CHAPTER--10

CHAPTER
Sinusoidal Steady-
Steady-State Power Calculations
Our effort in the sinusoidal steady-state circuit analysis so far has been focused mainly on
calculating voltages and currents. Our major concern in this chapter is the sinusoidal
steady-state power calculations.
As mentioned in Chapter-1, the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the
product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and the instantaneous
current i(t) through it. Assuming the passive sign convention, p(t) = v(t)*i(t)
The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time. It is the rate at which an
element absorbs energy.
Consider the general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an arbitrary combination of
circuit elements under sinusoidal excitation, as shown in the Fig. below. Let the voltage
and current at the terminals of the circuit be:- i(t)
v(t) = Vm cos (ω(ωt + θv) Sinusoidal + Linear
i(t) = Im cos (ω
( ωt + θi ) v(t) Passive
Source
θv & θi are the voltage and current phase angles - Network
Engineers designing systems that transfer large
blocks of AC power have found it convenient to use a zero time corresponding to the instant
the current is passing through a positive peak. This reference system requires a shift of
both the voltage and current by θi.
v(t) = Vm cos (ωt + θv - θi) & i(t) = Im cos ωt
Then the expression of the instantaneous power will be:-
 p(t) = Vm Im cos(ωt + θv - θi) cosωt
We apply the trigonometric identity cosαcosβ = ½ cos (α - β) + ½ cos (α +
β)
α = ωt + θv - θi and β = ωt

Now we usep(t)
the = ½ Vm Im cos(θ
trigonometric v - θi) + ½ V
identity m Im cos(2ωt
cos(A + θcosB
+ B) = cosA v - θi)- sinA sinB

A = θv - θi and B = 2ωt
p(t) = ½ Vm Im cos(θv - θi) + ½ Vm Im cos(θv - θi) cos2ωt - ½ Vm Im sin(θv - θi) sin2ωt

The shown Fig. represents the

relationship between v, i, and the v,i,p
θv = 60o, θi =
instantaneous power pinst as
¾ VmIm 0o
given in the above equation, from p(t)
which we can note that:-

* The frequency of pinst is twice

½ VmIm
that of voltage or current Vm v(t)
therefore, pinst goes through two
complete cycles for every one Im i(t)
cycle of either v or i.

* pinst may be negative for a

π 2π 3π 4π
portion of each cycle, even if the 0 ωt
network between the terminals
is completely passive. Negative -¼VmIm
power implies that energy stored - Im
in the inductors or capacitors is
-Vm
now being extracted.
The previous expression of the instantaneous power can be written as :-
p(t) = P + Pcos2ωt - Qsin2ωt
P is called the average power and Q is called the reactive power and they are
defined as follows:-
Average Power (P)
The average, real, or active power (P
P) describes the power in a circuit that is transformed
from electric to non-electric energy (power dissipated in the resistors) and it is measured in
Watt.
Watt P = ½ Vm Im cos(θv - θi)
P is called average power because it is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period. 1 t +To
1
Pav =  p(t)dt = P = VmImco s(θ v - θi )
T t 2
o

Because the integral of cos2ωt or sin2ωt over one complete period is zero.

Reactive Power (Q)

The reactive power (QQ) represents the power being stored in the magnetic field associated
with inductive elements or the electric field associated with capacitive elements. Q is
measured in a unit called VAR (Volt-Ampere-Reactive).
Q = ½ Vm Im sin(θv - θi)
Power for purely resistive circuits
In purely resistive circuits the voltage and current are in phase (θv – θi = 0o), then Q = 0 and
P = ½ VmIm and the instan. power is given as:
p(t) = P + Pcos2ωt
The instan. power expressed here is called the instan. real power and it can never be
negative which means that power can never be extracted from purely resistive network.
Power for purely inductive circuits
In purely inductive circuits the voltage and current are out-of-phase by 90o, the
current lags by 90o i.e. (θv – θi = +90o). In this case, P = 0 and Q = + ½ VmIm and
the instan. power is given as: p(t) = - Qsin2ωt
The instan. power expressed here is purely reactive power and it is varying between a +ve
peak and –ve peak. When p is +ve, energy is being stored in the magnetic fields of the
inductors and p is –ve, energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields. In other words,
the instan. power is continually exchanged between the circuit and the source driving it.
Power for purely capacitive circuits
In purely inductive circuits the voltage and current are out-of-phase by 90o, the current
leads by 90o i.e. (θv – θi = - 90o). In this case, P = 0 and Q = - ½ VmIm and the instan. power
is given as: p(t) = - Qsin2ωt
In purely capacitive circuits, the instan. power is continually exchanged between the
electric field associated with the capacitors and the source driving the circuit.
Power Factor (pf)
The angle (θv – θi) is referred to be the power factor angle. The cosine of this angle is
called the power factor (pf), while its sine is called the reactive factor (rf).
pf = cos (θv – θi) ,rf = sin (θv – θi)
Knowing the value of pf does not tell the value of (θv – θi) because cos (θv – θi) = cos (θi –
θv). To completely describe this angle, we use the phrases:-
Lagging power factor ( the current lags the voltage) Inductive Load
Leading power factor ( the current leads the voltage) Capacitive Load
Effective (rms) Value
If a sinusoidal signal voltage (or current) is applied to an equivalent resistive
load, R, then the effective value of the sinusoidal signal is defined as the value
of the sinusoidal voltage/current that delivers the same amount of power to R as
does a DC source of the same value.

1 t +To
1 t +T v 2
s dt
o

Pav =  p(t)dt =  + + V =V
T t T t R - R - s dc R
o o
vs =
2 2
1 t +T Vmcos  ωt+θv 
o
Vmcos(ωt+θv)
=  dt
T t R
o

2
1  1 t +T 2 2
 Veff
 Vmcos  ωt+θv  dt  =
o

= 
R T t  R
 o

It is well known that the root mean square value of any AC signal is given by:-

1 t +T 2 1 t +T 2 2 Vm
For a sin. signal  Vmcos  ωt+θv  dt =
o o

Vrms =  V (t) dt Vrms =

T t T t 2
o o

Comparing the above equations we get Pav = V2rms / R = V2eff / R

VmIm V I
P= cos  θ v -θi  = m m cos  θ v -θi  = Veff Ieff cos  θ v -θi 
2 2 2

Similarly, Q = VeffIeffsin (θv – θi)

Complex Power
The complex power is the complex sum of the real power and reactive power
S = P + jQ
We will calculate the complex power from the voltage and current phasors
in the circuit and the average power and reactive power will be calculated
from the complex power as the real and imaginary parts respectively. S is |S|
measured in a unit called VA (Volt-Ampere) Q

The magnitude of the complex power is called the Apparent power and it θ v-
represents the volt-ampere capacity required to supply the average power θi P
and it is also measured in VA
S = P2 +Q 2
Power Calculations Ieff
S = P + jQ = ½ Vm Im cos(θv - θi) + j½ Vm Im sin(θv - θi) +
= ½ Vm Im [cos(θv - θi) + j sin(θv - θi)] Veff Circuit
= ½ Vm Im ej(θv - θi) = ½ Vm Im ∟(θv – θi) -
= Veff Ieff ∟(θv – θi) = (Veff ∟ θv)(Ieff ∟–θi)
S = Veff I*eff = ½ VI*
Alternative Forms for S
Ieff
If the circuit is replaced with an equivalent impedance, Z = R + j X
+
Veff = Z Ieff Veff Z
S = Veff I*eff = Z Ieff I*eff = |IIeff|2Z = |IIeff|2(R + jX) = P + jQ -

P = |IIeff|2R = ½ Im2 R (Watt) & Q = |IIeff|2X = ½ Im2 X (VAR)

 S = Veff (Veff / Z)* = |V
Veff|2 / Z* = P + jQ
If Z is a purely resistive element P = |V
Veff|2 / R = ½ Vm2 / R (Watt)
If Z is a purely reactive element Q = |V
Veff|2 / X = ½ Vm2 / X (VAR)

Example 10-10-1 1Ω j4 Ω

In the circuit shown in Fig.,

+
(a) Calculate the load current IL and voltage VL. 39 Ω
(b) Calculate P & Q delivered to the load. + 250∟0o VL
- IL
V(rms)
(c) Calculate P & Q delivered to the line.
- j26 Ω
(d) Calculate P & Q supplied by the source.
Solution Source Line Load
o o
VS 2500 2500 o
(a) IL = = = = 5 -36.87 = 4 - j3 A (rms)
Z tot 40 + j30 o
5036.87
o
VL =  39 + j26  IL = 234 - j13 = 234.36 -3.18 V (rms)
(b) SL = VLI*L = (234 – j13)(4 + j3) = 975 + j650 VA (p = 975 W , Q = 650 VAR)

(c) Sline = |IIline|2Zline = (5)2(1 + j4) = 25 + j100 VA (p = 25 W , Q = 100 VAR)

(d) SS = - (Sline + SL) = - (1000 + j750) VA

OR SL = -VSI*L = -250(4 + j3) = - (1000 + j750) VA (p = 1000 W , Q = 750 VAR)
Example 10-
10-2
In the circuit shown in Fig., find the phasor voltage VS (rms) if loads L1 and L2
are absorbing 15 kVA at 0.6 pf lagging and 6 kVA at 0.8 pf leading respectively.
Solution j1 Ω

For Load Z1
+
pf = 0.6 cosθ = 0.6, sinθ = 0.8 IS
VS +
- 200∟0o V (rms) Z1 Z2
P = |S|cosθ = 9 kW, Q = |S|sinθ = 12 kVAR
SL1= 9 + j12 kVA -
For Load Z2
pf = 0.8 cosθ = 0.8, sinθ = 0.6
P = |S|cosθ = 4.8 kW, Q = |S|sinθ = 3.6 kVAR SL2= 4.8 - j3.6 kVA
SLT = SL1 + SL2 = 13.8 + j8.4 KVA =
SLT = VLIS* IS* = SLT / VL = (13.8 + j8.4)x103 / 200 = 69 + j42 A (rms)
IS = 69 - j42 A (rms)
VS = IS(j1) + 200∟0o = (69 - j42)(j1) + 200 = 242 + j69 = 251.64∟15.91o V (rms)
Maximum Power Transfer
The maximum average power is delivered to a load impedance, ZL, of a network
operating in sinusoidal steady-state, when the load impedance, ZL, is the
conjugate of the Thevenin impedance, ZL = Z*TH a
ZTH
Proof
Let ZTH = RTH + j XTH & ZL = RL + j XL , then IL
VTH + ZL
VTH -
IL =
R TH + R L  + j  X TH + X L 
2
VTH R TH b
Pav = |IL|2RL Pav = 2 2
R TH + RL  +  X TH + X L  IL& VTH are rms values

In this equation, VTH, RTH, and XTH are fixed quantities, whereas RL and XL are independent
variables. To maximize Pav, we must find the values of RL and XL at which ∂P / ∂RL and
∂P / ∂XL are both zero.
2
P - VTH 2R L  X L +X TH 
= =0 XL = - XTH
X L 2 2
R TH + R L 2 +  X TH + X L  
 

P VTH
2
 R TH + R L 2 +  X TH + X L 2 -2R L  R L +R TH  
  RL = R 2
2
=
2
=0 TH +  X L +X TH 
R L  R TH + R L 2 +  X TH + X L 2 
 
Combining these results together, we get ZL = Z*TH
2 2 2
VTH RL 1 VTH 1 VTH
Pmax = = (if VTH is rms) Pmax = (if VTH is max. a mplitude)
2
4R L 4 RL 8 RL
MPT when ZL is restricted
(a) If RL and XL are restricted to a limited range of values, in this case the optimum
condition for MPT to the load is to adjust XL as near as possible to – XTH and then
adjust RL as close as possible to 2
R TH +  X L + X TH 
2

(b) If the magnitude of ZL can be varied but its phase angle cannot, then the MPT occurs
when the magnitude of ZL is set equal to the magnitude of ZTH. |ZL| = |ZTH|

Example 10-
10-3
5 a
j3 Ω
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find Ω
+ 20 Ω
(a) ZL for max. average power transferred - - j6 Ω ZL
20∟0o V
to the load (b) Pmax
b
Solution
a
After doing a series of source transformations, 4Ω j3 Ω +
o
16 0
VTH =  -j6  = 19.2-53.13 o + 16∟0o V
-
4 + j3 - j6 - j6 Ω VTH
= 11.52 - j15.36 V
-
b
Z TH =
 4 + j3  - j6  = 5.76 - j1.68  a
4 + j3 - j6 4Ω j3 Ω
ZL(MPT) = ZTH* = 5.67 + j1.68 Ω ZTH
- j6 Ω
2
1 19.2 
2
1 VTH
Pmax = = =8W
8 RL 8 5.76 b
 3 kΩ j4 kΩ
Example 10-
10-4 a
In the circuit shown in Fig., Find
RL
(a) ZL for max. average power transferred to the + 10∟0o V(rms)
-
load and Pmax in mW
j XC
(b) Repeat part (a) if RL is restricted between 0
and 4000 Ω and XC between 0 and -2000 Ω. b
3 kΩ j4 kΩ
a
Solution
(a) VTH = 10 ∟0o V (rms) , ZTH = 3 + j4 kΩ +
ZL(MPT) = ZTH* = 3 – j4 kΩ + 10∟0o V(rms) VTH
-
2
1 10 
2
1 VTH
Pmax = = = 8.33 mW
4 RL 4 3 -

(b) Because RL & XL are restricted, then set XL as close as possible to – XTH and the RL as b
2 2
close as possible to R TH +  XL + X TH 
j4 kΩ
3 kΩ a
XL = - 2000 Ω, and
2 2
RL = 3000 +  - 2000 + 4000  = 3605.55  IL 3.6055 kΩ
100 o + 10∟0o V(rms)
IL = = 1.4489 -16.85 o
mA -
 6.6055 + j2  x10 3 - j2 kΩ
PL = |IL|2RL = (1.4489x10-3)2(3.6055x103) = 7.57 mW
b
 CHAPTER--11
CHAPTER
Balanced Three-
Three-Phase Systems
In this chapter, we will discuss circuits that are designed to handle large blocks
of electric power. These are the circuits used to transport electric power from
the generating plants to both industrial and residential customers, and so called
Three-Phase
Three-Phase Systems, as shown in figure.
Line
Balanced Three-
Three-Phase Voltages
A set of balanced three-phase voltages Three- Three-
consists of 3 sinusoidal voltages that have
Phase Phase
identical amplitudes and frequencies but
Source Load
are out-of-phase with each other by 120o.
The three-phase voltages are referred to as
the a-phase voltage, the b-phase voltage, Vc
and the c-phase voltage. We always take
the a-phase as the reference phase.

