed for installation are
identified and explained according to the work instructions
11. OHS procedures and policies needed for installation are

demonstrated according to the set standards
12. Instrumentation and Control standards are followed in line with
the job requirements.
13. Devices are installed in accordance with manufacturer‘s
instructions, requirements, and without damage to the
surrounding place or environment
14. Unplanned events or conditions are responded to in accordance
with established procedures
15. Devices are tested in accordance with standard procedures.
16. Final inspections are undertaken to ensure that the installed
devices conforms with technical requirements.
17. Work site is cleaned and cleared of all debris and left safe in
accordance with the company requirements
18. Report on installation and testing of equipment is prepared

according to company‘s procedures/policies.

Date Revised:
Instrumentation
February 2012
Page 5 of
Servicing NC II
Learning Experiences
Learning Outcome 1
Interpret Work Instructions for Instrumentation
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Read Information Sheet 1.1.1
Introduction to Instrumentation
Answer Self Check 1.1.1
Compare Answers with Answer

Key 1.1.1
2. Read Information Sheet 1.1.2 on
Instrumentation Terminologies

Key 1.1.2
After completing all the learning

activities you may proceed to
Learning Outcome No.2

Instrumentation and Date Revised:
Control Servicing February 2012
Developed by: Metrologyx
Page 6 of
(Boot Camp Section) Revision # 01
J. Zamora
Information Sheet 1.1.1
Introduction to Instrumentation
Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Define Instrumentation
2. Define and Instrument
3. Identify Basic Elements of Instrumentation and Control
What is Instrumentation?
Instrumentation is the branch of engineering that deals with measurement
and control.
- Wikipedia
Instrumentation – is a collection of instruments and their application for the

purpose of observation, measurement and control.
Sources:
ISA – Instrumentation and System Automation Society
SAMA – (Scientific Apparatus Makers Association)
ANSI – American National Standards Institute
Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.

Applications of this science abound in modern research, industry, and
everyday living. From automobile engine control systems to home thermostats
to aircraft autopilots to the manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs, automation
surrounds us. This Information Sheet explains some of the fundamental
principles of industrial instrumentation.

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Instrumentation and Control in Science and Technology.
Nucleunics Chemistry-
Chemical
Physics
Engineering
INSTRUMENTATION Electronics &

Mathematics
AND CONTROL Communication
Engineering
Mechanical- Metallurgical-
Electrical Manufacturing
Engineering Engineering
Infortech –
Computer
Engineering
What is an Instrument?
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates variables such as
flow, temperature, level, or pressure, and includes other devices which can
be as simple as valves, transmitters, and complex analyzers.
Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes, the control
of these processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation.
“We can’t Control what we can’t measure…”

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BASIC ELEMENTS OF INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
(PV) (MV)
(SV)
SETPOINT
DISTURBANCES
Example of Measured Variables:

1. Fluid Pressure
2. Fluid Flowrate
3. Temperature of an object
4. Fluid volume in a vessel
5. Chemical concentration
6. Physical dimensions of an object
7. Voltage, current and resistance
8. Machine position, motion, acceleration

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Example of Final Control Devices:
1. Control Valve
2. Electric Motor
3. Electric Heaters
4. Solenoid Valves
Others…
The common home thermostat is an example of a measurement and
control system, with the home‘s internal air temperature being the ―process‖
under control. In this example, the thermostat usually serves two functions:
sensing and control, while the home‘s heater adds heat to the home to increase
temperature, and/or the home‘s air conditioner extracts heat from the home to
decrease temperature. The job of this control system is to maintain air
temperature at some comfortable level, with the heater or air conditioner taking
action to correct temperature if it strays too far from the desired value (called
the setpoint).
Industrial measurement and control systems have their own unique

terms and standards, which is the primary focus of this lesson.
Manual Control Automatic Control

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SELF CHECK 1.1.1
I. Definition: Define the following terms
1. Instrumentation
2. Instrument
3. Differentiate Manual Control from Automatic Control
II. Enumerate the basic elements of instrumentation and control

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Answer Key 1.1.1
I-
1. Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.
2. An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates variables such
as flow, temperature, level, or pressure, and includes other devices which
can be as simple as valves, transmitters, and complex analyzers.
3. Manual Control requires human intervention in manipulating the
process while automatic control utilizes instrument to measure and
control the process.
II- Elements of instrumentation and control

1. The Process
2. Measuring Device
3. Controller
4. Final Control Device

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Instrumentation Terminologies
1. Define terminologies related to instrumentation
Process: The physical system we are attempting to control or measure.

Examples: water filtration system, molten metal casting system, steam
boiler, oil refinery unit, power generation unit.
Process Variable, or PV: The specific quantity we are measuring in a process.

Examples: pressure, level, temperature, flow, electrical conductivity,
pH, position, speed, vibration.
Setpoint, or SP: The value at which we desire the process variable to be

maintained at. In other words, the ―target‖ value for the process
variable.
Examples: pressure, level, temperature, flow, electrical conductivity,
pH, position, speed, vibration.
Transmitter: A device translating the signal produced by a primary sensing

element (PSE) into a standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-
15 PSI air pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current, Fieldbus digital
signal packet, etc., which may then be conveyed to an indicating
device, a controlling device, or both.
Examples: pressure transmitter, temperature transmitter, etc.
Converter – device that converts one standardized instrumentation signal to
another standardized signal
Example: 4-20mA to 3-15psi, 3-15psi – 4-20mA, square root extractor,
etc..
Primary Sensing Element (PSE) – device that directly senses the process
variable and translates that into analog representation (V,I,R,
mechanical force, motion, etc..)

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Lower- and Upper-range values, abbreviated LRV and URV, respectively: the
values of process measurement deemed to be 0% and 100% of a
transmitter‘s calibrated range.
Example: Range: 50 - 3000C. LRV = 500C, URV = 3000C
Final Control Element, or FCE: A device receiving the signal output by a
controller to directly influence the process.
Examples: variable-speed electric motor, control valve, electric heater.
Controller: A device receiving a process variable (PV) signal from a primary
sensing element(PSE) or transmitter, comparing that signal to the desired value
(called the setpoint) for that process variable, and calculating an appropriate
output signal value to be sent to a final control element (FCE.
Automatic mode: When the controller generates an output signal based on the
relationship of process variable (PV) to the setpoint (SP).
Manual mode: When the controller‘s decision-making ability is bypassed to let

a human operator directly determine the output signal sent to the
final control element.
Manipulated Variable, or MV: Another term to describe the output signal

generated by a controller. This is the signal commanding
(―manipulating‖) the final control element to influence the process.

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Practical examples of measurement and control systems
Example 1. Boiler water level control system
Steam boilers are very common in industry, principally because steam

power is so useful. Common uses for steam in industry include doing
mechanical work (e.g. a steam engine moving some sort of machine), heating,
producing vacuums (through the use of ―steam ejectors‖), and augmenting
chemical processes (e.g. reforming of natural gas into hydrogen and carbon
dioxide).
The process of converting water into steam is quite simple: heat up the
water until it boils. Anyone who has ever boiled a pot of water for cooking
knows how this process works. Making steam continuously, however, is a little
more complicated. An important variable to measure and control in a
continuous boiler is the level of water in the ―steam drum‖ (the upper vessel in
a water-tube boiler). In order to safely and efficiently produce a continuous flow
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of steam, we must ensure the steam drum never runs too low on water, or too
high. If there is not enough water in the drum, the water tubes may run dry
and burn through from the heat of the fire. If there is too much water in the
drum, liquid water may be carried along with the flow of steam, causing
problems downstream.
In this illustration, you can see the essential elements of a water level
control system, showing transmitter, controller, and control valve.
The first instrument in this control system is the level transmitter, or

―LT‖. The purpose of this device is to sense the water level in the steam drum
and report that measurement to the controller in the form of an instrument
signal. In this case, the type of signal is pneumatic: a variable air pressure sent
through metal or plastic tubes. The greater the water level in the drum, the
more air pressure output by the level transmitter. Since the transmitter is
pneumatic, it must be supplied with a source of clean, compressed air on
which to run. This is the meaning of the ―A.S.‖ tube (Air
Supply) entering the top of the transmitter.
This pneumatic signal is sent to the next instrument in the control

system, the level indicating controller, or ―LIC‖. The purpose of this instrument
is to compare the level transmitter‘s signal with a setpoint value entered by a
human operator (the desired water level in the steam drum). The controller
then generates an output signal telling the control valve to either introduce
more or less water into the boiler to maintain the steam drum water level at
setpoint. As with the transmitter, the controller in this system is pneumatic,
operating entirely on compressed air. This means the output of the controller is
also a variable air pressure signal, just like the signal output by the level
transmitter. Naturally, the controller requires a constant supply of clean,
compressed air on which to run, which explains the ―A.S.‖ (Air Supply) tube
connecting to it.
The last instrument in this control system is the control valve, being
operated directly by the air pressure signal generated by the controller. Its
purpose is to influence the flow rate of water into the boiler, ―throttling‖ the
water flow more or less as determined by the level controller (LIC). This
particular control valve uses a large diaphragm to convert the air pressure
signal into a mechanical force to move the valve open and closed. A large spring
inside the valve mechanism provides the force necessary to return the valve to
its normal position, while the force generated by the air pressure on the
diaphragm works against the spring to move the valve the other direction.

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When the controller is placed in the ―automatic‖ mode, it will move the
control valve to whatever position it needs to be in order to maintain a constant
steam drum water level. The phrase ―whatever position it needs to be‖ suggests
that the relationship between the controller output signal, the
process variable signal (PV), and the setpoint (SP) is not necessarily simple. If
the controller senses a water level above setpoint, it will take whatever action is
necessary to bring that level back down to setpoint. Conversely, if the controller
senses a water level below setpoint, it will take whatever action is necessary to
bring that level up to setpoint. What this means in a practical sense is that the
controller‘s output signal (equating to valve position) is just as much a function
of process load(i.e. how much steam is being used from the boiler) as it is a
function of setpoint.
Consider a situation where the steam demand from the boiler is very low.
If there isn‘t much steam being drawn off the boiler, this means there will be
little water boiled into steam and therefore little need for additional feed water
to be pumped into the boiler. Therefore, in this situation, one would expect the
control valve to hover near the fully-closed position, allowing just enough water
into the boiler to keep the steam drum water level at setpoint. If, however, there
is great demand for steam from this boiler, the rate of evaporation will be much
higher. This means the control system will have to add feed water to the boiler
at a much greater flow rate in order to maintain the steam drum water level at
setpoint. In this situation we would expect to see the control valve much closer
to being fully-open as the control system ―works harder‖ to maintain a constant
water level in the steam drum. Thus, we see two scenarios demanding different
valve positions to satisfy different boiler operating conditions even though the
water level setpoint has not changed at all.
A human operator running this boiler has the option of placing the
controller into ―manual‖ mode. In this mode, the control valve position is under
direct control of the human operator, with the controller essentially ignoring
the signal sent from the water level transmitter. Being an indicating controller,
the controller faceplate will still show how much water is in the steam drum,
but it is now the human operator‘s sole responsibility to move the control valve
to the appropriate position to hold water level at setpoint – in manual mode the
controller takes no action of its own.
Manual mode is useful to the human operator(s) during start-up and
shut-down conditions. It is also useful to the instrument technician for
troubleshooting a misbehaving control system. When a controller is in
automatic mode, the output signal (sent to the control valve) changes in
response to the process variable (PV) and setpoint (SP) values. Changes in the
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control valve position, in turn, naturally affect the process variable signal
through the physical relationships of the process. What we have here is a
situation where causality is uncertain. If we see the process variable changing
erratically over time, does this mean we have a faulty transmitter (outputting
an erratic signal), or does it mean the controller output is erratic (causing the
control valve to shift position unnecessarily),or does it mean the steam demand
is fluctuating and causing the water level to vary as a result? So long as the
controller remains in automatic mode, we can never be completely sure what is
causing what to happen, because the chain of causality is actually a loop, with
everything affecting everything else in the system.
A simple way to diagnose such a problem is to place the controller in

manual mode. Now the output signal to the control valve will be fixed at
whatever level the human operator or technician sets it to. If we see the process
variable signal suddenly stabilize, we know the problem has something to do
with the controller output. If we see the process variable signal suddenly
become even more erratic once we place the controller in manual mode, we
know the controller was actually trying to do its job properly in automatic mode
and the cause of the problem lies within the process itself.
As was mentioned before, this is an example of a pneumatic (compressed

air) control system, where all the instruments operate on compressed air, and
use compressed air as the signaling medium. Pneumatic instrumentation is an
old technology, dating back many decades. While most modern instruments
are electronic in nature, pneumatic instruments still find application within
industry. The most common industry standard for pneumatic pressure signals
is 3 to 15 PSI, with 3 PSI representing low end-of-scale and 15 PSI representing
high end-of-scale. Alternative pressure ranges for pneumatic signals sometimes
encountered in industry include 3 to 27 PSI, and 6 to 30 PSI. The following
table shows the relationship between air signal pressure and steam drum level
for this boiler‘s 3-15 PSI level transmitter:
Transmitter Air Steam Drum Water

Signal Pressure Level
3 psi 0% (empty)
6 psi 25%
9 psi 50%

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12 psi 75%
15 psi 100% (full)
It should be noted this table assumes the transmitter measures the full
range of water level possible in the drum. Usually, this is not the case. Instead,
the transmitter will be calibrated so it only senses a narrow range of water level
near the middle of the drum. Thus, 3 PSI (0%)will not represent an empty
drum, and neither will 15 PSI (100%) represent a completely full drum.
Calibrating the transmitter like this helps avoid the possibility of actually
running the drum completely empty or completely full in the case of an
operator incorrectly setting the setpoint value near either extreme end of the
measurement scale.
An example table showing this kind of realistic transmitter calibration

appears here:
Transmitter Air Actual Steam Drum

Signal Pressure Water Level
3 psi 40%
6 psi 45%
9 psi 50%
12 psi 55%
15 psi 60%
The boiler‘s steam drum level controller outputs a pneumatic output

signal to the control valve, causing the same 3 to 15 PSI standard to command
different valve positions:
Controller Output Controller Valve

Signal Pressure Position

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3 psi 0% (fully shut)
6 psi 25%
9 psi 50%
12 psi 75%
15 psi 100% (fully open)
Even though the same range of air pressure (3 to 15 PSI) is used to

represent water level in the steam drum and the position of the control valve,
there is no direct correspondence between the two signals. A common
misconception for students new to this topic is to assume the transmitter and
controller output signals must be identical. This is not true. Typically the 3-15
PSI signal representing level will be at some value different from the 3-15 PSI
signal driving the valve, because those two air pressure signals are
representing two entirely different variables in the boiler system.

