Subject: Physical Sciences Grade 12 2022 Winter Classses Teacher and Learner Content Manual

SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
GRADE 12
2022 WINTER CLASSSES
TEACHER AND LEARNER CONTENT MANUAL
Week 1 Topics Week 2 Topic
Newton’s laws Electrochemical

Electrostatics reactions
Acids and Bases
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PHYSICAL SCIENCES PROGRAMME FOR THE 2022 WINTER CLASSES
PAPER TOPICS TOTAL MARKS WEIGHTING
WEEK 1
Newton’s laws (3 hours) ± 18 ± 12%
PAPER 1: PHYSICS Electrostatics (3 hours) ± 13 ± 9%
Acids and Bases (3 hours) ± 20 ± 13%
TOTAL ± 51 ± 𝟑4%
WEEK 2
PAPER 2: CHEMISTRY Electrochemical reactions (9 hours) ± 28 ± 19%
Week 1: Pre-test and Post-test to be administered since it’s a revision of Term 1 & 2
Week 2: Assessment will be administered at the end since it’s a topic of Term 3.
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CONTENTS PAGE
TOPIC 1: Newtons laws
➢ Examination guideline and outcomes

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 2: Electrostatics
➢ Examination guideline and outcomes

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 3: Acids and Bases
➢ Examination guideline and Outcomes

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
TOPIC 3: Electrochemical reactions
➢ Examination guideline and Outcomes

➢ Worked examples
➢ Activities
ICON DESCRIPTION
MIND MAP EXAMINATION CONTENTS ACTIVITIES

GUIDELINE
BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKED STEPS

TERMINOLOGY EXAMPLES
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EXAMINATION GUIDELINES:
Newton's Laws and Application of Newton's Laws

(This section must be read in conjunction with the CAPS, p. 62–66.)
Different kinds of forces: weight, normal force, frictional force, applied force (push,
pull), tension (strings or cables)
 Define normal force, N, as the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts
on an object with which it is in contact, and which is perpendicular to the surface.
 Define frictional force, f, as the force that opposes the motion of an object and which
acts parallel to the surface.
Define static frictional force, fs, as the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a
stationary object relative to a surface.
Define kinetic frictional force, fk, as the force that opposes the motion of a moving object
relative to a surface.
Know that a frictional force:
o Is proportional to the normal force
o Is independent of the area of contact
o Is independent of the velocity of motion
 Solve problems using f max s = μsN where f max
s is the maximum static frictional force and
μs is the coefficient of static friction.
NOTE:
o If a force, F, applied to a body parallel to the surface does not cause the object to
move, F is equal in magnitude to the static frictional force.
o The static frictional force is a maximum (f maxs ) just before the object starts to move
across the surface.
o If the applied force exceeds f max s , a resultant net force accelerates the object.
 Solve problems using fk = μkN, where fk is the kinetic frictional force and μk the
coefficient of kinetic friction.
Force diagrams, free-body diagrams

 Draw force diagrams.
 Draw free-body diagrams. (This is a diagram that shows the relative magnitudes and
directions of forces acting on a body/particle that has been isolated from its
surroundings.)
 Resolve two-dimensional forces (such as the weight of an object on an inclined plane)
into its parallel (x) and perpendicular (y) components.
 Determine the resultant or net force of two or more forces.
Newton's first, second and third laws of motion

 State Newton's first law of motion: A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant/net force acts on it.
 Discuss why it is important to wear seatbelts using Newton's first law of motion.
 State Newton's second law of motion: When a net force acts on an object, the object
will accelerate in the direction of the force and the acceleration is directly proportional to
the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
 Draw force diagrams and free-body diagrams for objects that are in equilibrium or
accelerating.
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 Apply Newton's laws to a variety of equilibrium and non-equilibrium problems including:

o A single object:
- Moving on a horizontal plane with or without friction
- Moving on an inclined plane with and without friction
- Moving in the vertical plane (lifts, rockets, etc.)
o Two-body systems (joined by a light inextensible string) by applying Newton's laws
of motion separately to EACH of the bodies:
- Both on a flat horizontal plane with and without friction
- One on a horizontal plane with and without friction, and a second hanging
vertically from a string over a frictionless pulley
- Both on an inclined plane with or without friction
- Both hanging vertically from a string over a frictionless pulley
 State Newton's third law of motion: When object A exerts a force on object B, object B
SIMULTANEOUSLY exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on
object A.
 Identify action-reaction pairs.
 List the properties of action-reaction pairs.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