There are two different phase relationships between the a-phase 120o Va
120o
voltage and the b-phase and the c-phase voltages:-
120o
(1) Positive phase sequence (abc)
In which the b-phase lags the a-phase by 120o, while the c-phase
Positive-phase
Positive-
leads the a-phase by 120o as shown in Fig.,
Sequence (abc
(abc))
Va = Vm ∟0o, Vb = Vm ∟-120o, Vc = Vm ∟+
∟+120
120o Vb
(2) Negative phase sequence (acb) Vb
In which the b-phase leads the a-phase by 120o, while the c-phase
lags the a-phase by 120o as shown in Fig.,
Va = Vm ∟0o, Vb = Vm ∟+
∟+120
120o, Vc = Vm ∟-120o 120o Va
One important and interesting characteristic of the set of 120o
balanced three-phase voltages is that there sum is zero 120o
Va + Vb + Vc = 0
Because the sum of the phasor voltages is zero, the sum of
Negative-phase
Negative-
the instantaneous voltages is also zero va + vb + vc = 0 Sequence (acb
(acb))
Three--Phase Voltage Sources
Three
Vc
A three-phase voltage source is a generator with three separate windings distributed
around the periphery of the stator. The phase windings are designed so that the sinusoidal
voltages induced in them are equal in amplitude and out-of-phase with each other by 120o,
for the balanced three-phase source (our point of interest during this study).
Y) or (∆) configurations.
There are two basic connections of a three-phase source: in either (Y
a a
Sometimes the internal + Va
impedance of each phase - Vc
- + Va
winding is so small that we do + -
not need to account for it in Vc n
modelling the generator. In - - Vb
+ + Vb
this case, the 3-phase voltage b
b -+
source is called Ideal source,
as shown in this figure. c
c
Ideal 3-
3-phase Y-
Y-source Ideal 3-
3-phase ∆-
∆-source
Generally, the impedance of each phase winding is not negligible, a
and an inductive impedance should be placed in series with the R
ideal sin. voltage source. For a balanced 3-phase source, the ω
internal impedances of the 3 phase voltages will be identical, as
shown in the following figure. a jXω
Because the 3-
phase sources R + Va + Va
- -
and loads can be ω
Vc
either Y- or ∆- jXω R - n - Vb
connected, the ω + +
jXω jXω
four different jXω
basic Vc - R
+
R ω
configurations are b b
-+ ω
shown in the R jXω Practical 3-
3-phase Y-
Y-source
following table: Vb c
ω
c
Practical 3-
3-phase ∆-
∆-source
A
A
Source Load ZA

Y Y

Y ∆ N
ZB B
∆ Y B

C C
∆ ∆
3-phase ∆-
∆-Load 3-phase Y-
Y-Load
Analysis of the Y-
Y-Y Circuit
a A
Zla
IaA
Zga
ZO ZA
Va’n + IO
-
b B
n -+ Zgb Zlb ZB N
Vb’n IbB
Vc’n -
+
ZC

Zgc
IcC
c C
Zlc

Source Line Load

In the circuit shown in the above Fig.,

Zga, Zgb, and Zgc represent the internal impedance of each phase winding of the generator.

Zla, Zlb, and Zlc represent the impedance of the 3-phase line connecting the source with
load

ZA, ZB, and ZC represent the impedance of each phase of the 3-phase Y- load.

ZO is the impedance of the line connecting the neutral point of the source with the neutral
line of the load and it is called the neutral line.

The above circuit can be described with a single node-voltage equation with the source
neutral point as the reference node and let VN denote the node voltage between n and N.
 VN VN - Va n VN - Vb n VN - Vc n
+ + + =0
, , ,

ZO Z ga +Z la +Z A Z gb +Z lb +ZB Z gc +Z lc +Z C
This is the general equation for any Y-Y configuration, but this equation can be
significantly simplified if we considered the formal definition of a balanced three-
phase system, which satisfies the following conditions:-
(1) The voltage sources form a set of balanced three-phase voltages, which means:-

Va’n + Vb’n + Vc’n = 0

(2) The internal impedance of each phase of the voltage source is the same;

Zga = Zgb = Zgc

(3) The impedance of each phase of the line is the same Zla = Zlb = Zlc
(4) The impedance of each phase of the load is the same ZA = ZB = ZC
 1 3  Va n + Vb n + Vc n
Applying these conditions on the above equation, we get VN  +  =
, , ,

 ZO Zφ  Zφ
 1 3  VN = 0 (because ZФ ≠ 0)
VN  +  =0
 ZO Zφ 
Then in the balanced Y-Y 3-phase system, the three line current are given as:-
Va n - VN Va n Vb n - VN Vb n Vc n - VN Vc n
IaA = IbB = IcC =
, , ,

= = =
, , ,

Z ga +Z la +Z A Zφ Z gb +Z lb +ZB Zφ Z gc +Z lc +Z C Zφ
From these equations, we can easily notice that the three line current are equal in
amplitude and out-of-phase by 120o with each other then, the three line currents
IaA, IbB, IcC set of balanced three-phase currents
In the balanced Y-Y 3-phase system, no current in the neutral line as IO = IaA+ IbB+ IcC = 0
Single--phase equivalent circuit
Single a’ a A
Zga Zla
In the balanced Y-Y 3-phase system, as
the impedances of the three phases are IaA
identical while the voltages and current + V ZA
form sets of balanced 3-phase voltages - a’n
and current, then we use a single-phase
equivalent circuit as shown in this figure.
We can solve this simple circuit and then n N
the voltages and currents in the other two
phases can be easily calculated by shifting the phase angles obtained by 120o and -120o
according to the phase sequence. A
+
Useful Definitions +
Line voltage
VAB VAN ZA
It is the voltage across any pair of lines (line-to-line) voltage.
-
In the shown here the three line voltages are:- VAB, VBC, VCA
- B -
Phase voltage VCA ZB N
+ + -
It is the voltage across a single phase (line-to-neutral) voltage. VBN
+
VAN, VBN, VCN VBC ZC
VCN
Line current

Refers to the current in each single line (IaA, IbB, IcC) +

-
Phase current C
Refers to the current in each single phase of the source or load
The line voltage can be calculated from the phase voltage as following:-
Let’s take the line-to-neutral voltage of the a-phase as a reference VAN = VФ∟0o then
VBN = VФ∟-120o and VCN = VФ∟120o (for +ve phase sequence, abc)
o o
VAB = VAN - VBN = Vφ 0 - Vφ -120 = 3Vφ 30 o
o o
VBC = VBN - VCN = Vφ   120 - Vφ 120 = 3Vφ   90 o
VCA = VCN - VAN = Vφ 120o - Vφ 0o = 3Vφ 150o
From the previous discussion we can conclude that
(1) The magnitude of the line voltage is 3 times the magnitude of the phase voltage.
(2) The three line voltages form a set of balanced three-phase voltages.
(3) The set of line voltages leads the set of phase voltages by 30o.
(4) The phase voltage can be calculated from the single-phase equivalent circuit, while
the line voltage can not, but we can calculate it from the phase voltage according to:-
Line Voltage =  Phase Voltage  330 o ( for +ve phase sequence)
(5) In the Y-connection the line current equals the phase current, while in the ∆-
connection the line voltage equals the phase voltage as we will see later on.

VCN VBC
VCA VAB
The shown phasor diagrams 30o
illustrate the relation between VBN
30o VAN
the line voltages and phase
voltages in a balanced system 30o
Figure-1 30o
VAN
VBN Figure-
Figure- 30o
(for +ve phase sequence, abc)
1 30o
Figure-2
VCA Figure-
Figure- VAB
(for -ve phase sequence, acb) VBC VCN 2
Important notes
(1) In the three-phase systems (this chapter), all values of voltages and currents
are given in rms values.
(2) The letter (Ф
Ф) is used to denote a per-phase quantity. Thus, VФ, IФ, ZФ, PФ, and
QФ are given as voltage/phase, current/phase, impedance/phase, power/phase,
and reactive power/phase.
Example 11-
11-1
The phase voltage at the terminals of a balanced 3-phase Y-connected load is 2400 V. the
load has an impedance of 16 + j12 Ω/Ф and is fed from a line having an impedance of 0.1 +
j0.8 Ω/Ф. The Y-connected source at the sending end of the line has a –ve phase sequence
(acb) and an internal impedance of 0.02 + j0.16 Ω/Ф. Use the a-phase voltage at the load as
the reference and calculate:-
(a) The line currents IaA, IbB, and IcC (b) The line voltages at the source, Vab, Vbc, and Vca
(c) The internal phase voltages at the source, Va’n, Vb’n, and Vc’n

Solution a’ 0.02 Ω j0.16 a 0.1 Ω j0.8 Ω A

Ω
(a) The three line currents are given as:- +
o o IaA
24000 24000 16 Ω
IaA = =
16 + j12 2036.87o + V 2400 ∟0o V
- a’n

= 120-36.87o A j12 Ω
For –ve phase sequence -
n N
IbB = 120 ∟83.13o A
IcC = 120 ∟-156.87o A
(b) To calculate the line voltages at the source end, we must first calculate the
external phase voltage at the source (Van)

 
Van = IaA 16.1 + j12.8  = 120-36.87o 20.56938.48o  2468.161.61o V

Vab = Van  
3  30o = 4275  28.38o V
Vbc = 4275∟91.62o V
Vca = 4275∟-148.38o V
(c) The three internal phase voltages of the source are given as:-

 
Va'n = IaA 16.12 + j12.96  = 120-36.87o 20.68438.8o  2482.051.93o V

Vb’n = 2482.05∟121.93o V
Vc’n = 2482.05∟-118.07o V
Analysis of the Y-
Y-∆ Circuit
If the load in a three-phase circuit is connected in ∆ A
form, it can be transformed into Y using the
transformation form discussed before. When the IaA ICA
three arms of the ∆-load are equal (Z∆), then the three
arms of the corresponding Y-load will be also equal
(Z∆/3).
IAB
ZY = Z∆ /3 IbB
After the –load has been transferred into Y, the shown Z∆ C
single-phase equivalent circuit (a-phase) can be used B
IcC IBC
for different voltages and currents calculations.
We use this circuit to calculate the line currents IaA, a’ a A
IbB, IcC and then we use these line current to calculate Zga Zla
the phase currents in each arm of the original ∆-load.
IaA
To demonstrate the relation between the line
+
currents and phase currents, let the magnitude of the - Va’n ZA

phase current Iϕ and assume +ve phase sequence.

IaA = VФ∟0o , IbB = VФ∟-120o , and IcC =
VФ∟120o n N
o o
IaA = IAB - ICA = Iφ 0 - Iφ 120 = 3Iφ   30o
o o
IbB = IBC - IAB = Iφ   120 - Iφ 0 = 3Iφ   150o
o o
IcC = ICA - IBC = Iφ 120 - Iφ   120 = 3Iφ 90o

Line current = Phase current  3  30o (for +ve phase sequence)

Then the three line currents of the Δ–load also form a set of balanced 3-phase currents.
Example 11-
11-2
A balanced 3-phase Y-connected source with +ve phase sequence has an impedance of
0.2 + j0.5 Ω/Ф and an internal voltage of 120 V/ϕ feeds a ∆–connected load through a
distribution line having an impedance of 0.3 + j0.9 Ω/Ф. The load impedance is 118.5 + j85.8
Ω/Ф. Use the a-phase internal voltage of the generator as the reference;
(a) Construct a single-phase eqv circuit. (b) Calculate The line currents IaA, IbB, and IcC
(c) Calculate the phase voltages at the load. (d) Calculate the phase currents of the load.
(e) The line voltages at the source terminals.

Solution a’ 0.2 Ω j0.5 Ω a 0.3 Ω j0.9 Ω A

(a)
IaA
(b) The three line currents are given as:- 39.5 Ω
1200o 1200o + 120∟0o V
IaA = = -
40 + j30 5036.87o j28.6 Ω
o
= 2.4-36.87 A
n N
For +ve phase sequence

IbB = 2.4 ∟-156.87o A IcC = 120 ∟83.13o A

(c) The phase voltage at the load is same as the line voltage (Δ) and to calculate the line
voltage, we must calculate VAN first;
 
VAN = IaA  39.5 + j28.6  = 2.4-36.87o 48.7735.9o  117.04-0.96o V
VAB = VAN  
330o = 202.7229.04o V , VBC = 202.72 ∟-90.96o and VCA=202.72 ∟149.04o
(d) The three phase currents of the load are given as:-
 1 
IAB = IaA  30o  = 1.39-6.87o A ,IBC = 1.39 ∟-126.87o A, ICA= 1.39 ∟113.13o A
 3 
The shown phasor diagrams illustrate the relation between the IcC
line currents and phase currents in a Δ–connected load.
Figure-1 (+ve phase sequence) & Figure-2 (-ve phase sequence)
ICA
IBC
IbB IaA 30o
Analysis of the Δ-Y Circuit 30o
IAB
In the Δ–Y circuit, the Δ–source is 30o IAB 30o
transformed into Y to obtain the 30o
equivalent Y-Y circuit. In this IbB IaA
Figure-
Figure-
transformation, the magnitude of the 30o
IBC 1
voltage of the source is divided by 3 ICA Figure-
Figure-
and the phase is lagged by 30o, while 2
the internal impedance of the source a
is divided by 3, as shown in figure. IcC IaA
Rω/3
IaA
a
jXω/
R + Vab’ 3
ω
-
b’ + Vab'   30o
- 3
jXω R Vca'
  30o Vbc'
ω
3 - n -   30o
Vca’ a’ + + 3
jXω
-
+ IbB jXω/ jXω/
c’ 3 3 IbB
c -+ Rω/3
R jXω bI Rω/3 b
Vbc’ cC
IcC
ω
c
Power Calculation in Balanced Three-
Three-Phase Circuits
In this section, we will start to discuss the power calculation for balanced 3-phase
system and we will start with the average power delivered to a balanced Y-load.
Average power in balanced Y- Y-load A
The average power associated with the a-phase in the shown Y-
IaA +
load is given by:-

PA = |VAN| |IaA| cos(θvA – θiA) VAN ZA

Where θvA and θiA are the phase angles of VAN and IaA.
B -
Similarly for the b-phase and c-phase:- ZB N
IbB VBN -
PB = |VBN| |IbB| cos(θvB – θiB) +
PC = |VCN| |IcC| cos(θvC – θiC) VCN ZC

In balanced 3-phase system

+
|VAN| = |VBN| = |VCN| = Vϕ
|IaA| = |IbB| = |IcC| = Iϕ IcC C

θvA – θiA = θvB – θiB = θvC – θiC = θϕ

In such system, the average power delivered to each phase of the load will be the same i.e.