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Self- Check 1.1.2
Multiple Choice : Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper. After
answering all the items, compare your answers with the
answer key that follows after this test.
1. Another term to describe the output signal generated by a controller.
This is the signal commanding (―manipulating‖) the final control element
to influence the process.
a. Manipulated Variable c. Primary Sensing Element

b. Final Control Element d. Process Variable
2. The physical system we are attempting to control or measure.

3. A device receiving the signal output by a controller to directly influence

the process.

4. A device that directly senses the process variable and translates that into
analog representation

5. When the controller‘s decision-making ability is bypassed to let a human

operator directly determine the output signal sent to the final control
element.
a. Manual Mode c. Upper Range Value

b. Automatic Mode d. Controller Output

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Answer Key 1.1.2
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. C
5. A

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning Outcome No. 2: Identify Tools, Equipment and Devices for
Calibration
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Read Information Sheet 1.2.1
Classification of Instruments

Key 1.1.1
2. Read Information Sheet 1.2.2 on
Temperature Measurement
Instrumentation

Key 1.2.2
After completing all the learning

activities you may proceed to
Learning Outcome No.2

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Classification of Instruments
1. Identify the different classification of Instruments
2. Identify the different characteristics of instruments
What is an Instrument?
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates variables
such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure, and includes other devices
which can be as simple as valves, transmitters, and complex analyzers.
Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes, the
control of these processes is one of the main branches of applied
instrumentation.
“We can’t Control what we can’t measure…”
Instrument Classification:
1. Active/ Passive
2. Monitoring/ Controlling Instrument
3. Analog/ Digital
Active Instruments – requires power for its operation.
Example: Typical pressure transducer, digital weighing scale, digital
thermometers, etc.
Active transducers generate electric current or voltage

directly in response to environmental stimulation.

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Examples of active transducers are thermocouples and
piezoelectric accelerometers. Thermocouples produce a voltage
related to a temperature of two metals and if the two junctions are
at different temperatures, electricity is generated.
Passive Instruments – instruments that does not external power source for its
operation
Example: Balance Type Weighing Scale, Spring Scale, Gas-
filled thermometers, mechanical pressure
gauges, etc.
Some transducers used in instrumentation are classified under
passive type of instruments. Passive transducers produce a change in
some passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or
inductance, as a result of stimulation. These transducers need external
source of power for their operation. So they are not self generating type
transducers.
A simple example of a passive transducer is a device containing a

length of wire and a moving contact touching the wire. The position of the
contact determines the effective length of the wire, varying the resistance of
the length of wire. Other examples of passive transducers are strain
gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.
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Typical Process Instrumentation System
Example 1:
Water

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Disinfection System

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Example 2: Chemical Reactor Temperature Control

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Self Check 1.2.1
I. Essay. Provide a brief discussion including examples on the

following items.
1. Active Instruments
2. Passive Instruments

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Temperature Measurement and Instrumentation
1. Explain the concepts of measurement and instrumentation
2. Identify different types of instrumentation temperature measurement
devices
Temperature measurements are

needed in industrial , medical
applications, materials research in labs,
electrical/electronic component studies,
biology research, geological studies,
electrical product device
characterization, and other areas.
Temperature is among the most-if
not the most-measured of physical
variables.
Humans primarily experience

temperature as a feeling or sensation
of hotness or coldness.
The temperature that we
experience is an objective quality we
feel as ―hot‖ or ―cold‖.
It is this quality that causes us to experience the sensation of heat or

coldness. ―Hotness‖ and ―coldness‖ are caused by molecular motion.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of
a substance. It is a measure of the average energy of a substance due to
the motion of the molecules in the substance.
As the average motion increases, so does the temperature.
Conversely, temperature decreases as the average motion is reduced. Heat
flows from the warmer body to the cooler body. This energy transfer
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continues until the temperatures of the two bodies are equal or in
equilibrium.
Temperature Scales
Conversion

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Mechanical Temperature Measurement
Two Major Elements:
1. Bi-metal Thermometer
2. Liquid-filled bulb
1. Bi-metal temperature sensors
Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid

sample will expand with increased temperature depends on the size of
the sample, the material it is made of, and the amount of temperature
rise.
The following formula relates linear expansion to temperature

change:

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Coeffecient of Thermal Expansion:
The Coefficient of Thermal Expansion describes how the size of

an object changes with temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional
change in size per degree change in temperature at constant pressure.
Material Expansion Coeffecient (k)
Aluminum 25 x 10 -6 / deg C
Copper 16.6 x 10 -6 / deg C
Steel 6.7 x 10 -6 / deg C
Tin 20 x 10 -6 / deg C
Iron 12 x 10 -6 / deg C

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Expansion & Bending of Bi-metal Strip:
Bi-metallic Strips
A bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding two metals with
different coefficients of thermal expansion. If heat is applied to one end of
the strip, the metal with the higher coefficient of expansion will expand
more readily than the lower one. As a result, the whole metallic strip will
bend in the direction of the metal with the lower coefficient.

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Application of Bi-metallic Strips:
Bimetallic Thermostat
One main advantage of the bimetallic strip is that it can be used
to operate over a range of temperatures when the strip is fashioned
into a coil (for larger swing) and placed on an adjustable pivot (see
figure below). Most room thermostats operate on this principle.
Another common configuration of the bimetallic strip is coiled in

a helix to increase the swing or displacement similar to the coil above. In
this shape, the strip is more rugged and less subject to vibration. A
helical bimetallic thermometer is shown in Figure below.
Bimetallic thermometers in general are very rugged and require

little maintenance. They are usually used to measure process parameters
such as pump and bearing temperature.

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Helical Bi-metallic Thermometer
A Bi-metallic thermometer is a thermal expansion thermometer that uses

a strip consisting of two alloys with different coefficient of thermal expansion
that are fused together and formed into a single strip, and a pointer or
indicating mechanism calibrated for temperature reading.
Filled Bulb Thermometer

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Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure
temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed system and then heated, the
molecules in that fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the
enclosing vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid to
expand under constant pressure, we may infer the temperature of the fluid.
Classes of Filled Bulb Thermometer:

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Self Check 1.1.5
I. Unit Conversion:
Convert the following temperature units to the specified temperature
units:
1. 2200F to 0C
2. 4400C to 0F
3. 22000F to 0R
4. 3500C to Kelvin
5. 4600R to Kelvin
II. Multiple Choice

Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. A thermal expansion thermometer that uses a strip consisting of two alloys
with different coefficient of thermal expansion that are fused together and
formed into a single strip
A. Filled bulb thermometer

B. Vapor Filled thermometer
C. Bi-metallic thermometer
D. Electrical thermometer
2. One advantage of a bi-metallic thermostat is
A. It is the cheapest means of temperature measurement

B. It is the most accurate sensing element for temperature measurement
C. It can be used to operate over a range of temperatures
D. It is resistant to corrosion
3. A property of a material which describes how the size of an object changes

with temperature.
A. Expansion ratio
B. Coefficient of thermal expansion
C. Coefficient of material expansion
D. Temperature resistance coefficient

Page 38 of
J. Zamora
Answer Key 1.1.5
I.
1.1,204.4OC
2. 824OF
3. 2659.6OR
4. 623.15 K
5. 258.63 K
II.
1. C
2. C
3. B

Page 39 of
J. Zamora
Identifying Different Types of Electrical Thermometer
1. Identify major types of electrical thermometer
2. Explain the operating principles of different types of thermometer.
ELECTRICAL THERMOMETER
The electrical characteristics of some metals and other materials are
change when heated or cooled. When these materials are part of an electrical
circuit, a change in temperature can cause a motor to start, or a solinoid valve
to close, or the electrical signal may be converted into a digital signal used by a
microprocessor. An example is the thermostat found in every home to control
various appliances or equipment that operates on various temperature
settings. In an air-conditioning unit, when the temperature of the room reaches
uncomfortable levels, the compressor is turned on until the room temperature
reaches a preset level of the thermostat.
In industrial applications, the four major types of Electrical temperature
sensors are used:
 Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 Thermostor
 Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor
 Infrared (non contact) devices
Thermocouples
A thermocouple is an electrical thermometer consisting of two dissimilar

metal wires joined at one end called the Measurement Junction.
When the measurement junction and reference junction have different
temperatures. The resulting voltage is a function of the difference in
temperature between the measurement and the reference junctions.

Page 40 of
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The amount of voltage depends on the types of metals used. A voltmeter
or other device is required to interpret the voltage reading as a temperature
value.
Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors in
industrial manufacturing environments.
Dissimilar Metal Junction
Seebek Effect:
The Seebek Effect is a thermoelectric effect where continuous
current is generated in a circuit where the junctions of two
dissimilar conductive materials are kept at different
temperatures. When the circuit is opened at the cold junction, an
electrical potential difference (the Seebek voltage) exits across the
two dissimilar wires at the junction. The voltage produced by
exposing the measuring junction to heat depends on the
composition of the two wires and the temperature between the
hot junction and the cold junction.

Page 41 of
J. Zamora
Peltier Effect:
The Peltier Effect is a thermoelectric effect where heating
and cooling occurs at the junctions of two dissimilar conductive
materials when a current flows through the junctions. Heat is
either given off or absorbed at the dissimilar metal junctions,
depending on the direction of the electron flow. This can also be
stated to say that a voltage is generated in a thermocouple
circuit due solely to the presence of dissimilar wires. It is not the
same as resistance heating of wires caused by current flow. The
Peltier effect only occurs at the junction of dissimilar materials

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Effect of Voltmeter Measurement
Voltage measurement is not generated only at the junction. Voltage is

generated over the entire length of a wire, anywhere there is a temperature
gradient, because electrons want to flow from hot to cold.
Thermocouples work because heat creates a thermoelectric voltage in a
wire, called the Seebeck Effect. The junction is not the working bit of the
thermocouple , but the rest of the wire. If wire is corroded somewhere in
the middle away from the junctions, it can change the voltage and
resulting reading.

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ISA Thermocouple Types Color Codes

Page 44 of
J. Zamora
Reference Junction Compensation
Hardware Compensation Method
Software Compensation Method

Page 45 of
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Thermocouple Junction Types

Page 46 of
J. Zamora
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Resistance temperature detectors is a thermometer consisting of a high-
precision resistor with resistance that varies with temperature, a voltage, or
current source, and a measuring circuit. An RTD increases its resistance
when exposed to heat. This gives the RTD a positive temperature coefficient
(PTC). A protective sheath material cover the RTD wires which are coiled
around an insulator that serves as support.

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RTDs make use of the fact that resistance to the flow of electricity in a
wire changes with temperature. Platinum is the most commonly used wire
material. There are two types of RTDs: wirewound and thin film.
Wirewound RTDs consist of wire wound on a bobbin, which is enclosed
in glass.
For thin-film RTDs, a film is etched onto a ceramic substrate, and sealed.
RTDs are more accurate and stable than thermocouples, but cannot be
used to measure extremely high temperatures.

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Construction of an RTD
The platinum wire is wound around a glass or ceramic bobbin and sealed
to maintain integrity under extreme conditions
Platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited or screened into a small

flat ceramic substrate, laser trimmed and sealed

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Two-wire RTDs Circuit
Two-wire construction is the least accurate of the 3 types since there is no

way of eliminating the lead wire resistance from the sensor measurement. 2-
wire RTD‘s are mostly used with short lead wires or where close accuracy is not
required.

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Three-wire RTDs Circuit
Three-wire construction is most commonly used in industrial

applications where the third wire provides a method for removing the average lead
wire resistance from the sensor measurement. When long distances exist between
the sensor and measurement/control instrument, significant savings can be made
in using a three-wire cable instead of a four-wire cable.

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Four-wire RTDs Circuit
Four-wire construction is used primarily in the laboratory where close accuracy is required. In
a 4- wire RTD the actual resistance of the lead wires can be determined and removed from the
sensor measurement.

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Thermistors
Thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor consisting of a solid state
semi-conductor made from sintered metal oxides and lead wires, hermetically
sealed in glass.
Thermistors also change resistance with changing temperatures, but they

are more sensitive than either RTDs or thermocouples. They change their
resistance much more significantly than RTDs with changing temperature.
However, this change is highly nonlinear.
Because of their extreme sensitivity and nonlinearity, thermistors are
limited to measuring temperatures of a few hundred degrees Celsius. They are
less rugged than RTDs, further limiting their application.

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Thermistor Types:
1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Type
2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Type
NTC Type:
A typical NCT thermistor has a sensitivity of -50Ω/0F - -500Ω/0F at
room temperature. This means that the resistance decreases by 50Ω to
500 Ω for a temperature increase of 10F which makes thermistors much
more sensitive to small temperature changes than a thermocouple or
RTD. However the change in temperature is very non-linear, which limits
the temperature measurement range and accuracy of thermistor. The
temperature is calculated from look up table of resistance and
temperature or from equation that relates the two variables.
NTC thermistors are well suited for applications that require a
large change in resistance when a small change in temperature occurs.
Example: A thermistor can be used to sound the alarm if the
temperature increases above the setpoint.

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PTC Type:
A PTC thermistor is characterized by an extremely large resistance
change for a small temperature span. The switch temperature is the
temperature at which resistance begins to increase rapidly. This point can be
changed from below zero to above 3000F. Even though there is a very small
current flow at higher resistances, a PTC thermistor can be used as a switch in
many applications.
The increase in resistance of a PTC thermistor at the switch temperature,

makes it suitable for current-limiting applications.
For currents lower than the limiting current, the power

generated in the unit is insufficient to heat the PTC thermistor to its switch
temperature. However as the current increases to its critical level, the
resistance of the PTC thermistor increases at a rapid rate so that any
further increase in power dissipation results in a current reduction. The
time required for the PTC thermistor to get into the current-limiting mode
is controlled by the heat capacity of the PTC thermistor, its dissipation
constant, and the ambient temperature.

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Bridge circuits:
For temperature measurements, thermistors are commonly used in
bridge circuits. Because of the significant non-linearity of the thermistor
response, the bridge is usually modified by placing a resistor in parallel with
the thermistor. The resistor must be chosen to be at the midpoint or
thermistor resistance over the temperature change of interest.
For example, if the temperature range of interest is 550F to 950F
and the thermistor has a resistance of 2,252Ω at the midpoint, 750F, the
resistor needs to be close to 2,252Ω. The other resistors in the bridge are
chosen to give the desired voltage output range.