 State Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Each body in the universe attracts every
other body with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
Gm 1m 2
 Solve problems using F  .
r2
 Describe weight as the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its
surface.
 Calculate weight using the expression w = mg.
 Calculate the weight of an object on other planets with different values of gravitational
acceleration.
 Distinguish between mass and weight.
 Explain weightlessness.
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IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1. NORMAL FORCE: N
The force or the component of a force in which a surface exerts on an object with which it is in
contact, and that is perpendicular to the surface.
2. KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE: fk
The force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface.
3. STATIC FRICTIONAL FORCE: fsmax
The force that opposes the tendency of a motion of a stationary object relative to a surface.
4. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION:
A body will remain in a state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero
resultant/net force acts on it.
5. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:
When a net force act on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force and the
acceleration is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
6. NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION:
When object A exert a force on object B, object B simultaneously exert oppositely directed force
of equal magnitude on object A.
7. NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
Each body in the universe attract every other body with the force that is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres.
8. WEIGHT:
The gravitational force the Earth exert on any object on or near its surface measured in Newton
(N).
9. MASS:
The amount of matter in a body measured in kilogram (kg).
10. INERTIA:
The resistance of a body to change in its state of uniform motion or rest.
11. WEIGHTLESSNESS:
The sensation experienced when all contact forces are removed.
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CONTENT
1.1 Key concepts

• Frictional force f
• Newton first law
• Newton’s second law
• Newton’s third law
• Newton’s law of universal gravitation
1.2 Frictional force f
Is defined as the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
surface.
The magnitude of the frictional force depends on the magnitude of the normal force. Different
surfaces will give rise to different frictional forces, even if the normal force is the same.
Frictional forces are proportional to the magnitude of the normal force.
F∝N
For every surface we can determine a constant factor, the coefficient of friction, that allows us
to calculate what the frictional force would be if we know the magnitude of the normal force.
We know that static friction and kinetic friction have different magnitudes so we have different
coefficients for the two types of friction:
• µs is the coefficient of static friction
• µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction
Static frictional force (fs) is the force exerted by the surface on the object that oppose the
tendency of motion of a stationary object relative to a surface and it is parallel to the surface.
When an object is at rest on a horizontal surface and no force is applied to it, the static friction
is zero. When the force is applied on the object static friction start to increase, as the applied
force increase also static friction increase until it reaches maximum value then object will start
to move.
Fsmax=µsN
When the applied force is greater than the maximum, static frictional force, the object moves
but still experiences friction. This is called kinetic friction. For kinetic friction the value
remains constant regardless of the magnitude of the applied force.
Kinetic frictional force (fk) as the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to
a surface.
Fk=µkN
Static frictional force is present when the object is not moving and kinetic frictional force while
the object is moving.
It is important to know that a frictional force:
• Is proportional to the Normal force
• Is independent of the area of contact
• Is independent of the velocity of motion
When determining the Normal force, you need to remember that the sum of all vertical forces
is equals to zero and you need also to consider the direction of the vertical forces.
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1.3 Newton’s first law of motion
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION.

Newton’s laws of motion introduce the impact of forces on the objects and they also focus
on how objects will behave when a net force is applied.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
‘’A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at CONSTANT VELOCITY unless a non-
zero resultant/net force acts on it.’’
There are two most important points to note from first law:
• First point is when the object is at rest it will continue to remain at rest unless acted
upon by a net force.
• It means all the forces acting on the object are balanced
• At this stage the velocity (V=0) and the acceleration (a=0) of the object is zero
• Therefore, Fnet=0
• The second point deal with the object that is in motion at constant velocity
• Velocity is not equals to zero (V≠0) but acceleration remains at zero (a=0).
• Therefore, the object will continue to move in a straight line and Fnet=0
1.4 Newton’s second law of motion
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:

‘’When a net force act on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force and
object.’’
According to Newton second law when the net force is applied to the object, the object will
accelerate in the direction of the net force, thus acceleration increases as the net force
increases.
a
Fres
acceleration is directly proportional to the net force
a  Fres
It also describes the relationship between acceleration and mass of the object. As the mass of
the object increases, acceleration decreases.
a a
1
a
m m 1
m
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Fnet=ma
NOTE
Fnet is the sum of all HORIZONTAL forces acting on an object. (Fx and Fg//)
Hence when a force is applied at an angle to the horizontal you must resolve force
applied to its components, thus Force horizontal (Fx =Facosϴ) and force vertical
(Fy=Fasinϴ).
Also, when the object is on an incline plane resolve Fg into its components, thus force
parallel (Fg//=fgsinϴ) and force perpendicular (Fgꓕ=Fgcosϴ).
You will need to apply Newton’s laws to variety of equilibrium and non-equilibrium problems
including:
➢ A single object:
▪ Moving on a horizontal plane with or without friction
▪ Moving on an inclined plane with and without friction
▪ Moving in the vertical plane (lifts, rockets, etc.)
➢ Two-body systems (joined by a light inextensible string) by applying Newton's laws of
motion separately to EACH of the bodies:
▪ Both on a flat horizontal plane with and without friction
▪ One on a horizontal plane with and without friction, and a second hanging vertically
from a string over a frictionless pulley
▪ Both on an inclined plane with or without friction
▪ Both hanging vertically from a string over a frictionless pulley
Before looking at the examples we need look back and revise force diagram and free body
diagram
Force diagram is a representation of all the forces acting on the object, it is drawn as an
arrow.
Free body diagram the object of interest is drawn as a dot and all the forces acting on it are
drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot.
STEPS FOR DRAWING FORCE DIAGRAM AND FREE BODY DIAGRAM