PA = PB = PC = PФ = Vϕ Iϕ cosθϕ (PФ represents the average power per phase)

The total average power delivered to the balanced 3-phase Y-load will be
 VL 
PT = 3Pφ = 3VφIφ cosθφ = 3   IL cosθφ = 3VLIL cosθ φ
 3
Where VL & IL are the magnitudes of the line voltage and current respectively.
Complex power in balanced Y-
Y-load
By similar calculation we determine the reactive power associated with each
phase of the balanced Y-load to be:-
QФ = Vϕ Iϕ sinθϕ QT = 3QФ = 3 Vϕ Iϕ sinθϕ = VLIL sinθФ
Then the complex power of the balanced 3-phase Y-load will be

S φ = Pφ + jQ φ = VANI*aA = VBNI*bB = VCNI*cC = VφI*φ S T = 3S φ = o

3VLIL θφ
A
Power calculations in balanced ∆-load
+ -
The power calculations of a ∆-connected load will be the
same like the Y-load:-
VAB Z∆ IAB ICA
PA = |VAB| |IAB| cos(θvAB – θiAB)
PB = |VBC| |IBC| cos(θvBC – θiBC) - VCA
B Z∆
+
PC = |VCA| |ICA| cos(θvCA – θiCA)
For a balanced ∆-load VBC Z∆ IBC

|VAB| = |VBC| = |VCA| = Vϕ +

-
|IAB| = |IBC| = |ICA| = Iϕ
C
θvAB – θiAB = θvBC – θiBC = θvCA – θiCA = θϕ

PA = PB = PC = PФ = Vϕ Iϕ cosθϕ
 IL 
PT = 3Pφ = 3VφIφ cosθφ = 3VL   cosθφ = 3VLIL cosθ φ
 3
o
Also, QT = 3QФ = 3 Vϕ Iϕ sinθϕ = VLIL sinθФ and S T = 3S φ = PT + jQ T = 3VLIL θφ
Example 11-
11-3
A balanced 3-phase load requires 480 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8.
The is fed from a line having an impedance of 0.005 + j0.025 Ω/Ф. The line
voltage at the terminals of the load is 600 V.
(a) Construct a single-phase eqv circuit. (b) Calculate the magnitude of the line current
(c) Calculate the magnitude of the line voltage at the sending end of the line.
(d) Calculate the power factor at the sending end of the line.

Solution a 0.005 Ω j0.025 Ω A

(a) + IaA +
S 160 kW at
 I*aA = L
(b) SL = VANI*aA  600
VAN Van 0 V ZL 0.8 lag
0

3
3
160 + j120  10
I*aA = o
= 577.3536.87
o
A
346.410 - -
N
IaA = 577.35∟-36.87o A |IaA| = 577.35 A n

 0.050+j0.025   577.35-36.87o  =
600
(c) Van = VAN + ZlineIaA = 357.51 1.57 o V
3
Vab = 3 Van = 619.23 V

(d) S S /φ = S line /φ + S load /φ

2 3 o
=  577.35   0.005+j0.025  +  160 + 120  10 = 206.4138.44 kVA
pf = cos 38.44 = 0.783 Lagging
 CHAPTER--12
CHAPTER
Mutual Inductance
Introduction
The source of magnetic field is a current passing through an inductor. A time-varying
current induces a time-varying magnetic field and this field will produce a voltage in any
conductor linked by the field.
The induced voltage in any conductor is related to the time-varying current in the same
conductor by the inductance parameter which is known as the self-inductance (L);

v(t) = L di/dt
Now when a time-varying current in any circuit induces a time-varying magnetic field and
this field is linked to a second circuit it induces a voltage in the second circuit and this
voltage is related to the time-varying current in the first circuit by a parameter knows as
the mutual inductance (M).
Any two circuit linked by a magnetic field are said to be magnetically coupled and the
transformer is a device designed to take advantage of this magnetic (mutual) coupling.

Review of self
self--inductance
The concept of inductance can be traced to Michael Faraday who stated that a magnetic
field consists of lines of force surrounding the current carrying conductor. These line of
force act as energy-storing elastic bands that close upon themselves. As the current ↑ or ↓
the elastic bands spread and collapse about the conductor. The voltage induced in the
conductor is proportional to the no of lines that collapse into or cut the conductor.

v = dλ
dλ/dt
λ …… is called the flux linkage and is measured in Weber-turns.
The flux linkage is the product of the magnetic flux (ϕ
ϕ), measured in Weber (Wb
Wb),
and the number of turns (NN) λ = Nϕ
The magnitude of the flux (ϕ) is related to the coil current by:- ϕ = ρNi
ρ is the permeance of the space occupied by the flux and it is a quantity that
describes the magnetic properties of this space.

dλ d Nφ  d di di
v= = =N  ρNi = N2ρ = L L = N2ρ
dt dt dt dt dt
Mutual Inductance
It is the circuit parameter that relates the voltage induced in one circuit to the time-varying
current (magnetic field) in another circuit. This situation arises whenever a common
magnetic field links two circuits. The shown Fig., illustrates two magnetically- coupled
coils. The number of turns of the two coils are N1 & N2.
Coil-1 is energized by a current source that Ф2
1
establishes the current i1 in the N1 turns.
Coil-2 is left open. The two coils are wound on a + Ф1
magnetic core. No polarity assigned for v2. i v1
1 N2 v2
1 N1
The flux (ϕ
ϕ1) produced by i1 is divided into two Ф1
components:- - 1

ϕ11 …….. the component that links only N1. Ф2

1
ϕ21 …….. the component that links both N1and N2.
Φ1 = ϕ11 + ϕ21

Φ 1 = ρ 1N 1i1 , Φ11 = ρ11N1i1 and Φ21 = ρ21N1i1

ρ1 ………. is the permeance of the space occupied by ϕ1.
ρ11 ……… is the permeance of the space occupied by ϕ11.
ρ21 ……… is the permeance of the space occupied by ϕ21.
From the above equations we get ρ1 = ρ11 + ρ21
Now we use Faraday’s law to derive expressions for v1 and v2:-
dλ1 d  N1φ1  d di di di
v1 = = = N1  φ11+φ21  = N12  ρ11+ρ21  1 = N12ρ1 1 = L1 1
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dλ 2 d  N2 φ21  d di di
v2 = = = N2  ρ21N1i1  = N1N2ρ21 1 = M21 1
dt dt dt dt dt
L1 ……
…….. Is the self-inductance of coil-1
M21 = N1N2ρ21 ………
……….. Is the mutual-inductance between coil-1 and coil-2, which
relates the voltage induced in coil-2 to current flowing in coil-1.
Now if the situation is reversed, i.e. a time-varying current source is connected to coil-2,
leaving coil-1 open, as shown in this Fig. Ф1
The total flux linking coil-2 is :- 2

+
ϕ2 = ϕ22 + ϕ12 Ф2 Ф2
ϕ2 = ρ2N2i2, V1 N1 2 2 V2 i2
N2
ϕ22 = ρ22N2i2 -
and ϕ12 = ρ12N2i2 Ф1
2
Now the voltages v2 and v1 will be given by:-
 dλ 2 di2 di2
v2 = = N22ρ2 = L2 and
dt dt dt
dλ12 d N1φ12  di2 di2
v1 = = = N1N2ρ12 = M12
dt dt dt dt
L2 ……
…….. Is the self-inductance of coil-2
M12 = N1N2ρ12 ………
……….. Is the mutual-inductance between coil-2 and coil-1, which
relates the voltage induced in coil-1 to current flowing in coil-2.

For nonmagnetic materials the permeance ρ12 and ρ21 are equal, then

M12 = M21 = M
Mutual Inductance in terms of self-
self-inductance
L1 = N12ρ1 and L2 = N22ρ2
L1L2 = N12N22ρ1 ρ2 L1L2 = N12N22(ρ11 + ρ21)(
)(ρρ22 + ρ12)

2 ρ  ρ  2 ρ  ρ 
L1L 2 = N1N2ρ12   1+ 11  1+ 22  = M  1+ 11  1+ 22 
 ρ12  ρ12   ρ12  ρ12 

1  ρ11  ρ22  M2
= K 2
L1L2  M = K L1L2
Let 2
=  1+  1+ 
K  ρ12  ρ12 
K is called the Coefficient of coupling and 0  K  1
K = 0 if the two coils have no common flux, when ϕ12 = ϕ21 = 0 and this implies that ρ12=0
=0..
obviously if there is no flux linkage between the two coils, M = 0.

K = 1 if all the flux that links coil-1 also links coil-2, i.e. ϕ11 = ϕ22 = 0 and this implies that
ρ11= ρ22 = 0. Then M = L1L2
Polarity of the mutually induced voltages (Dot Convention)
The polarities of the mutually induced voltages are determined by a method
known as the Dot convention.
convention In this method, a dot is placed in one terminal of
each coil. These dots carry the sign information regarding the mutually induced
voltages. The possible markings of these dots are shown in the following Fig.
M M M M

L L L L L L L L
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) The use of the Dot markings in the circuit analysis
The easiest way to analyze circuits containing mutual inductance is the mesh-current
method. During writing down the MCM equations, the signs of the mutually-induced voltages
are set according to the following rules:-

(1) When the reference direction of a current is Entering the Dotted terminal of a
certain coil, then the reference polarity of the mutually-induced voltage in the other coil,
due to this current is Positive (+ve) at the Dotted terminal.

(2) When the reference direction of a current is Leaving the Dotted terminal of a certain
coil, then the reference polarity of the mutually-induced voltage in the other coil, due to this
current is Negative (-(-ve) at the Dotted terminal.
As shown in the following figure.
 R1 R1
M M
- + i2
i1 - +
+ V di2 di1 di2
M L1 L2 M
di1 R
Vg + i1 L1 L2 i2 R2
- g
dt dt dt dt
2
-
L1 L2 + -
+ -

For the Primary Mesh For the Secondary Mesh

di di di di
-Vg + i1R1 + L1 1 - M 2 = 0 i2R 2 + L2 2 - M 1 = 0
dt dt dt dt
(b) The Procedure for determining Dot Markings
Assume that we have two magnetically-coupled coils with the physical arrangement of the
two coils is known, the dot markings can be determined according to the following steps:-
(1) Select one terminal of one coil and give it a
Dot (ex. “D”)
(2) Assign a current into the selected dotted
terminal and label it iD.
(3) Use the right-hand rule to determine the
direction of the magnetic field established by
iD inside the coupled coils and label it ϕD.
(4) Select one terminal of other coil and assign
a current into this terminal, showing the current
(as “iA”)
(5) Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field
established by iA inside the coupled coils and label it ϕA.
(6) Compare the directions of the two fluxes ϕD and ϕA. If the fluxes have the
same reference direction, place a Dot on the terminal of the second coil where the
test current (iA ) enters (D
D). If the fluxes have different reference direction, place a
Dot on the terminal of the second coil where the test current (iA ) leaves (B
B).
Example 12-
12-1
4H
For the circuit shown in Fig., write down the
mesh-current equations describing the circuit,
i2
and calculate the coefficient of coupling “k”.
8Ω 4.5 H
Solution
For Mesh (1) 6Ω

d di
Vg = 8  i1 - i2  + 9 i1 - i3  - 4.5 2 Vg +
i1 9H i3 20 Ω
dt dt -
For Mesh (2)
di 2 d
0=4 + 4.5 i - i  + 6 i2 - i3  + 8 i2 - i1 
dt dt 1 3
For Mesh (3)
d di
0=9 i3 - i1  + 4.5 2 + 6  i3 - i2  + 20i3
dt dt
M 4.5
k= = = 0.75
L1L 2 9x4
Energy Calculations
The total energy stored in two magnetically- M
coupled coils is given by:-
+ i1 i2 +
W(t) = ½ L1i12 + ½ L2i2 ± i1i2 M
2

V1 L1 L2 V2

- -

In the third term use the plus sign if the coil currents i1, i2 are both entering or leaving
the dot-marked terminal, otherwise use the negative sign.
Linear Transformer
The linear transformer is simply two coils that are wound on a single core to
ensure magnetic coupling. Word linear means that the winding are wound on
core of nonmagnetic material which ensure linear relationship between the
magnetic flux and the winding current.
Now we will analyze the sinusoidal steady-state response of the linear transformer and see
how it affects the relationship between the load and source.
This figure shows the frequency-domain circuit model of the linear transformer connecting
the source, VS, with the impedance load, ZL. In this circuit, the transformer winding
connected to the Source is called the Primary winding
winding, while the winding connected to the
Load is called the Secondary winding
winding, based on this terminology, the transformer
parameters are:-
a R1 R2 c
ZS jωM
I2
I1
VS + jω L 1 ZL
- jω L 2

b d
Source Load
R1 ……
…….. The resistance of the primary winding. Linear Transformer

R2 ……
…….. The resistance of the secondary winding.
L1 ……
…….. The self-inductance of the primary winding.
L1 ……
…….. The self-inductance of the secondary winding.
M ……
…….. The mutual inductance.
VS ……
…….. The internal voltage of the sinusoidal source.
ZS ……
…….. The internal impedance of the source.
ZL ……
…….. The load impedance.
I1 ……
…….. The phasor current of the primary winding.
I2 ……
…….. The phasor current of the secondary winding.
The analysis of the linear transformer circuit consists of finding I1 and I2 as a function of
the circuit parameters VS, ZS, R1, R2, L1, L2, M, ZL, and ω.