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RTDs vs. Thermistors
The major difference between thermistors and RTDs is linearity:
thermistors are highly sensitive and nonlinear, whereas RTDs are relatively
insensitive but very linear.
Thermistors are typically used where high accuracy is unimportant. Many
consumer-grade devices use thermistors for temperature sensors.
Infrared Thermometers
Infrared thermometers are used to measure temperature when
contact measurement, using thermocouples, RTDs, or thermistors, is not
possible.
Infrared sensors detect the infrared energy given off by materials.
The most common design includes a lens to focus the infrared energy
onto a detector. The amount of infrared energy is then converted into a
temperature measurement according to specifiable units.
They are used to measure the temperature of moving objects, such
as moving machinery or a conveyor belt. Where contamination is present,
for hazardous reasons, or where the distance is too great for contact
sensors.
Radiation Pyrometers
Radiation pyrometers infers the temperature of an object by

detecting its naturally emitted thermal radiation.

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Operating Principles
Bodies at low temperatures emit little infrared radiation at long
wavelengths. As the temperature increases, the amount of emitted infrared
radiation from the surface increases dramatically and the wavelength of peak
emittance becomes shorter.
If a body is hot enough, some of the emitted radiation is in the
visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum and the wavelength is seen as
a color.
Infrared radiation is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum at

longer wavelengths than visible lights

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Integrated Circuit Temp. Transmitter
Integrated –circuit temperature transducers are semiconductor

devices which provide output that are linearly proportional to absolute
temperature. They come in current output or voltage output
configuration.
Application includes data acquisition systems for thermocouple
compensation
Sensor Selection Guide
When choosing a sensor, there are several basic questions you

have to ask about the application to guide a selection:
1. Measuring range—Not just the specific operating temperature

expected, but the full potential range that could be experienced
during shutdown, startup, and process upsets.
2. Stability, accuracy, and sensitivity—These are all related,
and determining the mix of these requirements is hugely
dependent on the needs of the process
3. Response time—Some processes change temperature very
rapidly.

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Relative Advantages Contact Type Sensors
Thermocouples
STRENGTHS:
1. Wide variety of measuring ranges, including very high limits
2. Many physical sizes and configurations
3. Fast response times
4. Tiny measuring point
5. Moderate pricing
6. Very simple sensor construction/ configuration

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WEAKNESS:
1. Medium accuracy and sensitivity
2. Linearity is only fair
3. Specific types have to have matching extension cable
4. Signal strength is very low and prone to EMI problems
Resistance Temperature Detectors
STRENGTHS:
1. More stable
2. More accurate
3. Greater repeatability
4. Better sensitivity and linearity
5. More robust signal - less prone to EMI problems
6. No expensive extension wire or junction compensation
WEAKNESS:
1. Narrower measuring range, particularly at the high end
2. More expensive
3. Require an external power source
4. Slower response time
5. At low temperatures, reference voltage can actually heat the
sensor and create errors
Thermistors
STRENGTHS:
1. Accuracy and response time comparable to thermocouples
2. Highest sensitivity
3. Least expensive
4. Robust signal
WEAKNESS:
1. Narrowest measuring range
2. Lowest stability and linearity source

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Temperature Transmitter
Temperature Transmitters Advantages:
1. Protect signals from plant noise—transmitters convert a sensor's

"weak― low-level signal to a high-level RFI/EMI resistant signal (4-
20 mA) that will accurately withstand long distance transmission
through a noisy plant.
2. Prevent ground loops—a transmitter's built-in input/output/power
signal isolation protects against signal inaccuracies caused by
ground loops
3. Inexpensive 4-20 mA DCS and PLC input cards can be used instead
of isolated thermocouple and RTD input cards.
4. Temperature transmitters can be calibrated to any range within a
sensor's capabilities. Using a narrower range produces more
accurate measurements.
5. Reduce hardware costs and stocking requirements—transmitters
convert RTD, T/C, mV, and ohm signals to a standard 4-20 mA
output. Standardization on stock items.
6. Cut wiring costs—sensor extension wires cost three times more
than the common shielded copper wire used for 4-20 mA signal.
7. Avoid lead wire resistance imbalances—temperature transmitters
that accept true 4-wire RTD inputs avoid lead wire resistance
imbalances resulting from wire corrosion and aging.

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Self Check 1.1.5
I. Multiple Choice
Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Used where contamination is present, for hazardous reasons, or where

the distance is too great for contact sensors.
A. Resistance Temperature Detector C. Integrated Circuit Temperature
B. Thermocouple Transmitter
D. Infrared Thermometer
2. A temperature-sensitive resistor consisting of a solid state semi-
conductor made from sintered metal oxides and lead wires,
hermetically sealed in glass.
A. Resistance Temperature C. Integrated Circuit Temperature
Detector Transmitter
B. Thermistor D. Thermocouple
3. A thermometer consisting of a high-precision resistor with resistance
that varies with temperature, a voltage, or current source, and a
measuring circuit.
4. An electrical thermometer consisting of two dissimilar metal wires

joined at one end called the Measurement Junction.

II. Enumeration.
1. Name at least three things to consider when selecting sensors for

temperature measurement.
2. Name at least three advantages of RTD
3. Name at least three disadvantages of thermocouples

Page 63 of
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Answer Key 1.1.5
I.
1. D
2. B
3. A
4. D
II.
1. a. Measuring range
b. Stability, accuracy, and sensitivity
c. Response time
2. Any three of the following
a. More stable
b. More accurate
c. Greater repeatability
d. Better sensitivity and linearity
e. More robust signal - less prone to EMI problems
f. No expensive extension wire or junction compensation
3. Any three of the following
a. Medium accuracy and sensitivity
b. Linearity is only fair
c. Specific types have to have matching extension cable
d. Signal strength is very low and prone to EMI problems

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1. Describe a temperature transmitter
2. Differentiate dry well and thermobath calibrators
Universal temperature transmitters (PC-programmable and smart)
take nearly any RTD and thermocouple input. This lets users specify
whatever sensor is best for each particular process point.

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Calibration
All temperature measuring instruments need to be calibrated.
Thermal expansion and electrical thermometers are commonly calibrated
by inserting the thermometer in a box or bath at a known temperature. A
comparison is made between the actual temperature and the reading
from the thermometer. In addition, transmitter needs to be calibrated to
ensure that the signal from the instrument is properly sent on an
indicator or a controller.
Dry Well and Microbath Calibrators

A dry well calibrator is a temperature controlled well or box where
a thermometer can be inserted and the output compared to the known
dry well temperature.
Dry wells are constructed of high stability metal blocks with

holes drilled in them to accept a reference and a thermometer under test.
Dry wells are available to calibrate a temperature range of about -500F to
about 2,2000F.

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A microbath is a small tank containing stirred liquid used to
calibrate thermometers. The use of thermal bath eliminates problems
resulting from a poor fit in a block, so microbaths are especially suited
for calibrating odd-shaped probes. Microbaths are available to calibrate a
temperature range of about -200F to about 4000F.
Dry wells and microbaths have a temperature controller that
maintains the calibrator at a constant temperature. The actual
temperature of a dry well block or a microbath is measured with a
reference thermometer. An external reference thermometer is usually
made of a platinum RTD for maximum precision and accuracy.
INTERPOLATION
General Formula:
Thermocouples Measured Voltage

Calculating Thermocouple Temperatures using Thermoelectric
Voltage Table by INTERPOLATION

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Page 70 of
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Self Check 1.1.6
I. Problem Solving
1. The measured voltage at the cold junction of a Type J thermocouple

is 6.101 mV. What is the temperature at the hot junction?

Page 71 of
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Answer Key 1.1.6

Page 72 of
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TASK SHEET 1.1.7a
Title: Recorder/ Controller Calibration Checking
Performance Objective: Given the necessary materials and equipment

you should be able to perform calibration checking of
Recorder/ Controller following the given procedures.
Supplies/Materials: Yokogawa Chart, paperless, Decade Resistance Box

(Yokogawa)
Equipment : Controller (Yokogawa UT150), Calibrator

(Yokogawa CA 100)
Connection Diagram:
Decade Resistance Box (Yokogawa)
INPUT: RTD/ V / mV / TC INPUT: RTD / V / mV / TC
250 JUMPER JUMPER
RESISTOR
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
DECADE
RESISTANCE
SOURCE SOURCE SOURCE BOX
TC FUNCTION DCmA FUNCTION RTD FUNCTION

DCV FUNCTION OR
NOTE: WITHOUT RESISTOR FUNCTION
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the test leads to the SOURCE terminal of the calibrator
2. Set the correct input type for signal injection and connect it to the
input terminal of the recorder/controller. Do the connection
properly. (See Diagram above)
3. Check the controller or recorder input type (RTD/TC/Ma/V)
function. Refer to the controller user‘s manual in setting the
parameter and do the simulation correctly.
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4. Do the 5 point calibration check and record the actual reading as
found on your calibration table data sheet.
5. Complete all the function as shown in the Diagrams above.
CALIBRATION TABLE DATA SHEET

A. T/C Function. Note: RJC set EXTERNAL
TEST POINT STANDARD AS FOUND % ERROR

% READING 0C READING
°C
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
B. RTD Function: Note: Use also DECADE resistance box as resistance injector
See Resistance VS. Temperature data table for your ref.
%
TEST POINT ERROR
STANDARD AS FOUND
% READING
READING
°C
°C
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%

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C. V or mA Function: Note: For a 4 -20 mA input a shunt resistor of 250Ω ±0.1%
can be used to convert 1-5 V input.
%
TEST POINT ERROR
STANDARD AS FOUND
mA READING
READING
unit
unit
4 mA
8 mA
12 mA
16 mA
20 mA
Assessment Method:

Page 75 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 1.1.7a
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 76 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 1.1.7b
Title: RTD Sensor Calibration Checking
Performance Objective: Given the necessary materials and

equipment you should be able to perform
calibration checking of an RTD following the
given procedures.
Supplies/Materials: RTD Reference Table
Equipment : Dry Block (Jofra Instrument), Multimeter,

RTD pt100, Recorder/Indicator
Connection Diagram:
Steps/Procedure:
1. Determine the temperature test point and record it in table A-2
2. Setup the Dry Block as shown in Figure 1-a
3. Connect the RTD to the input terminal of the indicator
4. Set the input type of the Indicator. Controller‘s setting should
be in RTD
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5. Insert the temperature element in the Dry Block
6. Set the Dry Block to the specified temperature and allow it to
adequately stabilize.
7. Record the temperature reading at each of the test point
8. Measure the RTD resistance at each of the test point. Note:
Disconnect the RTD from the Indicator before measuring the
resistance. See Figure 1-b.
9. Fill in the expected RTD resistance by using the RTD Reference

Table
10. Once the reading is taken, raise the test temperature to the
next higher temperature and allow it to stabilize.
11. Record the temperature reading (Actual Temperature
Reading) at each of the test point
12. Disconnect the test equipment from the unit under test after
using.
13. Complete the calibration data table
TEST POINT ACTUAL

ERROR
TEMPERATURE
°C
Assessment Method:

Page 78 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 1.1.7c
Title: Temperature Transmitter Calibration
Performance Objective: Given necessary supplies, materials and

equipment, you should be able to perform calibration of
a temperature transmitter following standard
procedures.
Supplies/Materials :
Equipment : Temperature Transmitter (Rosemount), Milliammeter,
Calibrator CA 100 or Decade resistance box, Indicator (Loop
powered IS Indicator) optional, 24Vdc Power Supply
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the 24Vdc power supply to transmitter to power up the

transmitter. Make sure that there is no power yet during wiring to
avoid short circuit.
2. Power up the supply after the connection was finished.
3. Connect the calibrator to the input terminals of the transmitter (see
connection diagram below)
Note: The calibrator is used to simulate resistance but you can also use
decade resistance box as an alternative reference.
4. Look for the calibration range and perform the 5 point check
calibration
5. Measure the current output of the transmitter with mA as shown in
the figure below.

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TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
24 Vdc
POWER SUPPLY 24VDC
LOOP POWERED IS INDICATOR

CA100 / Decade Resistance MULTIMETER
Box 75.00 *C
20 mA
75.00 *C
A mA COM V
6. Set the configuration of loop powered indicator

7. Apply the required temperature or resistance and record the
transmitter output result, use the table below for all measured
current value. DO NOT MAKE ADJUSTMENT when performing As-
found testing.
8. If the transmitter output is not with in the specified tolerance,
calibrate the transmitter by adjusting the ZERO and SPAN
adjustment potentiometer and record it under ―As-left data‖.
NOTE: For ZERO adjustment: Apply 0% required temperature and adjust the
ZERO potentiometer until the current reading is 4.00 mA.
For SPAN adjustment: Apply 100% required temperature and adjust the
SPAN potentiometer until the current reading is 20mA.
9. Complete the AS-LEFT test for input values of 25%, 50% and 75% of
the test point.

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AS FOUND DATA
SIMULATED EXPECTED ACTUAL %

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
TEST TRANSMITTER ERROR
OUTPUT(mA)
POINT OUTPUT (mA) Of Span
0% 4.00 mA
25% 8.00 mA
50% 12.00 mA
75% 16.00 mA
100% 20.00 mA
AS LEFT DATA
SIMULATED EXPECTED ACTUAL %
TEST TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER ERROR
TRANSMITTER
POINT OUTPUT(mA) OUTPUT (mA) Of Span
0% 4.00 mA
25% 8.00 mA
50% 12.00 mA
75% 16.00 mA
100% 20.00 mA
10. After all the readings are obtained; disconnect the test equipment
from the unit under test.
11. Complete the calibration data table.
Assessment Method:

Page 81 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 1.1.7c
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 82 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 1.1.7d
Title: Thermocouple Calibration Check
Performance Objective: Given necessary supplies, materials and

equipment, you should be able to perform
checking of thermocouple calibration following
standard procedures.
Equipment : Dry Well (Jofra Instrument) , Calibrator, Thermocouple
Sensor, Thermocouple wire, Recorder/Indicator,
Steps/Procedure:
1. Determine the temperature test point and record it at the table below.
2. Set up the dry well. See the figure below.
DRY WELL
TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
CALIBRATOR
c
0.00 C
F
THERMOCOUPLE
C SET INT.
F READ EXT.
ON ON
OFF OFF
POWER
SUPPLY
3. Connect the Thermocouple element to the input terminal of the Indicator.