Now the two mesh current equations describing the circuit are:-

For the primary side VS = (ZS + R1 + jωL1)I1 – jωMI2

For the secondary side 0 = – jωMI1 + (ZL + R2 + jωL2)I2
Let Z11= ZS + R1 + jωL1 and Z22= ZL+ R2 + jωL2
Then VS = Z11I1 – jωMI2 and 0 = – jωMI1 + Z22I2
Solving these two equations together, we get

Z22 jωM jωM

I1 = VS and I2 = VS = I
Z11Z22 + ω2M2 Z11Z22 + ω2M2 Z22 1

VS Z11Z22 + ω2M2 ω2M2

The input impedance of the of the circuit Zint = = = Z11 +
I1 Z22 Z22

Zab = Zint - ZS
ω2M2 ω2M2
Zab = Z11 + - ZS = R1 + jωL1 +
Z22 R 2 + jωL 2 + ZL
Reflected Impedance

ω2M2
Zab = R1 + jωL1 +
R2 + jωL 2 + ZL
The third term in this equation is called the reflected impedance (Zr). It is the equivalent
impedance of the secondary coil and load impedance transmitted, or reflected, to the
primary side of the transformer.
ω2M2
Let the load impedance be in the form ZL = RL + jXL Zr =
R2 + jωL 2 + RL + jωXL
ω2M2 ω2M2 R 2 + RL  - j  ωL 2 + XL  
Zr = =
R2 + RL + j  ωL2 + XL  R 2 + RL 2 +  ωL2 + XL 2
ω2M2 ω2M2
Zr = 2
R 2 + RL  - j  ωL 2 + XL   = 2
Z*22
Z22 Z22

Thus, the linear transformer reflects the conjugate of the impedance of the secondary side
into the primary side with the factor ω2M2 / |Z22|2 and this factor is called the scaling
factor.
Obviously, if no mutual coupling between the two coils (M = 0), Zr = 0
Example 12
12--2
The parameters of a certain linear transformer are R1 = 200 Ω, R2 = 100 Ω, L1 = 9
H, L2 = 4 H and k = 0.5. The transformer couples an impedance of 800 Ω resistor
in series with a 1 μF capacitor to a sinusoidal voltage source. The 300 V (rms)
source has an internal impedance of 500 + j100 Ω and frequency of 400 rad/S
rad/S.
(a) Construct a frequency domain eqv circuit of this system.
(b) Calculate the self-impedance of the primary circuit.
(c) Calculate the self-impedance of the secondary circuit.
(d) Calculate the impedance reflected into the primary winding.
(e) Calculate the scaling factor of the reflected impedance.
(f) Calculate the impedance seen looking into the primary terminals of the transformer.
(g) Calculate the rms value of the primary and secondary currents.
(h) Calculate the rms value of the voltage at the terminals of the source & load.
(i) Calculate the average power delivered to the 800 Ω.
(j) What is the % of the average power delivered to the transformer is delivered to 800 Ω.
Solution
(a) jωL1 = j3600 Ω, jωL2 = j1600 Ω, M = 0.5 (9*4)1/2 = 3 H, jωM = j1200 Ω, 1/j
/jωωC = -j2500 Ω

(b) Z11 = 500 +j

+j100
100 + 200 + j3600 = 700 + j3700 Ω

(c) Z22 = 100 +j

+j1600
1600 + 800 – j2500 = 900 – j900 Ω
1200 8
(d) Zr =  900 - j900  =  900 + j900  = 800 + j800 Ω
900-j900 9
 500 + j100 Ω
a 200 Ω 100 Ω c
ZS j1200 Ω

I2
I1 800 Ω
+ j3600 Ω
- j1600 Ω
300 ∟0o
V (rms) -j2500 Ω
b d
Source Load
Linear Transformer

(e) Scaling factor = 8 / 9

(f) Zab = 200 + j3600 +800 + j800 = 1000 + j4400 Ω
o
(g) I = VS 3000
1 = = 20 - j60 = 63.25-71.57 mA (rms)
ZS  Zab 1500 + j4500
jωM j1200
I2 = I1 =  20-j60  = 59.6363.43
o
mA (rms)
Z 22 900-j900
(h) V2 = (800 – j2500
2500)I
)I2 = 156.
156.52 ∟-8.82o V (rms)
V1 = ZabI1 = (1000 – j4400
4400)I
)I1 = 285
285..38 ∟5.63o V (rms)

(i) P800
800ΩΩ = (800
800)|I
)|I22| = 2.84 W

(h) Pab = (1000

1000)|I
)|I12| = 4.00 W ή = 2.84 / 4.00 x100 = 71.
71.11 %
Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer consists of two magnetically coupled coils of N1 and N2
turns respectively. There are three basic properties of the ideal transformer:-

(1) The coefficient of coupling is unity (k = 1).

(2) Infinite self-inductance of each coil (L1 = L2 = ∞).
(3) The coils are lossless (R1 = R2 = 0 ) jωM

i1 +
Determining the voltage and current ratios
From Fig., (a) + V jωL jωL V2
- 1
1
V2 = jwMI1 but I1 = V1 / jwL1 then N1 2
N2

V2 = (M / L1)V1 -
(a)
For unity coupling coeff. M = L1L2
jωM
Then L2
V2 = V1
L1 i1
i2
For k = 1, the flux linking winding 1 is the + jωL jωL
V1
same as the flux linking winding 2, so we - 1
need only one permeance to describe the N1 2
N2
self-inductance of each winding:-
N2
2 ρ N2 V1 V (b)
V2 = V1 = V  = 2
N12 ρ N1 1 N1 N2
I1 L L2 L2 N
From Fig., (b) 0 = - jwMI1 + jwL2I2 = 2 = = = 2 I1N1 = I2N2
I2 M L1L2 L1 N1
Polarity of the voltage and current ratios
The polarities of the voltage and current ratios of the ideal transformer are assigned
according to the following rules:-
+ N1 N2 + + N1 N2 +
(1) For the voltage ratio
v1 i1 i2 v2 v1 i1 i2 v2
If the coil voltages V1, V2 are
both +ve or –ve at the dot-
- Ideal - - Ideal -
marked terminal, use a plus
sign in the voltage ratio, v1 v2
= i1N1 = - i2N2 v1 v2
otherwise use negative sign. N1 N2 =- i1N1 = i2N2
N1 N2
(2) For the current ratio (a) (b)

If the coil currents I1, I2 are N1 N2 N1 N2

+ + + +
both entering or leaving the
dot-marked terminal, use a
negative sign in the current v1 i1 i2 v2 v1 i1 i2 v2
ratio, otherwise use plus sign.
- Ideal - - Ideal -
The four circuits shown here
illustrate these rules. v1 v2 v1 v2
= i1N1 = i2N2 =- i1N1 = - i2N2
N1 N2 N1 N2
(c) (d)
The turns ratio “a” is an important parameter of the ideal + 1 : a +
transformer and it is defined as either N1/N2 or N2/N1. in this
study:- a = N2 / N1 and this case v i1 v2
1 i2
1
V1 = V2 and I1 = a I2 Ideal -
a -
Example 12
12--3
In the circuit shown in Fig., find the average power
delivered by the source and P20Ω.
Solution
In the ideal transformer problem, we always 4 : 1
have four eqns in the four unknowns (v1, v2, i1,
and i2). The eqns are two of the mesh current
and two of the ideal transformer
transformer..
For Mesh (1)
5 ∟0o Ideal
300 = 60I1 + V1 + 20(I1 – I2) ………. (1) 40 Ω
A (rms) 60 Ω
For Mesh (2)
0 = 20(I2 – I1) + V2 + 40I2 ………….. (2)
20 Ω
For the ideal transformer
V2 = ¼ V1 ………. (3) and
I2 = - 4I1 …………. (4)

60 Ω + 4 : 1
Solving these eqns together, we get
get;; +
V1 = 260 V (rms), V2 = 65 V (rms)
V1 V2
I1 = 0.25 A (rms), I2 = -1 A (rms)
V5A = V1 + 20
20(I
(I1 – I2) = 285 V (rms) 300 ∟0o + - Ideal -
V (rms) - 40 Ω
P5A = - (285
285)(
)(55) = 1425 W (delivered)
I1 I2
P20Ω = (I1 – I2) (20
20Ω
2 20)=
)= 31
31..25 W (absorbed) 20 Ω
The use of ideal transformer in impedance matching
Finally, the ideal transformer can be used to raise or lower the impedance level of the load.
In the circuit shown in this Fig., the ZS
impedance seen by the practical source + 1 : a +
is given by:-
V1 1 V2
ZIN = = VS +- v1 i1 i2 v2 ZL
I1 a2 I2
But the ratio V2/I2 is the load impedance, - Ideal -
ZL, so 1
ZIN = 2
ZL
a
Notes
►The ideal transformer’s secondary coil reflects the load impedance back into the primary
side with the scaling factor 1 / a2 .

►The ideal transformer changes the magnitude of ZL and doesn’t affect its phase angle
angle.

►The ideal transformer can be used to match the magnitude of ZL to the magnitude of ZS,
maximizing the average power transferred from the source to the load.

Example 12
12--4 10 Ω a
a1 c a2
Find the average power delivered to 1 : 2.5 1 : 4
the 4 kΩ resistor in the circuit shown.
100 ∟0o +
Solution 4 kΩ
V (rms) -
1 1
Z cd = ZL Z ab = Z cd
a22 a12 b Ideal d Ideal

2
 1  1   1  1  4 k = 40   100  40 = 160 W
Z ab =    ZL =    P4k  = P40 =  
2 2
a a
 1  2   16  6.25   10+40 
Equivalent circuits for magnetically coupled coils
R1 R2
Any two mutually-coupled coils can be M
replaced by a set of coils that do not involve +
magnetic coupling between each other. i1 + i2
Consider the magnetically-coupled coils shown v1 L1 L2 v
2
in Fig., the terminal voltages v1, v2 are related
to the terminal currents i1, i2 as follows:- - -
di1 di 2 di1 di 2
v 1 = L1 + M and v 2 = M + L2
dt dt dt dt
R1 L 1- M L 2- M R2
The T-equivalent Circuit
The two magnetically coupled coils can + +
be replaced by three coils in the T-shape i1 i2
without any coupling between them as v1 M v2
shown in this Fig.
The π-equivalent Circuit - -
The two magnetically coupled coils can
be replaced by three coils in the π-shape R1 R2
without any coupling between them as
shown in this Fig. + L1L 2 - M
2
+
i1 i2
Note v1 M
v2
The two magnetically coupled coils
- -

2 2
L1L 2 - M L1L 2 - M
L2 - M L1 - M
Example 12
12--5
In the linear transformer circuit shown in this Fig. the transformer parameters are:-
R1 = 100 Ω, L1 = 0.5 H, R2 = 40
Ω, L2 = 0.125 H, and k = 0.4. a R1 R2 c
ZS jωM
The load is 360 Ω resistor in
series with 0.25 H inductor. I2
I1
The source has an internal + jω L 1 jω L 2 ZL
impedance of 184 + j0 Ω and -
max. voltage of 245.2 V at 600 VS
rad/S.
b d
Use the T-Eqv circuit to find the
phasor currents i1 and i2. Source Load
Linear Transformer
Solution
184+j0 Ω j320 Ω j20 Ω
M = 0.4(0.5x0.125)
125)1/2 = 0.1 H 100 Ω V1 40 Ω
ZS
ω(L1 – M) = 800 x 0.4 = 320 Ω
ω(L2 – M) = 800 x 0.025 = 20 Ω i1 i2 360 Ω
+ 245.2 V j80 Ω
ωM = 800 x 0.1 = 80 Ω -
ωLload = 800 x 0.25 = 200 Ω j200 Ω

Applying NVM
V1 -245.2 V1 V1
+ + =0 V1 = 32 + j 17.
17.6 V = 36.
36.52
52∟
∟28
28..1o V
284 + j320 j80 400 + j220

245.2 - V1 V1 o
I1 = = 500-53.13
o
mA I2 = = 800 mA
284 + j320 400 + j220
 CHAPTER--13
CHAPTER
The Laplace Transform in Circuit Analysis
Introduction
The Laplace transform is a powerful analytical technique that is widely used to study the
behaviour of linear, lumped-parameter circuits excited by sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal
sources. The Laplace transform is significant for a number of reasons:-

(1) It can be applied to a wider variety of inputs than phasor analysis.

(2) It provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial conditions
conditions, because it
allows us to work with algebraic equations instead of differential equations.

(3) The transient behaviour of circuits, whose describing equations consist of multiple
node-voltage or mesh-current differential equations, can be considered.

(4) The Laplace transform is capable of providing us, in one single operation, the total
response of the circuit comprising both the natural and step responses
responses.
Definition of Laplace transform
The Laplace transform is an integral transformation of a function f (t) from the
time domain into the complex frequency domain, giving F(s)
F(s).

Where the symbol ʆ[f(t)]

f(t)] is read “ the Laplace transform of f(t), denoted F(s).
Steps of circuit analysis using Laplace transform
(1) Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain and this step
includes all the circuit components (sources, resistors, inductors, or
capacitors)..
capacitors)
(2) Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis technique
technique..
(3) Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the
time domain
domain..
Steps (1) and (3) will be discussed here, while step (2) is not new and we are
familiar with all of circuit solution methods studied before many times
times..
Laplace Functional Transforms

Time--domain f(t)
Time Frequency s-
s-domain F(s)
(1) Impulse Function δ(t)
1

1
(2) Step Function u(t)
s
More on Functional Transforms
f(t) F(S) f(t) F(S)
Exponential 1 Ramp 1
e-at s+a t s2
Damped ramp 1 Damped Cosine s+a
t e-at  s + a 2 e-at cos ωt  s+a 2 + ω2
Sine ω Shifted Sine s sinθ+ωcosθ
sin ωt s2 + ω2 sin (ω
(ωt + θ) s2 + ω2
Cosine s Shifted Cosine s cosθ-ωsinθ
cos ωt s2 + ω2 cos (ω
(ωt + θ) s2 + ω2
Damped Sine ω Damped nth order n!
e-at sin ωt  s+a 2 + ω2 tn e-at  s + a n+1
Properties of Laplace Transform (operational
(operational transforms)
transforms)
Property f(t) F(S)
Multiply By constant Kf(t) KF(s)
Linearity a1f1(t) ± a2f2(t) a1F1(s) ± a2F2(s)
Scaling f(at) 1/a F(s/a)
Time Shift f(t--a)
f(t e-asF(s)
Frequency Shift e-atf(t) F(s--a)
F(s
df /dt sF(s) – f(0-)
Time
d2f /dt2 s2F(s) – sf(0-) – f′(0-)
differentiation
dnf /dtn snF(s) – sn-1f(0-) – sn-2f′(0-) – ….. – f(n
(n--1)(0-)

Time Integral t
 f(t) dt
1/s F(s)
0
Freq. differentiation t f(t) - d/ds F(s)

Frequency Integral f(t) / t  F(s) ds
s
Time Periodicity f(t + nT) F1(s) / (1 – e-sT)
Initial Value f(0+) lim sF(s)
s 
Final Value f(∞) lim sF(s)
s 0
Convolution f1(t)*f1(t) F1(s)F2(s)
Circuit Elements in the S-
S-domain
In this section, we study the Current-Voltage (I-V) relations in the basic circuit
elements (R, L, C) in S-domain.
R
(a)A Resistor in the SS--domain
+ V -
In the time-domain v = iR
I
In the S-domain v} = R ʆ{i}
ʆ{v} i} V = IR
(b)An Inductor in the S
S--domain
In the time-
time-domain In the S-
S-domain
v = L di / dt v} = L ʆ{di/dt}
ʆ{v} i/dt} V = L{sI – i(0-)}
V I
a V = sLI - LI0  I = + 0
+ a sL s
+ a
i I
sL +
v L I
sL V I0/s
V -
-
- b + LI0
b
- b
(c) A Capacitor in the S-
S-domain
In the time-
time-domain In the S-
S-domain
i = C dv / dt i} = L ʆ{dv/dt}
ʆ{i} v/dt} I = C{sV – v(0-
a )} I V
+ I = sCV - CV0  V= + 0
i sC s
+ a
a
I
v
C 1/sC
+ I
1/sC V CV0
- b V
- + V /
- s0
b
Inverse Laplace Transform - b
After the circuit has been solved in the s-domain, the final solution (required
voltage or current) should be transformed back into the time domain and this
can be done using the inverse Laplace transform. ʆ-1[F(s)] = f(t)

N(s)
F(s) =
D(s)
where N(s) is the numerator polynomial and D(s) is the denominator polynomial. The roots
of N(s ) = 0 are called the zeros of F(s), while the roots of D(s) = 0 are the poles of F(s).
The inverse Laplace transform for any function can be achieved in the following two steps:-
(1) Decompose F(s) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion.
(2) According the nature of the poles of F(s), find the inverse of each term by matching
entries in the following table.