4. Set the input type of the indicator. Controller's input setting should be in
thermocouple type.
5. Place the Thermocouple element in the temperature bath.
Page 83 of
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6. Set the controlled temperature source to the specified temperature and
allow it to adequately stabilize.
7. Once the reading is taken, raise the test temperature to the next higher
temperature and allow it to stabilize. Record the temperature reading
(Actual Temperature Reading) at each of the test point.
ACTUAL
TEMPERATURE
TEST POINT ERROR
READING
°C
8. Disconnect the test equipment from the unit under test after using.
Assessment Method:

Page 84 of
J. Zamora
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

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Basic Concepts of Pressure Measurement
1. Explain the basic concepts of pressure
2. Differentiate absolute pressure, gauge pressure and differential
pressure
3. Explain hydrostatic pressure
General Theory
Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in

the power plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water
pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more.
Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of surface.
We could represent this as:
The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in
British units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000 Pa, we
often use kPa and MPa as units of pressure.
Three Categories of Pressure Measurement :
1. Gauge Pressure- measured against atmosphere

2. Absolute Pressure – measured against absolute vacuum
3. Differential Pressure- measured against another pressure area
Pressure Scales
Before we go into how pressure is sensed and measured, we have to

establish a set of ground rules. Pressure varies depending on altitude above sea
level, weather pressure fronts and other conditions. The measure of pressure

Page 86 of
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is, therefore, relative and pressure measurements are stated as either gauge or
absolute.
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g.,
tire ratings are in gauge pressure). It is measured with atmospheric
pressure as the zero point in the scale. When measuring gauge pressure,
the units increase as the pressure increases. Negative gauge pressure is
gauge pressure less than zero. Negative pressure indicates the presence
of a partial vacuum.
 Gauge Pressure- measured against atmosphere
A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to
atmospheric pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric
pressure). Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the pressure
unit [e.g., kPa (g)].
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is pressure measured with perfect vacuum as the zero

point of the scale. When measuring absolute pressure, the units increase as
the pressure increases. Absolute pressure cannot be less than zero and is
unaffected by changes in atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the

gauge pressure. It is denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g.,
kPa (a)]. An absolute pressure indicator would indicate atmospheric pressure
when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not indicate scale zero.

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Absolute Presssure – measured against absolute vacuum
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between absolute and gauge. Note

that the base point for gauge scale is [0 kPa (g)] or standard atmospheric
pressure 101.3 kPa (a).
The majority of pressure measurements in a plant are gauge. Absolute

measurements tend to be used where pressures are below atmosphere.
Typically this is around the condenser and vacuum building.

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Differential Pressure
Differential Pressure- measured against another pressure area
Differential Pressure is the difference in pressure between two

measuring points in a process. The actual pressure at the different
points may not be known and there is no reference pressure used.
Pressure drop is a pressure decrease that occurs due to friction or
obstructions as an enclosed fluid flows from one point in a process to
another. A pressure drop measurement can significantly improve the
measurement resolution when compared to using two gauges or absolute
pressure measurement.
For example, when air is filtered in an HVAC system the air

pressure before a filter is higher than the air pressure after a filter. The
pressure drop is very small compared to the absolute pressure, so the
pressure drop is monitored to determine when the filter needs to be
cleaned or replace. (see figure below)

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Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the head of a liquid

column. Frequently this is referred to as pressure head. Pressure is
independent of the shape of the container and depends only on the
properties of the liquid and the height.
For example, mercury and water

have very different densities. Since
mercury is much denser than
water, a shorter column of mercury
produces a hydrostatic pressure
equivalent to a much taller column
of water.

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The pressure due to the head of a liquid column.
P=ρxh
Where:
P – pressure (in psi)
ρ - density (lbs./ in.3)
h - height (inches)
Example: 1
The Density of water is 0.0361 lb/cu. Inch. If a column of liquid is 27.7

inches high, calculate the pressure
Solution:
P=ρxh
P = 0.0361 lb/cu.inch x 27.7 inches
P = 1 psi
Example: 2
The Density of mercury is 0.490 lb/cu. Inch. If a column of liquid is 2.04

P=ρxh
P = 0.490 lb/cu.inch x 2.04 inches
P = 1 psi

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Hydrostatic Pressure in A Fluid
Zero Supression

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Example:
In the figure above, if the pressure of the tank is 40 psi, what is the
indication at the pressure gauge assuming the tank is a closed vessel.
Solution:
P = Pprocess + Pelevation
Pelevation = γcapillary.h
γcapillary = ρcapillary . γwater
= 1.1208 x 62.4 lbs/ft.3

= 69.94 lbs/ft.3
= 0.04 lb/in.3
h = 120 inches
= 0.04 lb/in3 x 120 in.
= 4.8 lbs/in2 (psi)
P = 40psi + 4.8psi
= 44.8 psi

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Zero Elevation
Example:
In the figure above, if the pressure of the tank is 40 psi, what is the
indication at the pressure gauge assuming the tank is a closed vessel.
Solution:
P = Pprocess - Pelevation
γcapillary = ρcapillary . γwater
= 1.1208 x 62.4 lbs/ft.3
= 69.94 lbs/ft.3
= 0.04 lb/in.3
h = 120 inches
= 0.04 lb/in3 x 120 in.
= 4.8 lbs/in2 (psi)
P = 40psi - 4.8psi
= 35.2 psi

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Self Check 1.1.8
I. Identification. Fill the blanks with the correct answer.
1. ______________ is the pressure due to the head of a liquid column.
2. ______________ is the difference in pressure between two measuring

points in a process.
3. _______________ is pressure measured with perfect vacuum as the zero

point of the scale.
4. ________________ is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire

ratings are in gauge pressure). It is measured with atmospheric
pressure as the zero point in the scale.
II. Problem Solving

1. The Density of water is 62.4 lb/cu. ft. If a column of liquid is 30
2. In the figure below, what is the indication of the pressure transmitter?

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Answer Key 1.1.8
I. Identification
1. Hydrostatic Pressure
2. Differential Pressure
3. Absolute Pressure
4. Gauge Pressure
II. Problem Solving
1.

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Identifying Different Types Pressure Sensing Devices
1. Explain the basic working principles of pressure measuring devices,
bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragm, strain gauge, capacitance capsule
2. explain the basic operation of a differential pressure transmitter;
3. explain the effects of operating environment (pressure, temperature,
humidity) on pressure detectors;
4. state the effect of the following failures or abnormalities: over-
pressuring a differential pressure cell or bourdon tube; diaphragm
failure in a differential pressure cell; locked or leaking sensing lines;
and loss of loop electrical power
Pressure Measurement
The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control

operation or a standard (4 - 20 mA) electronic signal that represents the
pressure in a process.
To accomplish this, most pressure sensors translate pressure into

physical motion that is in proportion to the applied pressure. The most
common pressure sensors or primary pressure elements are the Mechanical
Pressure Elements and the Electrical Pressure Elements.

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Mechanical Pressure Elements
They include diaphragms, pressure bellows, bourdon tubes and pressure

capsules. With these pressure sensors, physical motion is proportional to the
applied pressure within the operating range.
You will notice that the term differential pressure is often used. This term
refers to the difference in pressure between two quantities, systems or devices.
COMMON PRESSURE DETECTORS
A. Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are circular- Figure 2

shaped tubes with oval cross
sections (refer to Figure 2). The
pressure of the medium acts on
the inside of the tube. The
outward pressure on the oval
cross section forces it to
become rounded. Because of
the curvature of the tube ring,
the bourdon tube then bends
as indicated in the direction of
the arrow.

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Most pressure gauges use a bourdon tube
as their pressure-sensing element
Due to their robust construction, bourdon

are often used in harsh environments and high
pressures, but can also be used for very low
pressures; the response time however, is slower
than the bellows or diaphragm.
Buordon Tube Types

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B. Bellows
Bellows type elements are constructed of

tubular membranes that are convoluted
around the circumference (see Figure 3). The
membrane is attached at one end to the
source and at the other end to an indicating
device or instrument. The bellows element can
provide a long range of motion (stroke) in the
direction of the arrow when input pressure is
applied.
Bellows resemble an
accordion constructed from
metal instead of fabric.
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Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit causes it to elongate. They
require less space and can be made with materials that resist corrosion.
Diaphragms
A diaphragm is a
circular-shaped
convoluted
membrane that is
attached to the
pressure fixture
around the
circumference (refer
to Figure 4). The
pressure medium is
on one side and the
indication medium is
on the other. The
deflection that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction
of the arrow indicated.
Diaphragms provide fast acting and

accurate pressure indication.
However, the movement or stroke is not
as large as the bellows
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Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them spring-
like qualities
Capsules
There are two different devices that are referred to as capsule. The first is
shown in figure 5. The pressure is applied to the inside of the capsule
and if it is fixed only at the air inlet it can expand like a balloon. This
arrangement is not much different from the diaphragm except that it
expands both ways.
The capsule consists of two circular shaped,

convoluted membranes (usually stainless
steel) sealed tight around the circumference.
The pressure acts on the inside of the
capsule and the generated stroke movement
is shown by the direction of the arrow.
Manometers
A fluid-filled tube where an applied gas pressure causes the fluid height
to shift proportionately.

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Types of Manometers:

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Self Check 1.2.2
Electrical Pressure Elements
Common Types of Electrical Pressure Elements:

Piezoresistive (Strain Gauge) sensors
Piezoresistive means ―pressure-sensitive resistance,‖ or a
resistance that changes value with applied pressure. Measures deflection
of elastic diaphragm due to pressure difference across diaphragm.
Operating Principle: Piezoresistive (Strain Gauge) sensors

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Strain gages typically mount the sensor directly on a metallic
diaphragm and measure deflection. These designs have the highest
capacity for broad operating temperature ranges and high operating
pressures so they are often the first choice in extreme temperatures or
when the psi measurement is in four or five figures. Modern devices uses
silicon instead of metal. Silicon wafer serves as diaphragm & strain
element. However, there are compatibility issue with some process fluids.
Differential Capacitance Sensor:
Differential Capacitance Sensor measures

changes in capacitance of electrically charged
electrodes from the movement of metal
diaphragm due to pressure difference across
diaphragm.
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Rosemount 1151 Pressure Transmitter
Pressure Transmitter
Mechanical Resonance:
Concept similar to guitar string/violin. Wire

is oscillated at resonant frequency by oscillator
circuit. Pressure changes cause change in wire
tension which changes oscillatory frequency to
generate digital signal. It is very precise and used
for low differential pressure measurements. It is
sensitive to temperature variation and has non-
linear output. The concept is pioneered by Foxboro
and improved by Yokogawa.

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Yokogawa EJA Series
Silicon Resonance
Actual measuring surface is a set of

single-crystal silicon bridges less than 1 mm
square. Two small resonators are micro-
machined on the surface of the silicon wafer
using MEMS (miniature electro-mechanical
systems) manufacturing techniques.
Yokogawa EJA Series

Resonators are stimulated by an ac signal from the processor and

surrounding magnetic field. One resonator reacts to tensile strain and the
other compression. When the silicon substrate is displaced in either
direction, the frequency of the resonators changes in a measurable way
according to the degree of displacement. Pressure output signal is
generated by mathematically comparing the change in the resonator
frequencies.

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Page 108 of
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Self Check 1.2.2

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Answer Key 1.2.2

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Identifying Different Types of Pressure Gauges
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, you must be able to:
1. Differentiate the different types of gauges
A. “Gauge Pressure” Gauge
• A "gauge pressure" gauge with an open inlet port will start with
the pointer at zero, which means that the gauge is indicating "no
pressure in excess of barometric."
• Gauge pressure dial gauges usually position the zero point at
approximately 7:00 on the dial and rotate in the clockwise
direction.
B. Vacuum Pressure Gauge
Measure negative pressures, i.e. the removal of atmospheric

pressure. Using "gauge pressure zero" as the starting point, the gauge
will indicate the "vacuum level" in positive numbers as more pressure is
removed.
Vacuum gauges usually position zero at 5:00 on the dial and rotate
counter clockwise. Most vacuum gauges are rated to a full scale of 30 In
Hg or 15 psi.
The highest level of vacuum that can be achieved on a given day is
equal to the barometric pressure.
Vacuum gauges will not tell you how far you are from a complete
vacuum; they will only tell you how far you are from ―gauge pressure
zero‖.
C. Compound Pressure Gauge

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Starting at "vacuum indication of the straight vacuum
gaugegauge pressure zero," a compound gauge simply combines the
with the gauge pressure indication of a gauge pressure gauge.
The position of the zero is dependent upon the full scale rating
of the pressure side.
The pointer will travel in the counterclockwise direction for
vacuum indications, and clockwise for pressure indications.
Buordon Compound Gauges
Differential Pressure Gauge
Starting at "gauge pressure zero," a differential pressure gauge simply

measures the difference between 2 input pressures. A differential dial gauge
looks like a gauge pressure gauge, except it has a second inlet port, with
one port marked ―hi‖ and the other marked ―lo‖. The line that connects to
the higher pressure side of the application is always connected to the ―hi‖
port, while the lower pressure line is connected to the ―lo‖ port.
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Absolute Pressure Gauge
Does not not allow ambient pressure to affect both sides of the
sensing element. To achieve a true absolute reading, an absolute
pressure gauge must have the atmosphere removed from around one
side of the sensing element (referred to as an "evacuated reference").
The result is that an absolute gauge with an open inlet port will
indicate the barometric pressure (which is usually between 14 and 15
psi).
"Absolute zero" should be achievable under full vacuum, since the
starting point is the actual barometric reading, and a full vacuum will
remove all of this existing pressure.
Unlike standard ―vacuum‖ gauges, the absolute gauge will indicate
how far the pressure is from a complete vacuum.

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Self Check 1.2.3

Page 114 of
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Answer Key 1.2.3

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TASK SHEET 2.4.3e
Title: Pressure Gauge Calibration
Performance Objective: Given the necessary supplies, materials tools

and equipment, you should be able to perform
calibration of pressure gauge following standard
industry procedure and safety practices.
Supplies/Materials : Pressure module
Equipment : Pressure gauge, hand pump, Fluke 525A

multifunction calibrator
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the hand pump to the input of test standard unit (Fluke
525A)
2. Connect the pressure gauge to the pressure source (Hand pump)
3. Refer to Figure 1 below for complete connection
Figure 1
PRESSURE GAUGE
(UNIT UNDER TEST)
50
25 75
0 100
psi
0~100
PSI
PRESSURE MODULE
TEMP/PRESSURE CALIBRATOR
HAND PUMP / PRESSURE SOURCE
4. Apply the required pressure and record the gauge under test reading
at upscale (0, 25, 50, 75 & 100%) and downscale (75, 50, 25 and 0%)
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under As-found data.
5. If the result is outside the allowable tolerance, calibrate the pressure
gauge until the indication is within the specified tolerance.
6. If adjustment is made, repeat step 4 and record it under As-left data.
AS-FOUND DATA AS-LEFT DATA

TEST UNIT TEST UNIT
TEST UNDER STANDARD UNDER
STANDARD
TEST ERROR READING
POINT TEST ERROR
READING READING PSIG READING
PSIG
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%

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75%
50%
25%
0%
7. Disconnect test equipment from the unit under test after using.
Assessment Method:
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3e

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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11.
TASK SHEET 2.4.3d

Title: Differential Pressure Transmitter Calibration
Performance Objective: Given supplies/materials and equipment, ,you

should be able to perform calibration of a differential
pressure transmitter following industry standard
procedures.
Supplies/Materials : Differential Pressure Transmitter (Yokogawa

EJA110A), HART 275 communicator, milli-ammeter,
pneumatic test pump or Hand pump/pressure
source, 24Vdc
Equipment : 250Ω resistor
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the hand pump or pressure source with the measuring
device to the high side pressure port of the dp transmitter
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2. Connect the mA ammeter in series to the current output
3. Connect the power supply wiring to the supply terminal of the
transmitter
4. Connect the HART communicator in parallel to the supply terminal.
Communication line requires a shunt resistor of 250Ω in series with
the positive line.
NOTE: Refer to Figure 1 below of other connections.
5. Set the desired Lower Range and Upper Range value of the
transmitter using HART communicator
6. Apply the required pressure at each of the test point and record the
result, us the data table below for all the measured value. DO NOT
MAKE ANY ADJUSTMENT until ―as found‖ data has been recorded.
7. If the transmitter output is not with in the specified tolerance,
calibrate the transmitter by adjusting the ZERO potentiometer and
performing D/A Trim of the transmitter.
8. Once the ZERO adjustment and D/A Trim has been performed, apply
all the required pressure and record the measured output to As-Left
data.
FIGURE 5.0
RESISTOR 250 POWER SUPPLY
DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
MULTIMETER
HART
HAND
PUMP
0~100
PSI
PRESSURE
Control Servicing February 2012TEMP/PRESSURE
MODULEDeveloped by: CALIBRATORMetrologyx Page 120 of
J. Zamora
TEST AS-FOUND DATA AS-LEFT DATA
POINT
TEST UNIT % TEST UNIT %
UNDER ERROR STANDARD UNDER
STANDARD ERROR
TEST READING TEST
Of Span
READING READING Of Span
mA READING
mA mA
mA
0% 4.00 mA 4.00 mA
25% 8.00 mA 8.00 mA
50% 12.00 mA 12.00 mA
75% 16.00 mA 16.00 mA
100% 20.00 mA 20.00 mA
9. After all the readings are obtained; disconnect the test equipment
from the unit under test.
Assessment Method:
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3e

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.

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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Level Measurement Instrumentation
1. Explain the purpose of level measurement
2. Discuss the operating principles of point level measurement and
continuous level measurement
3. Identify common terminologies and symbols used in level
measurement
Purpose of level measurement

Level measurement is an integral part of process control and may
be used in a wide variety of industry. The purpose of level measurement is

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to provide a measured variable representing the height or material
presence within a vessel.
The measured variable is then used in one or more of the following
ways, where the measured variable becomes;
 A local level indicator
 A detection of material presence
 An output signal to a level control scheme
 A measured quantity in hydrocarbon inventory management
Types of Level Measurement
There are two ways of level measurement:

a. Point Level Measurement
b. Continuous Level Measurement
A. Point Level Measurement

Point level measurements are a type of level measurement used
when the level measurement device or system provides logical (true or false,
ON-OFF) representation of material presence at some predetermined
point(s) within the vessel.
When to use point level measurements

Point level measurement is used in one of the following or both:

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 Point Level process indication
 Point Level process control
Point level process indication:

It provides an indication of process material level at a point within a
vessel. A single level alarm, such as a vessel level high alarm limit, is an
example of point level process indication
Point level process control:

It provides the control of a material level between two points in a
vessel. To accomplish point level process control, more than one level
switch senses a liquid presence at two (or more) measured ―point levels‖
in a tank.

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B. Continuous Level Measurement
In a continuous level measurement, level measurement system can
provide a numeric representation of the current position (height) of
process material surface. The level is measured continuously between
lower and upper reference level.
When to use point level measurements
Continuous level measurement is used in the following:
 Continuous level process indication
 Continuous level process control
Terminology and Symbology

The following are considered when dealing with level measurement:
 Units of measure
 Drawing symbols
Units of Measure
Units of measure can be classified according to the
application as follows:
o Distance (meter or feet)
o Weight (kilograms or pounds)
o Volume (cubic feet, gallon, liter, barrel)
Level measurement can be used to determine volume and weight of

process materials as follows:
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Drawing Symbols
Drawing symbols used in instrumentation are:
Instrument Legend:

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Self Check 1.2.2

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Answer Key 1.2.2

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Self Check 1.2.3

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Level Measurement Principles
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to explain
the operating principles of different level measuring devices.
Methods of level measurement

There are different ways used to measure a level of liquid or solid in a
vessel. Different sensors with different design principles are commercially
available. Some of these sensors are contact type and some are non-contact
type.
Types of level devices:
o Sight o Pressure type
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o Float type o Electrical type
o Displacement type o Ultrasonic type
o Force type
Sight
Sight level measurements gives the operator a visual indication of
the material‘s level.
Examples are:
 Dipstick
 Tubular gauge glass
a. Dipstick
Is the simplest level measurement
device and its accuracy depends on its
scale. It can be used only for vented
and underground tanks.
Source of errors:
 Fast insertion
 Insertion with an angle
b. Tubular gauge glass

Tubular gauge glass consist of glass pipe which has the
level of the liquid tank. Used in low pressure services to avoid
breakage. It is fitted externally, protector are available to protect
glasses.

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In conclusion, sight glasses are used for local indication and are
important for calibration. It is important to consider the following:
 Operating pressure
 Operating temperature
 Process material
 Fitting the device externally
Float Level Switch
Float level switches is the basic point level sensor which moves with
the liquid surface. Float device include the following:
 Float switch
 Tape float switch
 Magnetic type
a. Float Switch
A float switch is attached to a lever that activates a relay at a

predetermined level.
A float resting on the liquid

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surface can activate a magnetic switch as shown.
 Spherical/ Oblong float are available from 3 to 7 inches diameter

for side mounted designs
 Cylindrical floats are used for mounted designs
 The small diameter switch is used for high density liquid
 The larger diameter switch is used for liquid interface detection
Application of float switch includes:

 Emergency shut down
 Alarm
 On-Off control application
b. Tape float gauge

An externally scaled indicator
is attached to float as shown. When
liquid level is moving up or down,
the float will follow and the
indicator will point the level.

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c. Magnetic type
A float is called magnetic if a magnet is inserted in the
float. The float is magnetically coupled to a
tape and the tape has a connection to a level
indicator as shown.
Displacement Type Level Measurement

Displacer level instruments detect liquid level by continuously
measuring the weight of a rod immersed in the process liquid. As liquid
rises, the displacer rod experiences greater buoyant force, making it
appear lighter to the sensing instrument, interpreting it as increase in
level transmitting a proportional signal.

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Calibration:
Full range of calibration may be performed by flooding the cage
with process liquid (wet calibration), or by suspending the displacer with
a string and precise scale (dry calibration).
Buoyant force is always equal to the
weight of the fluid volume displaced.
Calculate the volume of the displacer
and multiply that volume by the weight
density.
Fbuoyant = γ
.V

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γ1 = (62.4 lb/ft.3)(1.10) = 68.6 lb/ ft.3 = 0.0397 lb/in.3
γ2 = (62.4 lb/ft.3)(0.85) = 53.0 lb/ ft.3 = 0.0307 lb/in.3
Fbuoyant (LRV) = π(1.375 in.)2(0.0307 lb/in.3)(30 in.)

= 5.47 lb.
Fbuoyant (URV) = π(1.375 in.)2(0.0397 lb/in.3)(30 in.)

= 7.08 lb.
Ultrasonic Level Measurement (Non-contact type)

Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the
transmitter (located at a high point) to the surface of the material down
below it.
The time-of-flight for a sound pulse indicate this distance and
interpreted by transmitter‘s electronics as process level.
Output Signals:
Ulage – amount of empty space
at the top of the vessel

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Fillage – fullness of the vessel
Fillage = Total Height - Ulage

Ultrasonic level instruments can measure the height of solid materials
(ie. Powder, grains) stored in vessels.
The angled surface is difficult to detect because it tends to scatter the
sound waves laterally instead of reflecting them back strongly to the
instrument.
Solids storage measurement applications demanding high accuracy
generally use techniques – ie. weight based
In the vast majority of

ultrasonic level measurement,
it is the speed of sound
through air that matters.
Radar Level
Measurement (Non-contact type)
Radio Detecting And Ranging
Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter
(located at a high point) to the surface of the material down below it by
the time of flight of a travelling wave.
The time of flight for a radio wave indicates this distance and
interpreted by transmitter‘s electronics as process level.

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Radio waves are
electromagnetic in
nature and in very high
frequency range – Ghz.
Radio waves travels at
the speed of light,
2.9979 x 108 meters
per second in perfect
vacuum.
Non-contact Radar
-sends radio waves out thru
open space to reflect off the
process material. Non-contact
radar transmitter are always
mounted on the top side of storage
vessel.
Non contact radar level
instruments on antenna to direct
microwave energy into the vessel
and receive the echo (return)
energy.

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The antenna must be kept clean and dry. Some installations
separate vessel interior by a dielectric window, ―transparent‖ to radio
waves yet a effective as vapor barrier.
The velocity of radio wave through space depends on the dielectric
permissivity of that space.
Guided Radar Transmitter

Use wave guided proves to guide the radio wave as it passes down
from the sensor into the
material being measured an
all the way to the bottom of
the vessel.
Pulse generator develop
more than 200,000 pulses of
electromagnetic energy that
travel down the waveguide
and back.
Dielectric of fluid
causes a change in
impedance that in turn
develops a wave reflection.
Transit time of pulse down
and back is used as a
measure of level.
Pulse signals are channeled by the guide, turbulence, foam, or
tank obstructions should not affect the measurement.
Magnetostrictive Level Measurement

Magnetostrictive transmitter detect level by transmitting an
electromagnetic pulse down a wire.
A donut-shaped float with an internal magnet moves with the level.
A magnetic field creates a twist on the wire at the point of the level. When
the electromagnetic pulse encounters this magnetic field, a pickup in the
transmitter propagates and reads an acoustic pulse. The float becomes a
transmitter rather than just a switch.

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Capacitive Level Measurement
Measures electrical capacitance of a
conductive rod inserted vertically into the
process vessel. A capacitor is formed when
a level sensing electrode is
installed in a vessel. The metal rod of the
electrode acts as one plate of the capacitor
and the tank wall (or reference electrode
in a non-metallic vessel) acts as the other
plate. As level rises, the air or gas
normally surrounding the electrode is
displaced by material having a different
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dielectric constant. A change in the value of the capacitor takes place because
the dielectric between the plates has changed. RF (radio frequency) capacitance
instruments detect this change and convert it into a relay actuation or a
proportional output signal.
The capacitance relationship is illustrated with the following equation:
The dielectric constant is a numerical value on a scale of 1 to 100 which

relates to the ability of the dielectric (material between the plates) to store an
electrostatic charge. The dielectric constant of a material is determined in an
actual test cell. Values for many materials are published by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology.

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In actual practice, capacitance change is produced in different ways
depending on the material being measured and the level electrode selection.
However, the basic principle always applies. If a higher dielectric material
replaces a lower one, the total capacitance output of the system will increase. If
the electrode is made larger (effectively increasing the surface area) the
capacitance output increases; if the distance between measuring electrode and
reference decreases, then the capacitance output decreases.
Level measurement can be organized into three basic categories: the
measurement of non-conductive materials, conductive materials and proximity
or non-contacting measurement. While the following explanations oversimplify
the measurement, they provide the basics that must be used to properly
specify a capacitance measurement system.
Non-Conductive Materials—As previously stated, capacitance changes as

material comes between the plates of the capacitor. For example, suppose
the sensor and the metal wall are measuring the increasing level of a non-
conductive hydrocarbon.
Figure 1 depicts a typical system.

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While the actual capacitive equation is very complex, it can be
approximated for the above example as follows:
Since the electrode and tank wall are fixed in place, the distance between
them will not vary. Similarly, the dielectric of air and of the measured material
remain constant (air is 1 and the hydrocarbon is 10).
Consequently, the capacitance output of the system example can be
reduced to this very basic equation:
As this equation demonstrates, the more material in the tank, the higher
the capacitance output will be. The capacitance is directly proportional to the
level of the measured material.
Conductive Materials—The same logic for nonconductive materials

applies for conductive materials, except that conductive material acts as
the ground plate of the capacitor, rather than the tank wall. This changes
the distance aspect of the equation, whereby the output would be
comparatively higher than for a non-conductive material. However, it still

Page 143 of
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remains fixed; therefore, as level rises on the vertically mounted sensor,
the output increases proportionally.
Radiation Level Measurement

Some types of nuclear radiation
easily penetrates walls of industrial
vessels. A radioactive source on one
side of the vessel and measuring
radiation on the other side, an
indication of level within that vessel
can be obtained
Typically used where no other
instruments can possibly function, (ie.
Toxic, highly corrosive process fluids).
Gamma rays are the most commonly
used form of radiation in industrial
level measurement.
The three most common forms of
nuclear radiation are alpha particles,
beta particles, and gamma rays.
The measuring effect results

from absorption of radiation by the

Page 144 of
J. Zamora
product to be measured which is caused by level changes
Radiation-based sensor for continuous level

and interface measurement
TASK SHEET 2.4.3f

Title: Calibration check of an Ultrasonic Level Transmitter

Page 145 of
J. Zamora
Performance Objective: Given an Ultrasonic Level Transmitter and
other necessary supplies, materials and
equipment ,you should be able to perform
calibration check ultrasonic level transmitter
following standard industry procedure).
Supplies/Materials : 250 Ω resistor, connecting wires
Equipment : Ultrasonic level transmitter (Gems Sensor UCL-

200), Milliamp meter, recorder/controller, 24
V-DC supply
Steps/Procedure:
1. Setup the instrument as shown in Figure 1.
2. Determine the distance from the ultrasonic transducer to the
100% level.
3. Determine the test point distances.
4. Set the EC4 and EC20 of the ultrasonic transmitter.
Note: Refer to the transmitter manual for the settings.
Where: EC4 is the desired 0% level
EC20 is the desired 100% level
5. Set the desired setting of the indicator.
6. Place the transmitter to the desired distance and record the
current readings
7. Move to the next distance then record the current reading.
8. Repeat until all the test points have been obtained.
using.