No Nature of Roots F(S) f(t)

1 Real & Distinct K Ke-at u(t)
s+a
2 Real & Repeated K K te-at u(t)
 s + a 2
3 Complex & Distinct K K* 2|K|e-αt cos(
cos(β
βt+
t+θ
θ)u(t)
+
s + α - jβ s + α + jβ
4 Complex & Repeated K K* 2t|K|e-αt
+
 s + α - jβ 2  s + α + jβ 2 cos(β
cos(βt+
t+θ
θ)u(t)
Initial- and Final
Initial- Final--Value Theorems
Initial- and final-value theorems are useful in estimating the behaviour of f(t)
from F(s) at 0 and ∞.
The initial-
initial-value theorem
lim f(t) = lim sF(s)
t  0+ s  

The final-
final-value theorem lim f(t) = lim sF(s)
t   s  0
Note
All circuit analysis techniques studied before (KVL, KCL, NVM, MCM, ....... etc.)
can be used for circuit solution in the s-domain.
Example 13
13--1
In the circuit shown in Fig., the sin. voltage source vg = 50tu(t)
50tu(t) V. There is no
initial energy stored in the inductor or the capacitor. Find the steady-state
expression for vo. 1000 Ω
Solution +
250 Ω
vg +- 1 µF vO
50 mH
-
1000 Ω

+
250 Ω
Vg(s) +- 106 / s VO(s)
0.05s
-
Example 13
13--2
Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig., assuming zero initial conditions.
Solution 1Ω 5Ω
The first step is to transfer the circuit into the +
s-domain: u(t) +- 1/3 F 1H vO(t)
Source ( u(t) ) 1/s
-
Capacitor ( 1/3 F ) 3/s
inductor ( 1 H ) s
Applying the MCM to the s-domain circuit: 1Ω 5Ω

1 3 3 +

=  1 +  I1 - I2 .... .. .. (1)
s  s s I1 3/s I2 s VO(s)
1/s +-
3  3
0=- I1 +  s + 5 +  I2 ........ (2)
-
s  s
1 2
OR I1 =
3
 
s + 5s + 3 I2 ........ (3)
1 31 3
Substituting from (3) into (1)
s

 s3

=  1 +  s2 + 5s + 3 I2 - I2
s

3
Multiplying by 3/s 
3 = s3 + 8s 2 + 18s I2   I2 = 3
s + 8s 2 + 18s
3 3 2
The output voltage VO  s  = sI2 = 2 =
 
2
s + 8s + 18 2  s + 4 2 + 2
3
Taking the inverse transform vO t  = e -4t sin 2t V
2
Example 13
13--3
Find vo(t) in the circuit of Fig., assuming vo(0) = 5 V.
Solution 10
Ω
The first step is to transfer the +
circuit into the s-domain: vO(t)
10e-tu(t) V +- 10 Ω 0.1 F 2δ(t) A
Source 10e u(t)
-t 10/(s+1)
-
Capacitor ( 0.1 F ) 1/sC + CVO
Source 2 δ(t) 2 10 VO(s)
Ω
Applying the NVM to the s-domain
circuit:
10/(s+1) +- 10 Ω 10/s 2A
0.5 A
10/  s+1 - VO V VO
+ 2 + 0.5 = O +
10 10 10/s
1 2VO sVO 10
+ 2.5 = + 
 + 25 = VO  s + 2 
 s+1 10 10  s+1
25s + 35 K1 K2 10 15
VO = = + = +
 s + 1 s + 2   s + 1  s + 2   s + 1  s + 2 
Taking the inverse Laplace transform  
v O  t  = 10e -t + 15e -2t u(t ) V
 Example 13
13--4
The switch in the circuit shown in Fig., has been closed for a long time. at t = 0
it opens;
(a) Construct the s-domain equivalent circuit for t ≥ 0.
5 mH 12.5 Ω
(b) Find VO(s).
25 Ω 25 Ω
(C) Find vO(t) For t ≥ 0.
Solution 20 Ω +
+
For t ≤ 0
15 Ω 50 µF v0
[12.5 Ω + 25 Ω] ║25 Ω = 15 Ω 300 V +-
--
iL(0-) = iL(0+) = IO = - 300 / 50 = -6 A t=0

vC(0+) = vC(0-) = VO = 300 + 20IO = 180 V

12.5 Ω
15 Ω
IO 25 Ω 25 Ω
20 Ω +
+ 20 Ω +
15 Ω VO
15 Ω VO
300 V +- -- 300 V +- --
For t ≥ 0 [25 Ω + 25 Ω] ║12.5 Ω = 10 Ω

0.005s 12.5 Ω 0.005s 10 Ω

+- +- +
+
IOL = 0.03 25 Ω 25 Ω 0.03 V
+
+ 20,000/s
20,000/s VO(s)
15 Ω VO(s) 15 Ω I
VO/s = 120/s +- 120/s +-

- -

Applying KVL
 20,000  120
0.03 + I  0.005s + 25 +  + =0
 s  s
-  0.03s + 120  -  6s + 24,000 
I= I=
0.005s2 + 25s + 20,000 s 2 + 5000s + 4x10 6

I 120 20,000   -  6s + 24,000   120

VO  s  = + =   2  +
sc s  s   s + 5000s + 4x10 6  s

120 s(s + 4000) 120

VO  s  = =
s(s + 1000)(s + 4000) s + 1000

v O  t  = 120 e -1000t u(t) V

 CHAPTER--14
CHAPTER
Frequency Selective Circuits
Introduction
In the sinusoidal circuit analysis discussed up to now, the frequency of the sin. source was
held constant. In this chapter we study the effect of varying the frequency of the source
while the amplitude will be constant. The result of this analysis is known as the frequency
response of the circuit.
Thus, the frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its behaviour with changing the
frequency source signal.
Although varying the frequency of the source does not change the circuit elements’ type or
their connection, it changes the impedance of the inductors and capacitors. So, the careful
selection of the circuit elements, their values and connections to the other elements, will
enable us to construct circuits that pass to the output only the input signals that fall in a
desired range of frequency. Such circuits are called Frequency Selective Circuits or Filters
Filters.

Transfer Function
The transfer function H(jω) (also called the network function) is a useful analytical tool for
finding the frequency response of a circuit. In fact, the frequency response of a circuit is the
plot of the its transfer function H(jω) versus ω, with ω varying from ω = 0 → ∞.

The transfer function

function, H(s), of a circuit is the s-domain ratio
of a output Y(s) (an element voltage or current) to a input Linear
X(s) (source voltage or current). X(s) Network Y(s)

Y(s) Y(jω) I/P H(s) O/P

H(s) = OR H(jω) =
X(s) X(jω)
In the frequency selective circuits, the signals passed from the input to the output fall
within a band of frequencies called the passband. Input signals outside this band have
their magnitudes attenuated by the circuit and will not pass to the output (rejected) and
they fall within a band of frequencies called the stopband.

The frequency response plot of a circuit shows how the transfer function of this circuit
H(jω) changes as the frequency of the source changes. This plot has two parts. One is a
graph of |H(jω)| versus frequency which is called the magnitude plot. The other part is a
graph of θ(jω) versus frequency which is known as the phase angle plot.

Types of Filters |H(jω) |H(jω)

| 1 | 1
Passband Stopband Stopband Passband

θ(jω ωC ω θ(jω ωC ω
) 0o θ(jω
) C
)

θ(jωC 0o (b)
) (a)
There are four major categories of filters as shown in Fig. Parts (a), (b) illustrate the ideal
low--pass and high
low high--pass filters. Both filters have one passband and one stopband
separated by which called cut
cut--off frequency (ωC).
The low-pass filter (LPF) passes frequencies lower than ωC, while the high-pass filter (HPF)
passes frequencies higher than ωC. So, the terms low and high refer to relative values of
frequencies w.r.t ωC.
 |H(jω) |H(jω)
| 1 | 1

Stopband Passband Stopband Passband Stopband Passband

θ(jω ωC2 θ(jω ωC1 ωC2 ω

ωC1 ω
) C1)
θ(jω ) C1)
θ(jω

0o 0o

θ(jωC2 θ(jωC2 (d)

(c)
) )
Parts (c), (d) illustrate the ideal band
band--pass and band
band--stop filters. Both filters have two cut-
off frequencies ωC1 & ωC2 .
The band-pass filter (BPF) passes frequencies within the band defined by ωC1 and ωC2 while
the band-stop filter (BSF) rejects frequencies within ωC1 and ωC2.

Low Pass Filter (LPF

LPF))
In this section we will discuss two simple circuits that act as LPF, the series RL
and series RC circuits and discover the chst of each circuit determining the cut
of frequency.
(1) Series RL LPF L

In the series RL circuit shown in Fig., the input is a

+
sinusoidal voltage source with varying frequency, while
the output is taken across the resistor. We convert the Vi + R vo
-
circuit into the frequency domain and start to study its
behaviour when ω goes 0 → ∞. V  jω  -
R
H  jω  = o =
At ω = 0 Vi  jω  jωL + R jω L
At DC and very low frequencies (ωL<<R), then Vo(j (jω
ω) ≈ Vi(j
(jω
ω)
At ω = ∞ +
At very high frequencies (ωL>>R), then Vo(j (jω
ω) ≈ 0
Vi(jω) +- Vo(jω) R
At Intermediate frequencies
As ω ↑ ZL (jωL) ↑, and Vo(jω) ↓ as shown in Fig,.
-
Magnitude plot + Phase angle plot = Frequency response plot
The cut
cut--off Frequency
Ideal
In the realistic filter circuits, there is no identified
single frequency that divides the passband and Real

stopband so, the cut-off frequency is defined as the

frequency at which the magnitude of the transfer
function is decreased by 1 / 2 from its maximum
value.
1
H  jω c  = HMax
2
The cut-off Frequency can be defined by alternative way as the
frequency at which the average power delivered by the filter circuit is
one-half of its maximum value. Thus ωC is also called (the half power
frequency).
2
1 VL2 1 VLmax But VLMax = HMax Vi
P=  PMax =
2 R 2 R
1 1
VL  jωC  = H  jωC  Vi = HMax Vi = VLMax
2 2
2
 1 
2 VLmax 
1 VL  jωC  1  2
1 VLmax /2 PMax sL
P  jωC  = =  2  = =
2 R 2 R 2 R 2
V s R R/L +
Hs = o = =
Vi  s  sL + R s + R/L Vi(s) +- R
Vo(s)
R/L  ωL 
H  jω  = θ  jω  = - tan-1  -
2 2 
ω + R/L   R 

R/L 1 1 R
H  jωC  = = HMax = 1  ωC =
2
ωC + R/L 
2 2 2 L
Example 14
14--1
A series RL LPF with a cut-off frequency of 2 kHz is needed. Using R =
5 kΩ, compute L, │H(jω)│ and θ(jω) at 0.5 kHz and 50 kHz.
Solution R R 5000
ωC = 
 L= = = 0.4 H sL
L ωC 2 x2000

R/L +
H  jω  = -1  ωL 
2 2 θ  jω  = - tan  
ω + R/L   R  Vi(s) + R
- Vo(s)
At 0.5 kHz
-
5000/0.4
H  jω  = = 0.97
2 2
 2 x500  +  5000/0.4 

-1  2 x500*0.4  = -14.1o Ideal

θ  jω  = - tan  
 5000 
Real
At 50 kHz

5000/0.4
H  jω  = = 0.04
2 2
 2 x50,000  +  5000/0.4 

-1  2 x50,000*0.4  = -87.72 o
θ  jω  = - tan  
 5000 
(2) Series RC LPF R

In the series RC circuit shown in Fig., the input is a

sinusoidal voltage source with varying frequency, while the +
output is taken across the Capacitor. We start to study its Vi + C vo
-
behaviour when ω goes 0 → ∞.
-
Vo  jω  1/jωC 1
H  jω  = = =
Vi  jω  R+ 1/jωC 1+ jωRC R
At ω = 0
At DC and very low frequencies, the capacitor almost
+
acts as open circuit and then Vo(j (jω
ω) ≈ Vi(j (jω
ω) 1/jω
1/j ωC
At ω = ∞ Vi(jω) +- Vo(jω)
At very high frequencies, the capacitor is almost
-
short circuit and then Vo(j (jωω) ≈ 0
At Intermediate frequencies
As ω ↑ ZC ↓, and Vo(jω) ↓ as shown in Fig,. Ideal
1
V  jω  RC Real
Transfer Function H  jω  = o =
Vi  jω  jω +
1
1/RC RC
H  jω  =
2 2 θ  jω  = - tan-1  ωRC 
ω + 1/RC 

1/RC 1 1 1
H  jωC  = = HMax = 1 
 ωC =
2
ωC + 1/RC 
2 2 2 RC
Example 1414--2
A series RC LPF with a cut-off frequency of 8 kHz is needed. Using R =
10 kΩ,
(a) compute C
(b) Calculate │H(jω)│ and θ(jω) at 0.8 kHz and 80 kHz.