Page 146 of
J. Zamora
Figure 1
POWER SUPPLY 24 VDC
ULTRASONIC LEVEL
TRANSMITTER
CONTROLLER / RECORDER
250 ohms
dead zone
100%
MULTIMETER
20 mA
distance
A mA COM V
0%
DISTANCE EXPECTED ACTUAL

TEST FROM TRANSMITTER ERROR
TRANSMITTER
POINT OUTPUT(mA)
THE TEST OUTPUT (mA)
SURFACE
(inches)
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%

Page 147 of
J. Zamora
Assessment Method:
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3f

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 148 of
J. Zamora
Hydrostatic/ Differential Pressure Level Measurement
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to explain
the operating principles of hydrostatic/ differential pressure level
measurement.
Hydrostatic pressure principle:
The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result of the weight of
the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid.
The pressure due to the liquid alone (ie. the gauge pressure) at a given
depth depends only upon the density of the liquid ρ and the distance below
the surface of the liquid h.
Therefore regardless of the shape of the vessel, for the same kind of
liquid and with the same height, the pressure at the bottom of each vessel
should be the same.
Why the pressure does not depend upon the shape of the vessel or the
amount of fluid in the vessel rest upon three things:
1. Pressure is force per unit area and this is not same as the total weight
of the liquid in the vessel
2. A liquid cannot support itself without a container. Thus the walls of
the container exert a pressure on the fluid equal to the pressure of the
fluid at that depth.
3. The pressure at given level is transmitted equally throughout the fluid
to be the same value at that level.
Page 149 of
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Hydrostatic Head or Differential Pressure
This method rely on the pressure of the liquid head to provide level
indication. The pressure indicated by a column of liquid, is equal to the height
of the column, h, times the specific gravity of the liquid, sg.
P = h. (sg)
Where: sg = ρ.g
Thus from this we can calculate the level of liquid in a vessel or tank if
we know the pressure at the bottom of the tank, and the specific gravity of the
liquid, sg.
By referring to the figure above, the weight of one cubic foot container of
water is seen to be 62.4 pounds (from its weight), and this force exerted over
the surface of the bottom of the container.
Area:
Area = 12 in. x 12 in ( 1ft. = 12 in)
Page 150 of
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= 144 in.2
Pressure exerted on the area;

P = F/A
P = 62.4 lbs/ 144 in.2

= 0.433 lbs/in.2
Open tank Head Type Measurement
The figure above illustrates an application where the level value is

inferred from a pressure measurement. When the level is at the same elevation
point as the measuring instrument, atmospheric pressure is applied to boths
sides of the pressure transmitter and the measurement is at ‗zero‘ reference
level. When the level in the tank increases, the force created by the hydrostatic
head of the liquid is applied to the measurement side of the transmitter,
resulting in an increase in instrument output. The instrument response is
caused by the head pressure is used to infer a level value. The relationship
between pressure and level as mentioned earlier, P=ρ.h.g. Note that any
changes in atmospheric pressure does not affect the measurement because the
changes are applied to both sides of the pressure transmitter.

Page 151 of
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Configuration for Open Tank Measurement

Page 152 of
J. Zamora
Example 1: Level =Pt = Pa + Pl - Pc
= 0 + γl.h1 – γc.h2
Pa
γl = 64.0 lbs/ ft.3 / 62.4 lbs./ ft3

Pl
= 1.025
γc = 53.8 lbs/ ft.3 / 62.4 lbs./ ft3
ρ =64 lbs/ft3 = 0.86
Pc
h1 = 11 ft = 132 in.
h2 = 6 ft = 72 in.

Page 153 of
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At 0%, h1 = 0, h2 = 72 in. (4ma)
Pt = 1.025(0‖) – 0.86(72‖)
Pt = -61.92 ― H2O [LRV]
At100%, h1 = 132 in., h2 = 72 in. (20 ma)
Pt = 1.025(132‖) – 0.86(72‖)
Pt = 73.38 ― H2O [URV]
Span = URV – LRV
= 73.38 – (-61.92)
= 135.3 in. of H2O
Example 2: Level =Pt = Pa + Pl + Pc

= 0 + γ.h1 + γ.h2
γe = 49.3 lbs/ ft.3 / 62.4 lbs./ ft3

= 0.79
h1 = 40 ft = 480 in.
h2 = 30 ft = 360 in.

Page 154 of
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At 0%, h1 = 0, h2 = 360 in. (4ma)
Pt = 0.79(0‖) + 0.79(360‖)
Pt = 284.4 ― H2O [LRV]
At100%, h1 = 480 in., h2 = 360 in. (20 ma)
Pt = 0.79(480‖) + 0.79(360‖)
Pt = 663.6 ― H2O [URV]
Span = URV – LRV
= 663.6 – 284.4
= 379.2 in. of H2O
Example 3. Level =Pt = Pa + PL1 + PL2

= 0 + γ.h1 + γ.h2
Pa
γoil = 60.5 lbs/ ft.3 / 62.4 lbs./ ft3
= 0.97
PL1
PL2
h1 = 5 ft = 60 in.
h2 = 4 ft = 48 in.

Page 155 of
J. Zamora
At 0%, h1 = 0, h2 = 48 in. (4ma)
Pt = 0.79(0‖) + 0.97(48‖)
Pt = 46.56 ― H2O [LRV]
At100%, h1 = 60 in., h2 = 48 in. (20 ma)
Pt = 0.97(60‖) + 0.97(48‖)
Pt = 104.76 ― H2O [URV]
Span = URV – LRV
= 104.76 – 46.56
= 58.2 in. of H2O
Interface Applications
Example 4. Level =Pt = Pa + PL1 + PL2

= 0 + γ1.h1 + γ2.h2
Pa
PL1
PL2

Page 156 of
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Page 157 of
J. Zamora
Closed Tank Level Measurement
Hydrostatic head instruments for
measuring liquid level in vessels
operating above atmospheric pressure
uses the full capability of the
differential pressure instruments with
both sides of the measuring element
connected to the vessel.
The differential pressure
transmitter, enables an automatic
subtraction of the pressure on the LP
side, from the total pressure appearing
at the HP side. This is accomplished as
shown in the diagram above, where the LP is connected above the maximum
predicted level. With this arrangement, each increment of pressure above the
liquid surface is applied to both capsule assemblies of the transmitter, and
since they are in position, the increment is cancelled. Only the hydrostatic
pressure, which is applied to the HP, is effective in causing any response to the
transmitter, which is proportional to the level.

Page 158 of
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Page 159 of
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Page 160 of
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Example 5: Level = ∆P = PHigh - PLow
= + γ1.h1 + γ2.h2
∆P = PHigh - PLow
= [Pgas + γLiquid.h1] – [Pgas]
∆P = γLiquid.h1 (DRY LEG)
∆P = PHigh - PLow
= [Pgas + γLiquid.h1] – [Pgas + γ2.h2]
∆P = γLiquid.h1 - γ2.h2 (WET LEG)

Page 161 of
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Calibration Data:

Page 162 of
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Self Check 1.2.5

Page 163 of
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Answer Key 1.2.5

Page 164 of
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Bubbler System Level Measurement
1. Explain the operating principles of bubbler system level
measurement
2. Discuss some applications of this system of level measurement
One of the oldest and simplest methods of level measurement is

called the air bubbler, air purge, or dip tube. With the supply air blocked,
as can be seen in the diagram above, the water level in the tube will be
equal to that in the tank. When the air pressure from the regulator is
increased until the water in the tube is displaced by air, the air pressure
on the tube is equal to the hydrostatic head of the liquid in the tube.
The pressure set in the regulator must overcome the liquid head
and bubble up through the measured liquid. This will be indicated by a
continuous flow, which evidence by the formation of bubbles rising to the
level of the liquid in the tank.
As it may not be convenient to visually inspect the tank for the
presence of the bubbles, an air flow indicator will usually be installed in
the air line running into the tank. A rotameter is generally used for this
purpose. The importance of maintaining a flow through the tube lies in the
fact that the liquid in the tube must be displaced by air and the back
pressure on the air line provides the measurement, which is related to
Page 165 of
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level. The level or static head is measured by an indicator or a DP cells.
Readout may be local or remote. When transmission distances exceed 15
to 20 meters, differential pressure transmitters are usually used to
transmit standard signals to remote locations.
For the closed tank application, the following bubbler system can be
used. Two dips are installed with the shorter one dipped for ―maximum‖ level
of liquid to be measured, and a longer dip has its tip at ―minimum‖ level.
Instrument air is supplied to the system (normally adjusted to 4 bar) at both
dips. A DP cell transmitter is placed to sense and measure the level, and
produce a proportional signal to the level.

Page 166 of
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Zero adjustment is initially set-up when the tank or drum is empty, i.e.
no differential pressure present. The ‗maximum‘ level is set either by filling
the tank/drum with process liquid, or by calculation (if the density of the
liquid is known).
An important advantage of the bubbler system is the fact that the
measuring instrument can be mounted at any location and elevation with
respect to the tank. This application is advantageous for level measuring
applications where it would be inconvenient to mount the measuring
instrument at the zero reference level. An example of this situation is level
measurement in underground tanks and water wells.
Air and nitrogen are the most commonly used gases for bubbler
installations. Liquid may be used if there is reason not to use gas. If process
material has a tendency to plug the dip tube, a bypass may be installed around
the flow regulator to blow out the line periodically.
Bubbler systems are used rather infrequently now. One drawback is that
it is undesirable in many processes to introduce air, nitrogen or other purge
material to the process. They do provide economical installation, however,
particularly for local readout on clean services.
The accuracy of the bubbler system is about as good as the differential
device used for readout. Its accuracy is independent on the constancy of the
density of the material whose level is measured.

Page 167 of
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Self Check 1.2.5

Page 168 of
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Answer Key 1.2.5

Page 169 of
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TASK SHEET 2.4.3f
Title: Calibration check of an Ultrasonic Level Transmitter
Performance Objective: Given an Ultrasonic Level Transmitter and

other necessary supplies, materials and
equipment ,you should be able to perform
calibration check ultrasonic level transmitter
following standard industry procedure).
Equipment : Ultrasonic level transmitter (Gems Sensor UCL-

200), Milliamp meter, recorder/controller, 24
V-DC supply
Steps/Procedure:
1. Setup the instrument as shown in Figure 1.
2. Determine the distance from the ultrasonic transducer to the
100% level.
3. Determine the test point distances.
4. Set the EC4 and EC20 of the ultrasonic transmitter.
Note: Refer to the transmitter manual for the settings.
Where: EC4 is the desired 0% level
EC20 is the desired 100% level
5. Set the desired setting of the indicator.
6. Place the transmitter to the desired distance and record the
current readings
8. Repeat until all the test points have been obtained.

Page 170 of
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Figure 1
POWER SUPPLY 24 VDC
ULTRASONIC LEVEL
TRANSMITTER
250 ohms
dead zone
100%
MULTIMETER
20 mA
distance
A mA COM V
0%
DISTANCE EXPECTED ACTUAL

TEST FROM TRANSMITTER ERROR
TRANSMITTER
POINT OUTPUT(mA)
THE TEST OUTPUT (mA)
SURFACE
(inches)
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
using.
Page 171 of
J. Zamora
Assessment Method:
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3f

CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 172 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 2.4.3g
Title: Radar Level Transmitter Calibration
Performance Objective: Given a Radar Level Transmitter and other

relevant supplies, materials and equipment, you should
be able to perform a calibration check on Radar
Transmitter Level following industry procedure.
Equipment : Radar Level Transmitter (Vega), Milliamp meter,

recorder/controller, Hart Communicator
Steps/Procedure:
1. Setup the instrument as shown in Figure 1
Figure 1
RADAR
TRANSMITTER
POWER SUPPLY 24 VDC
HART
250 ohms
100%
MULTIMETER
distance
20 mA
A m A COM V
0%
2. Determine the distance from the ultrasonic transducer for 100% level
3. Determine the test point distances
4. Set the PV URV %LRV using HART communicator

Page 173 of
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Note:
PV URV is the distance from the lower edge of the flange to the
desired 0% level.
PV LRV is the desired 100% level. See Figure 1
5. Set the desired setting of the indicator
6. Place the transmitter to the desired distance and record the current
reading.
8. Repeat until the test point have been obtained
DISTANCE FROM EXPECTED ACTUAL

TEST TRANSMITTER ERROR
THE TEST TRANSMITTER
POINT OUTPUT(mA)
SURFACE OUTPUT (mA)
(inches)
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
9. Disconnect the test equipment from the unit under test

10. Complete the calibration data table
Assessment Method:

Page 174 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3g
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 175 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 2.4.3h
Title: Differential Pressure Transmitter Application (Dry Leg
Calibration)
Performance Objective: Given the necessary supplies, materials

and equipment, you should be able to perform dry
leg calibration of a Differential Pressure
Transmitter following standard industry
procedure.
Supplies/Materials : Measuring tape
Equipment : Hart communicator, differential pressure

transmitter, process tank
Steps/Procedure:
1. For dry leg application, the high pressure side of the transmitter
is connected to the bottom instrument tap of the tank, the low
pressure side must be vented to atmosphere. See Figure 1
Figure 1
2. Determine the minimum level and maximum level of the process

tank and record it at the table below
Page 176 of
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3. Determine the specific gravity of the process fluid
4. Calculate the span points for differential pressure transmitter

using the formula below:
SPAN = URV – LRV

Where:
LRV: 4mA = Lmin x SG
URV: 20mA = Lmax x SG
Dry Leg
Lmin
Lmax
SG
URV
LRV
SPAN
5. Set the process value of the transmitter base on the calculated

span points using Hart communicator
6. Fill the tank with fluid to simulate the actual level
using.
Assessment Method:

Page 177 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3h
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
TASK SHEET 2.4.3i