Solution

(a) 1 1 1
ωC = 
 C= = = 1.99 nF
RC ωCR  
2 x8x10 3 10x10 3 
(b) H. W
High Pass Filter (HPF
HPF))
In this section, we will discover that the series RC and series RL
circuits can act as high pass filters, depending on where the output
voltage is taken. C
(1) Series RC HPF
In contrast to the series RC LPF circuit the output in the +
HPF is taken across the Resistor. We start to study its V + R
i
- vo
behaviour when ω goes 0 → ∞.
V  jω  R 1 -
H  jω  = o = =
At ω = 0 Vi  jω  R+ 1/jωC 1+ 1/jωRC
At DC and very low frequencies, the capacitor
almost acts as open circuit and then Vo(j(jω
ω) ≈ 0
At ω = ∞
At very high frequencies, the capacitor is almost
short circuit and then Vo(j(jω
ω) ≈ Vi(j
(jω
ω) Real

At Intermediate frequencies Ideal

As ω ↑ ZC ↓, and Vo(jω) ↑ as shown in Fig,.
Vo  jω  jω
Transfer Function H  jω  = =
Vi  jω  jω +
1
ω RC
H  jω  =
2 2 θ  jω  = 90o - tan-1  ωRC 
ω + 1/RC 
 ωC 1 1 1 R
H  jωC  = = HMax = 1 
 ωC =
2
ωC + 1/RC 
2 2 2 RC
+
(2) Series RL HPF
In contrast to the series RL LPF circuit, the output in Vi + L vo
-
the HPF is taken across the Inductor. For this circuit
-
Vo  jω  jωL 1
H  jω  = = =
Vi  jω  R + jωL 1- jR/ωL R
At ω = 0
At DC and very low frequencies, the inductor almost +
acts as short circuit and then Vo(j (jω
ω) ≈ 0 Vo(jω) jω L
Vi(jω) +-
At ω = ∞
At very high frequencies, the inductor is almost -
open circuit and then Vo(j (jω
ω) ≈ Vi(j (jω
ω)
At Intermediate frequencies
As ω ↑ ZL ↑, and Vo(jω) ↑ as shown in Fig,.
V  jω  jω
Transfer Function H  jω  = o =
Vi  jω  jω +
R
L
ω Real
H  jω  = o -1  ωL 
2 θ  jω  = 90 - tan   Ideal
ω2 + R/L   R 

ωC 1 1 R
H  jωC  = = HMax = 1 
 ωC =
2
ωC + R/L 
2 2 2 L
Example 1414--3 R
For the loaded RL-HPF shown in Fig., + +
(a) Derive an expression for the transfer
function H(jω). vi L RL vo
(b) Assuming R = 500 Ω, L = 5.31 mH, sketch
- -
the magnitude plot for the circuit when RL = R
and RL = 0 Ω (on the same graph. R

Solution R L sL + +
V s R L + sL Ks
Hs = o = = Vi(s) sL RL Vo(s)
Vi  s  R+
R L sL s + ωC
R L + sL - -
 RL 
Vo  s  R + R s
 L Ks
Hs = = =
Vi  s   R L  R s + ωC
s+  
 R + RL  L
RL R
K= ωC = K
RL + R L
For the unloaded Filter
Pass-band magnitude = 1 and cut-off frequency = 15 kHz.
For the loaded Filter

R = RL = 500 Ω K=½
Pass-band magnitude = 1(1/2) = 1/2.
Cut-off frequency = 15 (1/2) = 7.5 kHz.
Band Pass Filter (BPF
BPF))
As we mentioned before, the BPF pass input voltages within a specified band of
frequencies to the output while filtering out all voltages outside this band. The
BPF has two cut-off frequencies at the pass band edges. The definition of ωC
still the frequency at which the magnitude of the transfer function decreases to
0.707 of its max. value. C
L
The series RLC circuit shown in Fig., represents
the simplest form of BPFs. In this circuit, the input
+
is a sinusoidal voltage source with varying
R vo
frequency, while the output is taken across the Vi +-
Resistor. We start to study its behaviour when ω -
goes 0 → ∞.
At ω = 0
At DC, the inductor acts as short circuit and the Ideal
capacitor acts as open circuit and then Vo(j(jω
ω) = 0
Real
At ω = ∞
At very high frequencies, the inductor is almost
open circuit and the capacitor is almost short
circuit and then Vo(j
(jω
ω) ≈ 0
At Intermediate frequencies
At frequencies between 0 and ∞, both the capacitor
and inductor have finite impedances and then a part
of the voltage supplied by the source will drop
across both of them, but the remaining part will reach the resistor. We
must note that the inductor has a +ve impedance while the capacitor is
–ve
ve, thus at certain frequency they have equal magnitudes and
opposite signs and then they cancel.
At this frequency the impedance of the circuit is pure real and Vo(j (jω
ω) = Vi(j
(jωω).
This frequency is called the center frequency (ωO)
Center Frequency (ωO)
It the this frequency at which the impedance of the circuit (transfer function) is
purely real. It is also called the resonant frequency . ω O = 1
Bandwidth (β) LC

It is the width of the passband or it is the frequency range in which the

magnitude of the transfer function ≥ 0.707 of its max. value. β = ω C2 - ωC1 = R
L
Quality Factor (Q)
It is the ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth. It is a measure to the
sharpness (selectivity) of the transfer function. Q = ω O = ω OL
β R
Vo  s  R R/L  s
Hs = = = 1/sC
Vi  s  R+ sL + 1/sC s 2 + R/L  s+ 1/LC  sL

ω R/L 
H  jω  = +
1/LC  - ω 2 2 2
+ ω R/L  
  + Vi(s) Vo(s) R
-
 ω R/L  
θ  jω  = 90 o -1
- tan  -
2
  1/LC  - ω 
At ω = ωO
1
ZL + ZC = 0 jωOL + 1 / jωOC = 0 ωO =
LC
ω O  R/L  1/LC  R/L 
HMax = H  jω O  = = =1
2 2
1/LC  - ωO

2
 +  ω O R/L 2
  1/LC  - 1/LC  2
+  1/LC  R/L  
At ω = ωC
1 1 1 ω C  R/L 
H  jω C  = HMax = =
2 2 2 2
1/LC  - ω C2  +  ω C R/L 2
 
1 1 ω CL 1 2
= ±1 = - ω CL ± ω CR - 1/LC = 0
2  ωCL/R  - 1/ωCRC  2
+1 R ω CRC

2 2
R  R   1  R  R   1 
ωC1 = - +   +   ωC2 = +   +  
2L  2L   LC  2L  2L   LC 

1 R ωO L
ωO = ωC1ωC2 = β = ωC2 - ω C1 = Q= = Prove
LC L β CR 2

Substituting 2  2
β β 2 1  1 
ωC1 = - +   + ωO = ωO *  - + 1+   
2 2
   2Q  2Q  
 
Prove
2  2
β β 2 1  1  
ωC2 = +   + ωO = ωO *  + 1+  
2 2  2Q  2Q  
 
Example 1414--4
Show that the RLC circuit shown in Fig., is also BPF by driving an expression for
its T.F H(s). R
■ Find expressions for ωO, ωC1, ωC2, β and Q.
■ Calculate R & L for ωO,= 5 kHz, β = 200 Hz and Q. +
Use a 5 µF capacitor. vi + C L vo
-
Solution
 sL 1/sC  L/C -
ZL
Z C = =
sL + 1/sC sL + 1/sC
R
L/C
sL + 1/sC s/RC
H(s) = = +
2
R+
L/C s + 1/RC  s + 1/LC
sL + 1/sC Vi(s) +- 1/sC Vo(s) sL
1/RC  ω
H  jω  =
2 -
1/LC  - ω 2  + 1/RC  ω 2
 
1
At ω = H  jω  = 1   1/LC  - ω 2  2 = 0 ωO =
  LC
ωO
At ω = ωC H  jω  = 1  1/RC  ω C 1
C =
2 2 2
 1/LC  - ω C2  +  1/RC  ω C 2
1
2 2 β = ω C1 - ω C2 =
1  1  +  1  1  1  +  1  RC
ω C1 = - +     ω C2 = +    
2RC  2RC   LC  2RC  2RC   LC  2
ωO CR
Q= =
β L
Example 14 14--5
For the series RLC circuit shown in Fig., with a practical
Ri L C
voltage source (of series internal resistance, Ri);
■ Find an expression for the T.F H(s) H(s).
+
■ Sketch the magnitude plot of the circuit if Ri
= R = 143.24 Ω, L = 2.533 mH, and C = 1 µF. Vi +- R vo
■ On the same graph sketch the magnitude
-
plot of the circuit if Ri = 0.
Solution R 1/sC
s Ri sL
Vo  s  R L
Hs = = =
Vi  s  R+R i + sL+1/sC 2
s + 
 R+R i  s + 1
 +
 L  LC
Vo(s) R
+ Vi(s)
-
ω R/L 
H  jω  =
2 -
1/LC  - ω 2  + ω R/L   2
   
Band Stop Filter (BSF
BSF))
The series RLC circuit shown in Fig., represents the BSF. In this circuit, the
output is taken across the inductor and the capacitor together. R

At ω = 0 +
At DC, the inductor acts as short circuit and the capacitor
L
acts as open circuit and then Vo(j
(jω
ω) = Vi(j
(jω
ω)
At ω = ∞ Vi +- vo
At very high frequencies, the inductor is almost open C
circuit and the capacitor is almost short circuit and also
-
Vo(j
(jω
ω) ≈ Vi(j
(jω
ω)
At Intermediate frequencies Ideal

At frequencies between 0 and ∞, both the capacitor

and inductor have finite impedances of opposite signs
Real
and then a part of the voltage supplied by the source
will drop across both of them representing the output.
The frequency at which |ZL| = |ZC| Vo(j
(jω
ω) = 0 and
this is the center frequency of the RLC BSF.
Vo  s  SL + 1/sC s 2 + 1/LC
Hs = = =
Vi  s  R+ sL + 1/sC s 2 + R/L  s + 1/LC 
1/LC - ω 2  ω R/L  
H  jω  = -1
θ  jω  = - tan  2
2
1/LC  - ω 2  + ω R/L   2   1/LC  - ω 
 
At ω = ωO ZL + ZC = 0 jωOL + 1 / jωOC = 0 1
ωO =
2 LC
1/LC - ωO 1/LC - 1/LC
HMin = H  jω O  = = =0
2 2
1/LC  - ω O

2
 +  ω O  R/L 2
  1/LC  - 1/LC 2 +  1/LC  R/L  
At ω = ωC
2
1 1 1 1/LC - ωC
H  jω C  = HMax = =
2 2 2 2
1/LC  - ω C2  +  ω C R/L 2
 
2 2 Prove
R  R   1  R  R   1 
ωC1 = - +   +   ωC2 = +   +  
2L  2L   LC  2L  2L   LC 
1 R ωO L Prove
ωO = ωC1ωC2 = β = ωC2 - ω C1 = Q= =
LC L β CR 2

2  1 1  
2
β β  2 
ωC1 =- +   + ωO = ωO * - + 1+   
2 2
   2Q  2Q  

Prove L
2  1 1  
2
β β  2 
ωC2 = +   + ωO = ωO *  + 1+   
2 2  2Q  2Q  

+
Note
The circuit shown in Fig., can also perform as a BSF Vi +- C
R vo
with the following T. F. s 2 + 1/LC
Hs = -
s 2 + 1/RC  s + 1/LC 
Example 14
14--6
Design a series RLC BSF with β = 250 Hz and ωO = 750 Hz. Use a 100
nF capacitor. Compute R, L, ωC1, ωC2, and Q.
Solution
1 1 1
ωO =  L = 2
= 2
= 450 mH
-9
LC ωOC  2π*750  100x10
R
β=  R = β*L =  2π*250  450x10 -3 = 707 Ω
L
2
β β  2
ωC1 =- +   + ω O = 3992 rad/S = 635.35 Hz
2 2
2
β β  2
ωC2 = +   + ω O = 5562.8 rad/S = 8
885.35
85.35 Hz
2 2
 
ωO 750
Q= = =3
β 250
Example 1414--7
Design a series RLC BSF with ωO = 4 kHz and Q = 5. Use a 500 nF capacitor.
Answer
L = 3.17 mH
R = 14
14..92 Ω
 CHAPTER--18
CHAPTER
Two--Port Circuits
Two
Introduction I
A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a + Linear
network is known as a port. Two-terminal devices or elements (such V Network
as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in one-port networks.
-
Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-
port circuits, represented in Fig. (a). I
In this chapter, we are interested in four-terminal or i1 i2
two-port circuits.
+ +
The basic building block of a two-port network is
shown in Fig. (b) which is subjected to many Input v Circuit v2 Output
1
restrictions:- Port Port
- -
(1) No energy stored within the circuit.
(2) There can be no independent sources within the i'1 i'2
circuit, dependent sources are allowed.

(3) The current into any port must equal the current
out from the same port ( i1 = i'1, i2 = i'2).
Two--Port Parameters
Two
During studying the two-port networks, we are interested in relating the current
and voltage at one port to the current and voltage at the other port.
This Fig., shows the basic building block of a two-port network in terms of the S-
domain input and output voltage and current (V1, V2, I1, and I2)
Of these four terminal variables, only two are I1 I2
independent. Thus for ant two-port network, once two
of these variables have been specified, the remaining + +
two unknowns can be calculated. S-domain
V1 V2
There are six different sets of parameters used to Circuit
relate these four variables to each other, will be - -
discussed in details here.

Impedance Parameters (open circuit Parameters)

The impedance parameters (Z) are used to relate the terminal voltages to the terminal
currents. In other words, they are used to derive the IN/OUT voltages in terms of the
IN/OUT currents thus;
 V1   z11 z 12  I1  V1 = z 11I1 + z 12I2
  =   
 V2   z 21 z 22  I2  V2 = z 21I1 + z 22I2
V2
V1 V z 22 = ()
V z12 = () z 21 = 2 () I2 I
z11 = 1 () I2 I I1 =0
I1 I I =0 1
=0 =0 2
2 1
Thus, the impedance parameters are defined as following:-

z11 …... Is the impedance seen looking into port-1 (input impedance) when port-2 is open.
z12 …... Is the transfer impedance from port-1 to port-2 when port-1 is open.
z21 …... Is the transfer impedance from port-2 to port-1 when port-2 is open.
z22 …... Is the impedance seen looking into port-2 (output impedance) when
port-1 is open.
Example 18
18--1 I1 5Ω I2
Derive the impedance parameters for the purely resistive
two-port network shown in Fig. + +
Solution
20 Ω
With port
port--2 open circuit (I2 = 0) V1 15 Ω V2
V
z 11 = 1 = 20
[5 + 15] = 10  - -
I1 I = 0
2
15 V2 0.75V1
V2 = V1 = 0.75V1 z 21 = = = 7.5 
5 + 15 I1 I =0
V1/10
With port
port--1 open circuit (I1 = 0) 2
10 7.5 
V2 Z=   
z 22 = = 15
[5 + 20] = 9.3 75   7.5 9.375 
I2 I1 = 0
20 V1 0.8V2
V1 = V2 = 0.8V2 z 12 = = = 7.5 
5 + 20 I2 I =0
V2 /9.375
1
I1 I2
20 Ω 30 Ω
Example 18
18--2
+ +
Derive the impedance parameters for the purely
resistive two-port network shown in Fig. 40 Ω
V1 V2
Answer 60 40 
Z=   
 40 70  - -
Admittance Parameters (short circuit Parameters)
The admittance parameters are used to relate the terminal currents to the
terminal voltages. In other words, they are used to derive the IN/OUT currents
in terms of the IN/OUT voltages thus;
I1   y 11 y 12   V1  I1 = y 11V1 + y 12 V2
  =   
I2   y 21 y 22   V2  I2 = y 21V1 + y 22 V2
I I I2 I2
y 11 = 1 (S) y 12 = 1 (S) y 21 = (S) y 22 = (S)
V1 V V2 V1 V =0
V2 V =0
=0 V =0 2 1
2 1
Thus, the impedance parameters are defined as following:-

y11 ….. Is the admittance seen looking into port-1 (input admittance) when port-2 is short.
y12 ….. Is the transfer admittance from port-1 to port-2 when port-1 is short.
y21 ….. Is the transfer admittance from port-2 to port-1 when port-2 is short.
y22 ….. Is the admittance seen looking into port-2 (output admittance) when port-1 is short.
We should note that for any linear two-port network, the admittance matrix (Y) is the
reciprocal of the impedance matrix (Z) Y = Z -1
I1 2Ω I2
Example 18
18--3
+ +
Derive the admittance parameters for the purely
resistive two-port network shown in Fig. 4Ω
V1 8Ω V2
Answer 0.75 -0.5 
Y=  S
 -0.5 0.625 
- -
Transmission Parameters
Another category of parameters relates the variables at one port to those at the
other port and thus they are called the transmission parameters which consist
of two different sets;
(1) a-Parameters
The a-parameters are used to relate the input (port-1) voltage and current to the output
(port-2) voltage and current and they may be called the forward transmission parameters.
 V1   a11 a12   V2  V1 = a11V2 - a12I2
  =   
I1  a 21 a22   -I2  I1 = a 21V2 - a 22I2
V1 V I1 I1
a11 = a12 = - 1 () a21 = (S) a22 = -
V2 I =0 I2 V V2 I =0
I2 V =0
2 =0 2 2
(2) b-Parameters 2

The b-parameters are used to relate the output (port-2) voltage and current to the input
(port-1) voltage and current and thus they are called the reverse transmission parameters.

 V2  b11 b12   V1  V2 = b11V1 - b12I1

  =   
I2  b 21 b 22   -I1  I2 = b 21V1 - b 22I1
V I I
V2 b 21 = 2 (S) b 22 = - 2
b11 = b12 = - 2 () V1 I = 0 I1
V1 I I1 V = 0 V =0
1
=0 1
1 1
Notes
■ The a-parameters are obtained by opening and shorting port-2 only, while the b-
parameters are obtained by opening and shorting port-1 only.

■ Some of the transmission parameters are dimensionless because they are ratios of either
two voltages or two currents.
Hybrid Parameters
Since there are no restrictions on which terminal voltages and currents should
be considered independent and which should be dependent variables, we
expect to be able to generate many sets of parameters.
(1) h-Parameters
The h-parameters are used to relate the input voltage (V1) and output current (I2) to the
input current (I1) and the output voltage (V2).

 V1  h11 h12  I1  V1 = h11I1 + h12 V2

  =   
I2  h21 h22   V2  I2 = h21I1 + h22 V2
V1 V I2 I2
h11 = () h12 = 1 h 21 = h 22 = (S)
I1 V =0 V2 I I1 V =0
V2 I =0
2 =0 2 1
(2) g-Parameters 1

The g-parameters are used to relate the input current (I1) and output voltage (V2) to the
input voltage (V1) and the output current (I2).

I1  g11 g12   V1  I1 = g11V1 + g12I2

  =    V2 = g21V1 + g22I2
 V2  g21 g22  I2 
V2
I I V g22 = ()
g11 = 1 (S) g12 = 1 g2 1 = 2 I2
V1 I =0
I2 V =0
V1 I =0
V =0
1
2 1 2
■ For any linear two-port network, the g-matrix is the reciprocal of the h-matrix ( g = h-1)
Example 18
18--4
The following measurements were made on a two-port resistive circuit.

■With 50 mV applied to port-1 and port-2 open, the current into port-1 is 5 µA,
and the voltage across port-2 is 200 mV
mV.

■With port-1 short circuited and 10 mV applied to port-2, the current into port-1
is 2 µA, and the current into port-2 is 0.5 µA.
Find the g-parameters of this network.

Solution I1 = g11V1 + g12I2

V2 = g21V1 + g22I2

With port
port--2 open circuit (I2 = 0) V1 = 50 mV, I1 = 5µA, and V2 = 200 mV
I 5x10 -6 V2 200 mV
g11 = 1 = = 0.1 mS g21 = = =4
V1 I =0 50x10 -3 V1 I =0
50 mV
2 2
With port
port--1 short circuit (V1 = 0) V2 = 10 mV, I1 = 1µA, and I2 = 0.5 µA
I 2 μA V 10x10 -3
g12 = 1 = =4 g22 = 2 = = 20 k
I2 V =0
0.5 μA I2 V =0 0.5x10 -6
1 1
0.1 mS 4 
g= 
 4 20 k 
Relationships Among two-
two-port Parameters
Because the different six sets of two-port parameters relate the same
variables, the parameters of any set can be related to the parameters of all
other sets. In other words, if we have any set of parameters, we can drive all
the other sets from it.
In all cases, we try to rearrange the two equations of the given set to put them
on the same form as those of the required set.
Example 18
18--5
Starting from the a-parameters,
parameters find the Z-parameters.
parameters.

Solution

V1 = a11V2 - a12I2 .......... (1) V1 = z11I1 + z12I2 ........ (3)

I1 = a21V2 - a 22I2 .......... (2) V2 = z 21I1 + z 22I2 ........ (4)
1 a
From equation (2), dividing both sides by a21 V2 = I1 + 22 I2 ......... (5)
a21 a 21
Substituting (V2) from equation (5) into equation (1)
 1 a  a11 a a 
V1 =  I1 + 22 I2  a11 - a12I2 V1 = I1 +  11 22 - a12  I2 ......... (6)
 a21 a 21  a21  a21 
a a a
Comparing equations (6) and (3) Z11 = 11 and Z 12 = 11 22 - a12
a21 a21
1 a
Comparing equations (5) and (4) Z 21 = and Z 22 = 22
a21 a21
The opposite can be easily done

find the a-parameters as a function of the Z-parameters (H

(H..W)
Example 18
18--6
Starting from the Y-parameters,
parameters find the h-parameters.
parameters.

Solution
I1 = y 11V1 + y 12 V2 .......... (1) V1 = h11I1 + h12 V2 .......... (3)
I2 = y 21V1 + y 22 V2 .......... (2) I2 = h21I1 + h22 V2 .......... (4)

From equation (1), dividing both sides by y11 1 y

V1 = I1 - 12 V2 ......... (5)
y 11 y 11
Substituting (I2) from equation (5) into equation (2)
 1 y  y 21 y
I2 = y 21  I1 - 12 V2  + y 22 V2 I2 = I1 - V ......... (6)
y 11 y 11 2
 y 11 y 11 
1 y 12
Comparing equations (5) and (3) h11 = and h12 = -
y 11 y 11
y y
Comparing equations (6) and (4) h21 = 21 and h22 =-
y 11 y 11
find the y-parameters as a function of the h-parameters (H
(H..W)
Example 18
18--7
Starting from the g-parameters,
parameters find the b-parameters.
parameters.

Solution
I1 = g11V1 + g12I2 .......... (1) V2 = b11V1 - b12I1 .......... (3)
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2 .......... (2) I2 = b 21V1 - b 22I1 .......... (4)

From equation (1), dividing both sides by g12 1 g

I2 = I1 - 11 V1 ......... (5)
g12 g12
Substituting (I2) from equation (5) into equation (2)
Example 18
18--8
Starting from the g-parameters,
parameters find the b-parameters.
parameters.

Solution
I1 = g11V1 + g12I2 .......... (1) V2 = b11V1 - b12I1 .......... (3)
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2 .......... (2) I2 = b 21V1 - b 22I1 .......... (4)

From equation (1), dividing both sides by g12 g11 1

I2 = - V1 + I1 ......... (5)
g12 g12
Substituting (I2) from equation (5) into equation (2)
g g
 1 g  V2 = - V1 + 22 I1 ......... (6)
V2 = g 21V1 + g22  I1 - 11 V2  g12 g12
 g11 g12 
g g22
Comparing equations (6) and (3) b11 = - and b12 = -
g12 g12
g 1
Comparing equations (5) and (4) b 21 = - 11 and b 22 =-
g12 g12
Example 18
18--9
Two sets of measurements are made on a two-port network, and they are given as following
Port--2 Open
Port Port--2 Short
Port
V1 = 10 mV V1 = 24 mV
I1 = 10 µA I1 = 20 µA
V2 = - 40 V I2 = 1 mA
Find the h-parameters of this 1.2 kΩ 5x10 -5 
network. h=  
 50 12.5 μS 
Answer
Reciprocal Two-
Two-Port Circuits
A two-port network is said to be reciprocal if the interchange of an ideal voltage
source at one port with an ideal ammeter at the other port produces the same
ammeter reading.
OR the interchange of an ideal current source at one port with an ideal voltmeter at the
other port produces the same voltmeter reading.
Any reciprocal two-port network must satisfy the following six relations between the two-
port parameters;
z12 = z21 y12 = y21 Δa = 1 Δb = 1 h12 = - h21 g12 = - g21

10 Ω 10 Ω
(a) (b)

30 Ω VX 20 Ω 30 Ω VX 20 Ω

ia + 15 V
15 V +- 60 Ω ia
60 Ω
-

VX - 15 VX VX VX VX VX - 15
+ + = 0  VX = 5 V + + = 0  VX = 7.5 V
30 60 20 30 60 20

5 15 7.5 15
Ia = + = 1.75 A Ia = + = 1.75 A
20 20 30 10
Symmetric Two-
Two-Port Circuits
A reciprocal two-port network is said to be symmetric if its ports can be inter-
changed without distributing the valued of the terminal currents and voltages.
Any symmetric two-port network must satisfy the following six relations
between the two-port parameters;
z11 = z22 y11 = y22 a11 = a22 b11 = b22 Δh = 1 Δg = 1

I1 I2 I1 I2
This Fig., shows four Za
Za Za
of the most famous + +
symmetric two-port + +
networks.
Zb Zb Zb
(a) T-Section V1 V2 V1 V2

(b) π-Section - - - -
(c) Bridged T-Section (b)
(a)
(d) Lattice
Lattice--Section
Zc I1 I2
Za
I1 I2 + +
Za Za
+ + V1 V2

V1 Zb
V2
- -
Za
- -
(c) (d)
Example 18
18--10 I1 I2
For the T-section shown in Fig., derive all of the two-port Za Zc
+ +
parameters. Calculate the values of these parameters if
Za = Zc = 3 Ω, and Zb = 2 Ω.
Zb V2
Solution V1
V1 = z 11I1 + z 12I2
(1) Z-Parameters - -
V2 = z 21I1 + z 22I2
V2 I1z b
V I  z +z  z 21 =  = zb
z 11 = 1 = 1 a b = z a +z b I1 I I1
I1 I =0
I1 2
=0
2

V I z V2 I2  z b +z c 
z12 = 1 = 2 b = zb z 22 = = = z b +z c
I2 I I2 I2 I =0
I2
=0 1
1
z a + zb zb  5 2
z=   = 2 Ω
 zb zb  z c   5 

I1 = y 11V1 + y 12 V2
(2) Y-Parameters I1
I2 = y 21V1 + y 22 V2 Za Zc
+
I I1 z b +z c 5 I2
y 11 = 1 = = = s Zb
V1 V =0
I1  z a +  z b
z c   z a z b +z b z c +z a z c 21 V1
2

 zb
z c  -
-  V1  / zc
I2 z +  z
z  - zb -2
= 
a b c 
y 21 = = = s
V1 V =0
V 1 z z
a b +z z
b c +z z
a c 21
2
  z a
zb  I2
-  V2 / za Za Zc
I1  z c +  z a
z b   - zb -2 +
y 12 = = = = s
V2 V =0
V2 z a z b +zb z c +z a z c 21 I1
1 Zb V2
I2 I2 z a +z b 5
y 22 = = = = s
V2 I2  z c +  z a
z b   z a z b +z b z c +z a z c 21 -
V1 = 0

V1 = a11V2 - a12I2
(3) a-Parameters
I1 = a 21V2 - a 22I2

V1 I1  z a +z b  z +z 5 I1 I1 1 1
a11 = = = a b = a 21 = = = = S
V2 I =0
I1z b zb 2 V2 I =0
I1z b zb 2
2 2
I1 I1 z +z 5
V 1 21
2 1 a 22 = - =- = b c =
a12 = - 1  - = Ω I2  zb  zb 2
I2 V =0
y 21 2 V =0
2 - I1  
2  z b +z c 
V2 = b11V1 - b12I1
(4) b-Parameters
I2 = b 21V1 - b 22I1

V I  z +z  z +z 5 I2 I2 1 1
b11 = 2 = 2 b c = b c = b 21 = = = = S
V1 I I2 z b zb 2 V1 I =0
I2 z b zb 2
1
=0 1

V2 1 21 I2 I2 z +z 5
b12 = -  - = Ω b 22 = - =- = a b =
I1 V =0
y 12 2 I1 V =0
 zb  zb 2
1 1 - I2  
 z a +z b 
 V1 = h11I1 + h12 V2
(5) h-Parameters
I2 = h21I1 + h22 V2
V 1 21 I2 1 2
h11 = 1 = = Ω h 21 = =- =-
I1 V y 11 5 I1 V =0
a 22 5
2
=0 2

V 1 2 I2 1 1
h12 = 1 = = h 22 = = = S
V2 I b11 5 V2 I =0
z 22 5
=0 1
1
I1 = g11V1 + g12I2
(6) g-Parameters
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2
I1 1 1 V2 1 2
g11 = = = S g21 = = =
V1 I =0
z 11 5 V1 I =0
a11 5
2 2
V2 1 21
I -1 2 g22 = = = Ω
g12 = 1 = =- I2 V =0
y 22 5
I2 V =0
b 22 5 1
1
Example 18
18--11 3Ω
For the bridged T-section shown in Fig., calculate
all of the two-port parameters. I1 I2
1Ω 1Ω
H.W + +
Hint
V1 2Ω
It will be exactly the same like the previous T- V2
section after doing a simple Δ–to
to--Y transformation.
- -
Analysis of the terminated two-
two-port circuits
In typical application of two-port network, the circuit is driven by a voltage source, Vg, at
the input port and terminated by a load impedance, ZL, at the output port, as shown in this
Fig., in which Zg represents the internal impedance of the voltage source.
Six characteristics of the terminated two-port circuit define its terminal behaviour

♦The input impedance Zin = V1 / I1, or the admittance Yin = I1 / V1.