Page 178 of
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Title: Differential Pressure Transmitter for Level Application (Wet Leg
Calibration)
Performance Objective: Given all necessary supplies, materials, tools

and equipment, you should be able to perform Wet Leg
Calibration of a Differential Pressure Transmitter
following standard industry procedure.
Supplies/Materials : Measuring Tape
Equipment : Hart communicator, Differential Pressure Transmitter,

Process Tank
Steps/Procedure:
1. For Wet Leg calibration the High Pressure side of the transmitter is
connected to the bottom instrument tap of the tank, the Low Pressure
side must be connected to the wet leg. See Figure 1
Figure 1
2. Determine the minimum level and the maximum level of the process
tank and record it in the table below
Page 179 of
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3. Determine the specific gravity of the process fluid and the specific
gravity of the wet leg fluid.
4. Measure the height of the wet leg.
5. Calculate the span points for differential pressure transmitter. See
Formula below:
SPAN = URV - LRV
Where:
LRV: 4mA = Lmin x SG - (h x SGw)
URV: 20mA = Lmax x SG - (h x SGw)
SG: Specific Gravity of the process fluid
SGw: Specific Gravity of the wet leg fluid
h: Height of the wet leg
Wet Leg
Lmin
Lmax
SG
SGw
h
URV
LRV
SPAN
6. Set the process value of the transmitter base on the calculated span
points using Hart communicator
7. Fill the wet leg with fluid
8. Fill the tank with process fluid to simulate the actual level
Assessment Method:

Page 180 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3i
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
TASK SHEET 2.4.3j

Page 181 of
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Title: Current to Pneumatic (I/P) Transducer Calibration
Performance Objective: Given an I/P Transducer (current to pneumatic

converter) and relevant supplies, materials and
equipment, you should be able to perform calibration of
a Current to Pneumatic Transducer following standard
Equipment : I/P transducer, Milliamp simulator, Hand pump or

Pneumatic Test Pump, Fluke 525A
Temperature/Pressure Calibrator
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the milliamp simulator to the input of the unit under test
2. Connect the instrument air to the supply port of the unit under test
3. Connect the measuring device (Fluke 525A) to the output of the unit
under test
4. Refer to Figure 1 below for the complete connections
Figure 1

Page 182 of
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CA100/CA11/FLUKE525
ZERO
SPAN
4 ~ 20 ma
Supply 20 PSI
Input 4 ~ 20 mA
Output 3 ~ 15 PSI
MULTIFUNCTION
CALIBRATOR
PRESSURE
MODULE
instrument air Supply Output

supply
5. Set the milliamp simulator for 4mA to the input of I/P transducer and
record the output pressure on the data sheet.
6. Repeat Step 5 for input values of 8,12,16 and 20mA. Record the
result; use the data table for all the measured value. DO NOT MAKE
ADJUSTMENT until all ―as found‖ data has been recorded.
7. If the transmitter output is not within the specified tolerance, calibrate
the transmitter by adjusting the ZERO and SPAN adjustment screw
and record it under ―As-left data‖.
For ZERO adjustment: Apply 4mA and adjust the ZERO
potentiometer until the pressure reading is 3psi
For SPAN adjustment: Apply 20mA and adjust the SPAN

potentiometer until the pressure reading is 15psi.
8. Complete the AS-LEFT test for input values of 8, 12 and 16mA

POINT
TEST UNIT TEST UNIT ERROR
UNDER ERROR STANDARD UNDER

Page 183 of
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STANDARD TEST READING TEST
READING
READING READING
4mA 3 psi 3 psi
8mA 6 psi 6 psi
12mA 9 psi 9 psi
16mA 12 psi 12 psi
20mA 15 psi 15 psi
Assessment Method:

Page 184 of
J. Zamora
Performance Criteria Checklist 2.4.3j
CRITERIA
YES NO
Did you….
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Page 185 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 2.4.3k
Title: Control Valve Calibration
Performance Objective: Given a Fisher Control Valve and relevant

supplies, materials and equipment, you should be able
to perform calibration of a Control Valve following
standard industry procedure and safety practices.
Supplies/Materials : Solenoid Switch, connecting wires, manufacturer‘s

manual
Equipment : Fisher Control Valve, Milliamp simulator, 24Vdc

Power Supply (for the solenoid switch), I/P
Transducer
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect a 24V DC Power Supply to the supply terminal of the
solenoid switch
2. Connect the milliamp simulator to the input of I/P transducer
3. Apply instrument air to the control valve. Air pressure supply must
be in accordance with manufacture‘s specification
4. Refer to Figure 1 below for the complete connections
Figure 1

Page 186 of
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CONTROL VALVE
100 %
VP200
CURRENT-TO-PNEUMATIC 75 %
POSITIONER
50 %
25 %
0%
YOKOGAWA
TRAVEL INDICATOR
SIGNAL INJECTOR
4-20 mA PRESSURE
REGULATO R
STOP VALVE PRESSURE

GAU GE
AIR FILTER
CA100 MULTIFUNCTION
CALIBRATOR
5. Apply 4mA to the input of I/P and record the position of the travel
indicator on the data sheet (As-found Data). See Figure 1 for the travel
indicator scale.
6. Repeat Step 5 for input values of 8, 12, 16 and 20mA. DO NOT MAKE
ANY ADJUSTMENT until all ―As-Found‖ data has been recorded.
7. If the control valve is not within the specified travel position, calibrate
the control valve by adjusting the stem travel and the flapper setting
adjustment screw of the positioner and record it under ―As-left data‖.

POINT
TEST UNIT TEST UNIT
UNDER ERROR STANDARD UNDER ERROR
STANDARD
TEST READING TEST
READING POSITION
POSITION
4mA 0.00% 0.00%
8mA 25.00% 25.00%
12mA 50.00% 50.00%
Page 187 of
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16mA 75.00% 75.00%
20mA 100.00% 100.00%
Assessment Method:

Page 188 of
J. Zamora
TASK SHEET 2.4.3l
Title: Loop Powered Indicator Calibrator
Performance Objective: Given all relevant supplies, materials and

equipment, you should be able to perform loop
powered indicator calibration following standard
Supplies/Materials : connecting wires, manufacturer‘s manual
Equipment : Indicator (MTL686 Loop powered indicator or

Yokogawa Process Indicator, Calibrator or
(Yokogawa CA 100)
Steps/Procedure:
1. Connect the Calibrator to the input terminal of the Indicator.
See Figure Below.
LOOP POWERED IS INDICATOR
100.0
20 mA
CA100 Calibrator

Page 189 of
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2. Determine the desired test point value and record it on the
data table below. (Test Standard Reading)

POINT
TEST UNIT TEST UNIT
UNDER STANDARD UNDER
STANDARD
TEST ERROR READING TEST ERROR
READING READING
PV READING
PV
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
3. Inject a 4mA signal to the indicator and record the reading

under As-found Data.
4. Repeat Step 3 for input signal of 8, 12, 16 and 20mA. Record
the results. DO NOT MAKE ANY ADJUSTMENT until all As-
Found Data has been recorded.
5. If the indicator reading is not within the specified value,
calibrate the indicator by adjusting the ZERO and SPAN
potentiometer. See inside of the indicator for configurations.
6. Once the ZERO and SPAN are already set, complete the As-left
data for the input signal of 4, 8 ,2, 16 and 20 mA.
using.
Assessment Method:

Page 190 of
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Information Sheet 1.4.7c
Identifying Types Flow Measuring Instrument
1. Identify the different types of flow measuring instruments
2. Explain the application of the different types of flow measuring
instruments
Overview of Flow Measurement
Flowmeters are devices that measure the amount of liquid, gas
or vapor that passes through them. Some flowmeters measure flow as
the amount of fluid passing through the flowmeter during a time
period (such as 100 liters per minute). Other flowmeters measure the
totalized amount of fluid that has passed through the flowmeter (such
as 100liters).
Flowmeters consist of a primary device, transducer and

transmitter. The transducer senses the fluid that passes through the
primary device. The transmitter produces a usable flow signal from the
raw transducer signal. These components are often combined, so the
actual flowmeter may be one or more physical devices.
Flow Measurement can be described by
Q = A · v,
which means that the volume of fluid passing through a
flowmeter is equal to the cross-sectional area of the pipe (A)
times the average velocity of the fluid (v);
And
W = p · Q,

Page 191 of
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which means that the mass flow of fluid passing through a
flowmeter (A) is equal to the fluid density (p) times the volume of
the fluid (Q).
Types of Flowmeters
1. Positive Displacement Flowmeter
Volumetric flowmeters directly measure the volume of fluid (Q)
passing through the flowmeter. The only flowmeter technology that
measures volume directly is the positive displacement flowmeter.
How Positive Displacement Flowmeters Work

Positive displacement flowmeter technology is the only flow
measurement technology that directly measures the volume of the fluid
passing through the flowmeter.
Positive displacement flowmeters achieve this by repeatedly
entrapping fluid in order to measure its flow. This process can be thought
of as repeatedly filling a bucket with fluid before dumping the contents
downstream. The number of times that the bucket is filled and emptied is
indicative of the flow through the flowmeter.
Many positive displacement flowmeter geometries are available.
Entrapment is usually accomplished using rotating parts that form
moving seals between each other and/or the flowmeter body. In most
designs, the rotating parts have tight tolerances so these seals can
prevent fluid from going through the flowmeter without being measured
(slippage). In some positive displacement flowmeter designs, bearings are
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used to support the rotating parts. Rotation can be sensed mechanically
or by detecting the movement of a rotating part. When more fluid is
flowing, the rotating parts turn proportionally faster. The transmitter
processes the signal generated by the rotation to determine the flow of the
fluid. Some positive displacement flowmeters have mechanical registers
that show the total flow on a local display. Other positive displacement
flowmeters output pulses that can be used by a secondary electronic
device to determine the flow rate.
Rotary Vane– Positive displacement flowmeter

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2. Velocity Flowmeters
Velocity flowmeters utilize techniques that measure the velocity (v) of

the flowing stream to determine the volumetric flow.
Types:
1. Magnetic
2. Turbine
3. Ultrasonic
4. Vortex shedding and fluidic
2.1 Magmeters/ Electromagnetic Flowmeters

Electromagnetic flow meters are volumetric flow meters that
measure the voltage created when conductive liquids move through a
magnetic field.
According to Faraday's Law, the voltage induced across any
conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field is
proportional to the velocity of that conductor. With magmeters, the
liquid serves as the conductor and the magnetic field is created by
energized coils outside the flow
tube. Electrodes detect the voltage
which is directly proportional to
the flow rate
A conductor moving through
a magnetic field generates a
current in proportion to the speed
at which it moves.
The conductor is replaced by
the fluid which moves through
magnetic coils on opposite sides of
the pipe , velocity of a conductive
liquid can be determined the
developed voltage

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Velocity times area yields volumetric flow rate.
Magmeters have no
moving parts and do not
obstruct the flow stream & provide good accuracy with conductive
liquids flowing into a full pipe.

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Electromagnetic flow meters can measure corrosive liquids and
slurries, and have the ability to measure flow in both directions with
equal accuracy. A conducting fluid and a non-conducting pipe liner
are required. Magmeters will generally not work with hydrocarbons,
distilled water and many non-aqueous solutions. They are also ideal
for applications where low pressure drop and low maintenance are
required
2.2 Turbine/ Paddle Flowmeters
Turbine or paddlewheel flow meters
are mechanical meters that have a
freely rotating turbine set in the path
of a fluid stream. The flowing liquid
or gas causes the turbine to spin
upon its axis. The rate of spin will be
proportional to the velocity of the
flow. The simple and reliable design
of turbine meters makes them
popular choices for large commercial
and industrial users such as gas companies
and municipal water districts.
A turbine on a shaft coaxial with the pipe placed in the liquid stream
where passing process fluid strikes it. Higher flow means higher velocity.
Proximity sensor mounted in the pipe wall detects passing turbine blades.
Electrical pulses created translate it into liquid velocity which
translate into flow.
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Fundamental goal is to make the turbine element as free as possible
so no torque will be required to sustain the rotation
Turbine meters are less accurate than some other types of flow meters
but since the measuring element does not severely restrict the path of flow,
they are able to measure high flow rates with low pressure loss. Though
versatile, turbine meters do best in applications with constant conditions in
liquids such as water or lower viscosity fluids. Strainers are generally required
to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from
gravel or other debris that could enter the flow system.
3. Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic flow meters utilize
sound waves to measure the
velocity of a fluid from which the
volumetric flow rate can be
calculated. Unlike most flow
meters, ultrasonic meters do not
include any moving parts and
thus are more reliable, accurate
and provide maintenance free
operation. Since ultrasonic
signals can also penetrate solid
materials, the transducers can
be mounted onto the outside of
the pipe offering completely non-
invasive measurement
eliminating chemical compatibility
issues, pressure restrictions, and pressure loss.
Ultrasonic flow meters are affected by the acoustic

properties of the fluid and can be impacted by
temperature, density, viscosity and suspended
particulates depending on the exact flow meter.
Homogenous fluids, as well as, advanced digital
signaling can eliminate many of the problems
associated with noise and variations in liquid
chemistry.

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Types of Ultrasonic flowmeters
A. Transit time flow meters measure the travel time of two sound waves.
One wave travels the same direction as the flow while the other travels
against the flow. At zero flow, sensors receive both waves at the same
time, i.e., without transit time delay. As the fluid moves, it takes an
increasingly longer time for the downstream wave to reach the
upstream sensor. This measured "transit time difference" is directly
proportional to the flow velocity and therefore to flow volume. Transit
time flow meters require the fluid to be free from suspended solids or
gas bubbles and in a closed and full piping system.
Transit Time Type Ultrasonic Flowmeter
B. Doppler-shift flow meters operate on the principle that the

wavelength of an approaching sound source is shorter than the
wavelength of that same source as it is moving away. A transducer
emits a sound wave which reflects off entrained particles or bubbles
back to the transducer. The measured difference in the wavelengths of
the transmitted signal versus the reflected signal is proportional to
the process' velocity. Doppler flow meters are used for slurries, liquids
with bubbles, or gases with sound-reflecting particles. They can also
be adapted for use in open channels by integrating with level
transmitters.

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Doppler Effect Type Ultrasonic Flowmeter
How Ultrasonic Flowmeters work

Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to determine the velocity of a
fluid flowing in a pipe. At no flow conditions, the frequencies of an ultrasonic
wave transmitted into a pipe and its reflections from the fluid are the same.
Under flowing conditions, the frequency of the reflected wave is different due
to the Doppler effect. When the fluid moves faster, the frequency shift
increases linearly. The transmitter processes signals from the transmitted
wave and its reflections to determine the flow rate.
Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters send and receive ultrasonic waves
between transducers in both the upstream and downstream directions in the
pipe. At no flow conditions, it takes the same time to travel upstream and
downstream between the transducers. Under flowing conditions, the
upstream wave will travel slower and take more time than the (faster)
downstream wave. When the fluid moves faster, the difference between the
upstream and downstream times increases. The transmitter processes
upstream and downstream times to determine the flow rate.
Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters are usually more accurate than

Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters. Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters are usually
more economical.