I2
♦The output current I2.
Zg
♦The current gain I2 / I1 + +
I1 Two-port
♦The voltage gain V2 / V1 Vg + V1 V2 ZL
- Network
♦The overall voltage gain V2 / Vg - -
♦The Thevenin voltage & impedance (V
VTH, ZTH ) w.r.t port-2.
All of these six characteristics can be derived in terms of the six two-port parameters and
here we will do that only for the Z-parameters, as follows:-

V1 = z11I1 + z12I2 ........ (1) V1 = Vg - I1Zg ........ (3)

From the above figure
V2 = z 21I1 + z 22I2 ....... (2) V2 = - I2 ZL ....... (4)
Substituting V2 from (4) into (2)
z 21
- I2 ZL = z21I1 - z 22I2  I2 = - I ........ (5)
ZL + z 22 1
Substituting I2 from (5) into (1)

-z12 z 21  z12 z 21 
V1 = z11I1 + I1  V1 =  z11 -  I1 ........ (6)
ZL + z 22  ZL + z 22 
 Vg - z12I2
Substituting V1 from (3) into (1) Vg - I Z
1 g = z I
11 1 + z I
12 2  I1 = ........ (7)
z11 + Zg
From (5), the current gain
I2 = - z 21
I1 ZL + z 22
V z12 z 21
From (6), the input impedance Zin = 1 = z11 -
I1 ZL + z 22
- z 21 Vg
Substituting I1 from (7) into (5), the output current I2 =
 
z11+ Z g  z 22 + Z L  - z12 z 21
The Thevenin voltage w.r.t port-2 is the open circuit voltage i.e. V2 when I2 = 0, from (1),
(2)  Vg  z 21
V2 I
= z 21I1 = z 21   VTH = Vg
=0  Z g + z 11  Z + z
  g 11
2

The Thevenin impedance is the ratio of V2 / I2 when Vg is replaced by a short circuit

from (3) from (1) -z 12
When Vg = 0 
 V1 = -I1Z g 
 I1= I2
z11+Z g
from (2) V2 z12 z 21

 = Z TH = z 22 -
I2 V =0
z11+Z g
g

The voltage gain can be derived by replacing I2 in (2) by its value from (4)
 -V2  V1 z12 V2
V2 = z 21I1 + z 22   ........ (8) from (1), (4) I1 is given as:- 1I = + ........ (9)
 ZL  z 11 z Z
11 L
V2 z 21ZL z 21ZL
Substituting I1 from (9) into (8) = =
V1 z11ZL + z 11z 22 - z 12 z 21 z11ZL + z
V2 z 21ZL
The overall voltage gain is given by:- = (H.W)
Vg 
z11 + Z g   z 22 + ZL  - z 12 z 21
Example 18
18--12
The two-port circuit shown in figure is described in terms of the b-parameters with the
following values :-
b11 = -20,
20, b12 = -3000 Ω, b21 = -2 mS, b22 = -0.2, find
(a) The phasor voltage V2 I2
500 Ω
(b) The average power delivered to the 5 kΩ load.
+ +
(c) The average power delivered to the
I1
500 ∟0o +- V1 [b] V2 5 kΩ
Input port
(d) The load impedance for max. average power - -
transfer.
(e) Max. average power delivered to the load.
Solution
b 22 -0.2 1
z11 = = = 100  z12 = = -500 
b 21 -0.002 b 21

b b b - b12b 21 4-6 b -20

z 21 = = 11 22 = = 1000  z 22 = 11 = = 10 k
b 21 b 21 -0.002 b 21 -0. 002
(a)
V2 z 21ZL 1,000x5,000
= = = 0.5263
Vg  
z11 + Z g  z 22 + ZL  - z12 z 21  100+500  10,000+5,000  + 500,000

V2 = 0.5263 Vg = 263.16 0 o V
2
V22 1  263.16 
(b) PL = = = 6. 93 W
RL 2 5000
(c) V1 z12 z 21 I2
Zin = = z 11 - = 133.33  500 Ω
I1 ZL + z 22
500 + +
I1 = = 0.78947 A
I1
500 + 133.33 500 ∟0o +- V1 [b] V2 5 kΩ
1 2
P1 =  0.78947  133.33  = 41.55 W - -
2
(d)
z12 z 21
Z TH = z 22 - = 10.833 k
z11+Z g
(e) V
z 21
TH = V = 833.33 V
Z g + z11 g

1 VT2H
PMax = = 8.01 W
8 R TH
Interconnections between two-
two-port networks
There are five different ways for interconnecting two-port networks with each other, as
illustrated in the shown Fig., I2
I I2 I1
(1) Series 1

In this connection, + +
+ + Y'
V1 = V'1 + V''1 & V2= V'2 + V''2
Z'
I1 = I'1 = I''1 & I2 = I'2 = I''2 V1 V2
V1 V2
zt = z'
z' + z
z''
''

(2) Parallel Z'' - Y'' -

- -
V1 = V'1 = V''1 & V2 = V'2 = V''2
I1 = I'1 + I''1 & I2 = I'2 + I''2
(1) (2)
yt = y'
y' + y
y''
''
I1 I2 I1 I2
(3) Series
Series--Parallel
+ + + +
V1 = V'1 + V''1 & V2 = V'2 = V''2 h' g'
I1 = I'1 = I''1 & I2 = I'2 + I''2
V1 V1
ht = h'
h' + h''
h'' V2 V2

(4) Parallel
Parallel--Series
V1 = V'1 = V''1 & V2= V'2 + V''2 - h'' - - g'' -
I1 = I'1 + I''1 & I2 = I'2 = I''2
gt = g'
g' + g''
g''
(3) (4)
(5) Cascade Connection
I1 I2
For which,
V1 = V'1 & V'2 = V''1 & V2 = V''2 + +
I1 = I'1 & I'2 = - I''1 & I2 = I''2
V1 a' a'' V2
- -
at = [a'][a'']
Proof
(5)
The transmission parameters of the first section are

V1 = a'11 V'2 – a'12I'2 …………. (1)

I1 = a'21 V'2 – a'22I'2 …………. (2)
Substituting with V'2 = V''
V''1 and I'2 = - I''1 in equations (1), (2)
V1 = a'11 V″1 + a'12I″1 …………. (3)
I1 = a'21 V″1 + a'22I″1 …………. (4)
But V″1 and I″1 are related to V2 and I2 through the a-parameters of the second section

V″1 = a″11 V2 – a″12I2 …………. (5)

I″1 = a″21 V2 – a″22I2 …………. (6)
Substituting V''1 and I''1 from (5), (6) into (3), (4)

V1 = (a′11a″11 + a′12a″21)V2 – (a′11a″12 + a′12a″22)I2 …………. (7)

I1 = (a′21a″11 + a′22a″21)V2 – (a′21a″12 + a′22a″22)I2 …………. (8)
From (7), (8) we can extract the a-parameters of the interconnected networks to be
 a`11a"11+a`12 a" 21 a`11a"12 +a`12a" 22 
at =   at = [a'][a'']
a`21a"11+a`22 a" 21 a`21a"12 +a`22 a" 22 
Example 1818--13
Two identical amplifiers are connected in cascade as shown in Fig. Each amplifier is
described in terms of its h-parameters. The values are h11 = 1000 Ω, h12 = 0.0015, h21 = 100,
and h22 = 100 μS. Find the voltage gain V2 / Vg.
Solution 500 Ω
The first step is to convert the given + +
h-parameters into a-parameters as
following:-
+ V
- g
V1 A1 A2 V2 10 kΩ
, Δh 0.05 -4 - -
a11 = - = = 5 x 10
h21 100
, -h11 -1000
a12 = = = -10 
h21 100
-6 -1 -1
, -h22 -100 x 10 -6 ,
a22 = = = - 10
-2
a21 = = = - 10 S
h21 100 h21 100

a`11a"11+a`12 a" 21 a`11a"12 +a`12 a" 22  10.25 x 10 -6 0.095  

at =   =  
a`21a"11+a`22 a" 21 a`21a"12 +a`22 a" 22  -9 -4
 9.5 x 10 S 1.1 x 10 
4
V2 ZL 10
= =
Vg  a11+ a21Zg  ZL + a12 - a22 Zg 10.25x10 -6 -9
 4
+9.5x10 x500 10 +0.095+1.1x10
-4
 500 
10 4 105
= = V/V
0.15+0.095+0.055 3
 Revision Problems
Problem--1
Problem I2
I1 30 Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω
Find the a-parameters of the two-port
network shown. + +
Solution
20 Ω 20 Ω
The shown two-port network can be V1 50 Ω V2
considered as two separate sections
connected in cascade -
-
V1 = a11V2 - a12I2
I1 I2
I1 = a 21V2 - a 22I2 30 Ω 40 Ω 60 Ω

V1 30 + 50 + +
a11 = = = 1.6
V2 I =0
50
2 20 Ω 20 Ω
V1 V1 50 Ω V2
I1 20
80
a 21 = = = 0 .1 S
V2 V1 - -
I = 0
2
1. 6
V V1 I1 30 Ω I2
a12 = - 1 =- = 30 
I2 V =0
-V1/ 30 + +
2

I1 V1 /2 0
3 0 20 Ω 50 Ω V2
a 22 = - = - = 2 .5 V1
I2 V = 0
- V1/3 0
2
- -
 V1 I1  20+40  I I1 I1 40 Ω I2
a11 = = = 3 a 21 = 1 = = 0 . 05 S 60 Ω
V2 I = 0
I1*20 V2 I1 20
I = 0
+
2 2
+
V1 V1
a12 = - =- = 220 
I2 V  20
60  20 Ω
2
=0 -  V1  / 60 V1 V2
 40+  20
60  
a 22 = -
I1
= -
I1
= 4 - -
I2  20 
V
2
= 0 - I1  
 20+60 

 1.6 30    3 220    6.3 472  

a T = a   a T  =   =  0.425 S 32 
 0.1 S 2.5   0.05 S 4   

Problem--2
Problem 3Ω

In the bridged-T two-port circuit shown in figure,

I1 = 10 A and I2 = −4 A. 3Ω 3Ω
(a) Find V1 and V2 using y-parameters.
+ +
(b) Confirm the results in part (a) by direct
circuit analysis. I V1 1Ω V2 I2
1
Solution
After doing a simple ∆-to-Y transformation, the - -
bridged-T section will be T-section as shown in
figure.
 I1 = y 11V1 + y 12 V2 1Ω 1Ω
Y-Parameters
I2 = y 21V1 + y 22 V2
+ +
I1 I1 I1 3
y 11 = = = = s I1 V1 2Ω V2 I2
V1 V =0
I1 1 +  2
1 I1(5/3) 5
2
 2
1 
-  V1  / 1 - -
I2 1 +  2
1  -2
y 21 = =   = s
V1 V = 0
V 1 5
2
 1
2  I2 I2 3
-  V2 / 1 y 22 = = = s
I1 1+  1
2   -2 V2 I 2  1 + 1
2  5
y 12 = =  = s V1 = 0
V2 V = 0
V2 5
1

3 2
10 = V1 - V2 ..........
........ (1)
5 5
2 3
-4 = - V1 + V2 ......... (2)
5 5
Solving these equations together, we get:- V1 = 22 V, V2 = 8 V
1Ω 1Ω
Using the KVL
For Mesh (1) + +
V1 = 1*i1 + 2 (i1 + i2) = 22 V I1 V1 2Ω i2 V2
i1 I2
For Mesh (2)
V2 = 1*i2 + 2 (i2 + i1) =8V - -
Problem--3
Problem 20 nF
For the band-reject filter circuit shown in figure, find
expressions and calculate numerical values for all of
the following:- + +
ωO, ωC1, ωC2, Q, and β.
vi 50 μH 750 Ω vo
Solution
1 L/C sL
sL
= = - -
2
sC sL + 1/sC 1 + s LC
2
V s R
2
s RLC s + 1/LC 
H(s) = O = = =
Vi  s  R+
sL 2
s RLC + R + sL s
2
+ 1/RC  s +  1/LC 
2
1 + s LC 1/LC - ω
2

H jω =
2
1/LC - ω2  +ω1/RC2
 
1
At ω = ωO ZL + ZC = 0 jωOL + 1 / jωOC = 0 ωO = note that H  jωO  = 0
LC
At ω = ωC 2
1 1/LC - ωC
1 1 =
H  jω C  = HMax = 2 2
2 2  1/LC  - ωC2  + ωC  1/RC 2
 
1  1 
2
 1  1 ω O = 1 M rad/s β = 66.66 krad/s
ω C1 = - +  2RC  +  LC 
β = ωC1 - ωC2 =
2RC     RC
ω C 1 = 967.2 2 krad/s Q = 15

1  1 
2
 1 
ω R 2C
ω C2 = +  2RC  +  LC 
Q= O = ω C2 = 1.03 M rad/s
2RC     β L
Problem--4
Problem 2Ω

For the circuit shown in figure, find: + 1 : 2 +

i1 i2 -j6 Ω
(a) I1 and I2, +
60∟90o V + V1 V2
(b) V1, V2, and Vo, (rms) - j6 VO
12 Ω
Ω -
(c) The complex power supplied by - Ideal -
the source.
Solution 2Ω
For Mesh (1) + 1 : 2 + +
60 ∟90o = 2I1 + V1 ….………. (1) j6
For Mesh (2)
60∟90o V + V1 V2 Ω
(rms) - i1 i2 VO
0 = - V2 + I2 (3 + j6) ………….. (2) 3Ω
For the ideal transformer - Ideal -
-
V1 = ½ V2 ..………. (3) and
I1 = 2I2 ….……. (4)

Solving these four eqns together, we get

get;;
I1 = 19.154 ∟61.39o A (rms), I2 = 9.577 ∟61.39o A (rms),
V1 = 32.12 ∟124.82o V (rms), VO = V2 = 64.24 ∟124.82o V (rms),
SS = VS I1* = (60 ∟ 90o)(19.154 ∟61.39o) = 1149.24 ∟28.61o
Problem--5
Problem
One line voltage of a balanced Y-connected source is Vab = 180 ∟-20o V. If the source is
connected to a Δ-connected load of 20 ∟40o Ω/Φ , find the phase and line currents. Assume
the abc sequence.
A
Solution
Balanced
Vab = 180 ∟-20o V IaA ICA
three-phase
Then the three phase currents of the
Y-connected
∆-load are
Generator
Vab 180-20 o o IAB
IAB = = = 9  -60 A
Z 2040 o IbB
+ve Phase Z∆ C
IBC = 9   180 o A sequence B
IcC IBC
o
ICA = 9 60 A

Line Current = Phase Current  3  30 o

(for +ve phase sequence)
o
IaA = IAB 3  30 = 15.59  90 o A

IbB = 15.59   210 o A

IcC = 15.59 30 o A

Problem--6
Problem
Find v (t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in figure if v(0) = 5 V and i(0) = -2 A.
Solution +
i
4u(t) A 10 Ω 4H 1/80 F vo
VO sVO V 6
+ + O - + 0.0625 = 0
4s 80 10 s -

VO
IO = I +
4s
0.0625 A
4/s A 10 Ω 2/s A 4s 80/s F Vo

Vo

I +

6/s – 0.0625 A 10 Ω 4s 80/s F Vo

Answer
-

v O  t  = 5e -4t
cos2t + 230e -4t

sin2t u(t) V

iO  t  = 6u(t) - 6e -4t cos2t - 11.37e -4t sin2t A