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4. Vortex Shedding and Fluidic Flowmeter
Vortex flow meters use an

obstruction, known as a bluff
body, in the flow stream to
create downstream vortices
which are alternately formed on
either side of the bluff body. As
these vortices are shed from
the bluff body, they create
alternating low and high
pressure zones that oscillate at
particular frequencies directly
proportional to the velocity of
the fluid. The flow rate can be
calculated from the fluid
velocity.
Vortex flow meters are universally suitable for measuring liquids, gases
and steam while remaining largely unaffected by changes in pressure,
temperature and viscosity. Without moving parts, vortex meters are easy to
install and require little maintenance. The measuring signal is not subject to
drift. Consequently, vortex meters can operate an entire life long without
recalibration. Due to the nature of a minimum required velocity for each bluff
body, vortex meters will tend to need higher velocities and may have some
difficulty reading low flow rates.
The frequency of vortices shed from a bluff body placed in the

flow stream is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
Velocity times area gives the volumetric flow rate.

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Vortex meters can be sensitive to pipeline noise and require flow
rates high enough to generate vortices.
Figure 1. Wafer or flanged style Figure 2. Insertion vortex flow

Vortex flow meters meter ideal for steam and
gas applications
Vortex Flowmeter Tube
Figure 4. Inline vortex flow meter

ideal for steam and gas
applications
Figure 3. Vortex shedding
flow meter for
low viscosity
fluids
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How Vortex Shedding and Fluidic Flowmeters Work
When a fluid passes by an object or obstruction, oscillations can
occur. Examples of these oscillations in nature include the whistling
caused by wind blowing by the branches of trees, the swirls produced
downstream of a rock in a rapidly flowing river, and the waving of a
flag in the wind. Note that in all of these examples, when the flow is
slowed, the oscillations stop. That is, the whistling stops when the
wind dies down, the water flows calmly around the rock when the river
is not flowing rapidly, and the flag does not wave in a mild breeze.
5. Mass Flowmeters
Mass flowmeters utilize techniques that measure the mass flow (W) of the
flowing stream.
Types:
1. Coriolis mass flowmeter
2. Thermal flowmeter
5.1. Coriolis mass flowmeter
Coriolis meters make direct mass flow measurements based upon the
Coriolis effect: the deflection of moving objects when they are viewed in a
rotating reference frame. Coriolis flow meters artificially introduce a Coriolis
acceleration into the flowing stream. As the fluid is "deflected", the forces
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generated cause an extremely slight distortion or 'twisting action' of the
measuring tube that is directly proportional to the mass flow rate. This
distortion is picked up by special sensors and converted to an output signal.
Coriolis mass flow meters can provide flow (mass or volume), density,
and temperature measurements of liquids and gases all within a single meter.
Since the measurement principle is independent of the physical fluid
properties, these meters typically have a very high accuracy. The lack of
straight pipe requirements and moving parts makes them a very attractive
alternative to other flow meters.
Figure 1. Krohne OPTIMASS 3000

Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
Accurately measures fluids,
gases and solids in a variety
of applications which feature
low process flows
How Coriolis Mass Flowmeters Work
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the force resulting from the

acceleration caused by mass moving toward (or away from) a center of
rotation. This effect can be experienced when riding a merry-go-round,
where moving toward the center will cause a person to have to ―lean
into‖ the rotation so as to maintain balance. As related to flowmeters,
the effect can be demonstrated by flowing water in a loop of flexible
hose that is ―swung‖ back and forth in front of the body with both
hands. Because the water is flowing toward and away from the hands,
opposite forces are generated and cause the hose to twist.

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Coriolis flowmeter Installation
Large Diameter Coriolis flowmeter

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5.2. Thermal flowmeter
Thermal flow meters

measure mass flow rate by means
of measuring the heat conducted
from a heated surface to the
flowing fluid. Relying on the
principle that a fluid flowing past
a heated temperature sensor
removes a known quantity of heat
as it passes, thermal flow meters
measure either how much
electrical power is required to
maintain the temperature of the
heated sensor or the temperature
difference between the heated
sensor and the flow stream. Either of those values is directly
proportional to the mass flow rate.
Advantages:
 Thermal flowmeters have no moving parts or orifices and
provide good gas measurement accuracy.
 One of the few technologies that can be used for measuring gas
flow in large pipes, ducts, or stacks.
 Measurement of the fluid temperature is also provided by
thermal technology.

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Thermal flow meters are used almost entirely for gas flow
applications. Their design and construction make them popular for a
number of reasons. They feature no moving parts, have nearly
unobstructed flow path, require no temperature or pressure corrections,
and retain accuracy over a wide range of flow rates. Straight pipe runs
can be reduced by using dual-plate flow conditioning elements and
installation is very simple with minimal pipe intrusions.
Thermal mass flowmeter showing swirl vanes to introduce large scale turbulence
Thermal mass flow meter and temperature transmitter with inline and insertion
options for gas applications
Thermal mass flow meter for clean

gases.

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6. Inferential Flowmeters
Inferential flowmeters do not measure volume, velocity or mass,

but rather measure flow by inferring its value from other measured
parameters
Types:
1. Differential Pressure
2. Target
3. Variable
6.1 Differential Pressure

Differential Pressure
flow meters measure the
velocity of fluids by reading
the pressure loss across a
pipe constriction. These
meters can contain
laminar plates, an orifice,
nozzle, or Venturi tube to
create an artificial
constriction. Highly
sensitive pressure sensors
measure the pressure
before and after the
constriction. According to
Bernoulli's principle, the
pressure drop across the
constriction is proportional to the square of the flow rate. The higher
the pressure drop, the higher the flow rate.
Differential pressure flow meters utilize a robust, time proven
measuring technique for a wide range of clean liquids and gases. The
meters are available in a wide range of line sizes with wide temperature
and pressure ranges. Installation is relatively easy and the meters often
offer temperature and pressure measurements as well, measurements of
mass flow compensation . Care should be taken with highly viscous
liquids, though, as accuracy can be adversely affected or not achieved.

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How Differential Pressure Flowmeters Work
Differential pressure flowmeters use Bernoulli's equation to
measure the flow of fluid in a pipe. Differential pressure flowmeters
introduce a constriction in the pipe that creates a pressure drop
across the flowmeter. When the flow increases, more pressure drop is
created. Impulse piping route the upstream and downstream
pressures of the flowmeter to the transmitter that measures the
differential pressure to determine the fluid flow.
Bernoulli‘s equation states that the pressure drop across the
constriction is proportional to the square of the flow rate. Using this
relationship, 10 percent of full scale flow produces only 1 percent of
the full scale differential pressure. At 10 percent of full scale flow, the
differential pressure flowmeter accuracy is dependent upon the
transmitter being accurate over a 100:1 range of differential pressure.
Differential pressure transmitter accuracy is typically degraded at low
differential pressures in its range, so flowmeter accuracy can be
similarly degraded. Therefore, this non-linear relationship can have a
detrimental effect on the accuracy and turndown of differential
pressure flowmeters. Remember that of interest is the accuracy of the
flow measurement system --- not the accuracy of the differential
pressure transmitter.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPE FLOWWETERS

1. Orifice Plate
2. Wedge Type
3. Venturi
4. V-Cone
5. Flow Nozzles
6. Annubars
7. Pitot Tubes
6.1.1. Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is a constriction consisting of a flat plate

with a hole for the flow stream that is sandwiched in the pipe
between two flanges. It is the most common pressure based flow
elements in existence. Orifice is simply a metal plate with a hole in
the middle for fluid to flow through

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β = d/ D
β = beta ratio
d = bore diameter
D = inside pipe
diameter
Vena contracta-the point where fluid flow profile is minimum

cross section and pressure, and varies with flowrate and beta ratio
(b)

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Orifice Plates
Bi-directional flow rates application

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Square-edged concentric Type
Square-edged concentric w/
downstream bevel
Uni-directional flow rates , installed with paddle text facing upstrem
Square-edged eccentric
Used to address where gas

bubbles or solid particles may be
present in fluid flow
Hole is located off-center
depending on desired application

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Square-edged segmental
Another off-center type,

hole is a segment of a circle
Hole is located off-center
downward in gas application
or upward/downward for
liquid applications
Square-edged w/ vent holes
Alternative to re-shaping
or offsetting the hole

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Quadrant-edged Type
To improve performance on flow

profile
Maintains accuracy at low
flowrates and higher fluid viscosity
6.1.2 Pitot Tubes

Senses pressure as fluid comes into a complete stop
at forward face of tube.
Multiple holes improves sensitivity
Pitot Tube Averaging Pitot

Tube

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6.1.3 Venturi Tubes
A pipe purposely narrowed to create a region of low
pressure to demonstrate pressure change in a fluid stream
Venturi Flowmeter

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Self Check 1.4.7d

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Answer Key 1.4.7

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Calibration Concepts and Standards
1. Explain the various terminologies pertaining to calibration
2. Explain the different standards in calibration activities
Definitions:
1. Calibration:
ISA:
―A test during which known values of measurand are applied to a
transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under
specified conditions‖
Determination of the experimental relationship between the

quantity being measured and the output of the device which
measures it; where the quantity measured is obtained thru a
recognized standard of measurement.
2. Measurement
Set of operations having the object of determining a value of a quantity.
3. Error (of measurement)

– Result of a measurement minus a true value of the measured.
4. Traceability
– Property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard
whereby it can be related to stated references, usually national or
international standards, through an unbroken chain of comparisons all
having stated uncertainties.

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5. Working Standard
– Standard that is used routinely to calibrate or check material
measures, measuring instruments or reference materials.
– A working standard is usually calibrated against a reference
standard.
6. Reference Standard
– Standard, generally having the highest metrological quality at a given
location or in a given organization, from which measurements made
there are derived.
7. Primary Standard
– Standard that is designated or widely acknowledged as having the
highest metrological qualities and whose value is accepted without
reference to other standards of the same quantity.
8. Resolution
– A measure of the smallest portion of the signal that can be observed.
For example, a thermometer with a display that reads to three
decimal places would have a resolution of 0.001ºC.
– In general, the resolution of an instrument has a better rating than
its accuracy.
9. Repeatability
– closeness of the agreement between the results of successive
measurements of the measurand (eg mass value) carried out under
the same conditions of measurement. Conditions include: same
procedure, observer, instrument, conditions, location; and carried
out over a short period of time.
10. Uncertainty
– parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that
characterizes the dispersion of values that could reasonably be
attributed to the measurand

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11. Standard
– Material measure, measuring instrument, reference material or
measuring system intended to define, realize, conserve or reproduce a
unit or one or more values of a quantity to serve as a reference.
Examples:
– kg mass standard
– 100Ω standard resistor
– standard ammeter
– cesium frequency standard
International System of Units (SI)

The SI is founded on seven SI base units for seven base quantities
assumed to be mutually independent.
– Length
– Mass
– Time
– Temperature
– Quantity of Substance
– Luminous Intensity
– Electric Current
Calibration Traceability
Traceability Calibration must be traceable through all vendors and
paperwork to the original NIST calibration.
– Example: NIST calibrates primary standard for Primary Standards Lab
of Singapore
– Primary Standards (Singapore) Lab calibrates Secondary Standard
(IRTD) of DOST
– DOST Calibrates Yokogawa Decade Box with Secondary Standard
(IRTD)
– Calibration Technician calibrates RTD instrumentation using the
Yokogawa Decade Box

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Two (2) Fundamental Operations in Calibrating an Instrument:
(1)Testing the instrument to determine its performance
(2)Adjusting the instrument to perform within specifications
Zero and Span Method:

1.Apply the low-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait for
it to stabilize.
2.Move the zero adjustment until the instrument registers
accurately at this point
3.Apply the upper-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait
for it to stabilize
4.Move the span adjustment until the instrument registers

accurately at this point
5.Repeat 1 to 4 as necessary to achieve accuracy at both ends of
the range.
Analog Signals

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Calibration

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Self Check 1.4.8

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Answer Key 1.4.8

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ANNEXES

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
References:

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Sector: ELECTRONICS

Instrumentation and Control

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

The unit of competency, Install Instrumentation and Control Devices,

The module, Installing Instrumentation and Control devices, contain

In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning

 Read the information sheets and complete the self-checks. Suggested

You must pass the Institutional Competency Evaluation for this

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

UNIT OF COMPETENCY: Calibrate Instrumentation and Control

MODULE TITLE : Calibrating Instrumentation and Control

MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This module is designed to enhance the

NOMINAL DURATION: 80 Hrs

LO2. Identify tools, equipment testing devices and materials needed

LO4. Calibrate instrumentation and control devices

LO5. Test calibrated instrumentation and control devices

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

8. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) needed for installation are

9. Use of PPE needed for installation are demonstrated according to

11. OHS procedures and policies needed for installation are

18. Report on installation and testing of equipment is prepared

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Answer Self Check 1.1.1

Compare Answers with Answer

Answer Self Check 1.1.2

Compare Answers with Answer

After completing all the learning

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Instrumentation – is a collection of instruments and their application for the

Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

INSTRUMENTATION Electronics &

“We can’t Control what we can’t measure…”

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Example of Measured Variables:

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Industrial measurement and control systems have their own unique

Manual Control Automatic Control

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

I. Definition: Define the following terms

II. Enumerate the basic elements of instrumentation and control

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

II- Elements of instrumentation and control

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Process: The physical system we are attempting to control or measure.

Process Variable, or PV: The specific quantity we are measuring in a process.

Setpoint, or SP: The value at which we desire the process variable to be

Transmitter: A device translating the signal produced by a primary sensing

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Manual mode: When the controller‘s decision-making ability is bypassed to let

Manipulated Variable, or MV: Another term to describe the output signal

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

Example 1. Boiler water level control system

Steam boilers are very common in industry, principally because steam

The first instrument in this control system is the level transmitter, or

This pneumatic signal is sent to the next instrument in the control

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001

A simple way to diagnose such a problem is to place the controller in

As was mentioned before, this is an example of a pneumatic (compressed

Transmitter Air Steam Drum Water

Date Developed: Document No. MTRLGX -00-001