FORCE DIAGRAM FREE BODY DIAGRAM
If there is a surface, draw a line to
represent it
Draw a block to represent the object. draw a dot to represent the object.
Draw an arrow to represent the weight (Fg ) Draw a vector to represent the weight (Fg)
of the object of the object.
If the body rests on a surface draw an If the body rests on a surface draw an
arrow to represent the normal force, arrow to represent the normal force,
upwards from and perpendicular to the upwards from and perpendicular to the
surface. (N) surface.(N)
Draw an arrow to represent each applied Draw an arrow to represent each applied
force. force.
Draw an arrow to represent friction(Fk) (if Draw an arrow to represent friction(Fk) (if
there is friction). there is friction).
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1.5 Newton’s third law
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
‘’When object A exert a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exert an oppositely

directed force of equal magnitude on object A.’’
A
B
• The law describes objects that are interacting and how a force exerted by one object on
another object changes the motion of both objects.
• Both objects are exerting forces on each other with the same magnitude but in opposite
directions. (Fa-b= -Fb-a).
• Although they are equal and opposite they are not balanced forces, since they are
acting on different objects.
• Both forces act in a straight line.
• The interaction between two forces is known as action-reaction pairs.
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1.6 Newton’s law of universal gravitation
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres.
NOTE:
• The force of attraction between two objects is directly proportional to the product of
their masses. F ∝m1×m2
1
• And inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres. 𝐹 ∝𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
• Therefore, 𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑟2
, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11
MASS AND WEIGHT
❖ Mass is the amount of matter in an object and it measured in kilogram (Kg).

❖ Mass of an object is the same, irrespective of its position in the universe.
❖ Mass can also be described as INERTIA.
❖ Weight is different from mass, as weight is a measure of gravitational force of attraction
exerted by the earth on an object near the surface of the earth and is measured in in
Newton (N).
❖ Weight depends on:
➢ Masses of the object and the earth
➢ Distance from the earth
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STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS OF NEWTON’S LAWS:
Step 1: Read the problem careful and identify and underline key words
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram, you must also resolve the forces into components
Step 3: Determine which physical principle can be used to solve the problem
Step 4: Use the principle to solve the question, by substituting numerical values into appropriate
equation
NOTE
When solving the first two laws of motion:
❖ Identify all forces acting on the object by drawing free-body diagram.
❖ If the object is moving at constant velocity/speed, Newton first law applies. (Fnet=0).
❖ If an acceleration is mentioned, Newton second law applies. (Fnet=ma).
Errors and Misconceptions
Learners are unable to define Newton’s second law in terms of momentum

Learners also omit key words terms in definitions. Eg some misconceptions about Normal
force:
1. Force that oppose gravity
2. Normal force is the same as gravity and perpendicular to the surface
3. Omitting the word Perpendicular to the surface
4. Using symbol (ꓕ) instead of words for the definition.
Learners label their free-body diagram incorrectly, also omitted arrows and labels in the
free-body diagrams and do not start the arrows from the object but towards the object.
Learners also fail to realise that acceleration is zero when the object is moving at
CONSTANT VELOCITY thus Fnet=0.
Learners normally swop sinθ with cosθ when determining the components of the weight or
cosθ with sinθ when determining the components of the force applied at an angle with
horizontal.
Suggestions for improvement

Learners should stick to the definitions in the Examination Guideline 2021. Key words
should be learned in these definitions.
The importance of drawing free-body diagrams for each object correctly and their
usefulness in problem solving must be learned thoroughly. Learners are encouraged to
always draw free-body diagrams for each object before attempting to solve problems in
order to identify the forces acting on each object.
Learners must know that the net force acting on an object is the sum of all the forces acting
on the object parallel to the direction of motion of the object.
Learners must be systematically exposed to different questions in which trigonometric
relations must be applied.
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1.7 Worked examples
1. One object on a horizontal plane

Example 1: A single object moving on a horizontal plane without friction.
A 15 kg cement block is pulled across a smooth surface with a force of 100 N, which forms
an angle of 14° with the horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of the normal force and the
acceleration of the cement block. The effects of friction may be ignored.
Step 1: The system is without friction, force is applied at an angle to the

horizontal and the object is accelerating. Fnet=ma
Fa=100 N
M= 15kg
α =14º
Step 2: Draw free body diagram with components since force applied is acting
at an angle to the horizontal N Fy
N
Fa
or Fx
Fg
Fg
Step 3: Calculate normal force N= fg-fy

Calculate acceleration Fnet=ma
Step 4: Calculations
Normal force
N= Fg -Fy
N= mg- Fasinα
N= 15×9.8- 100sin14
N= 147 – 24.192
N=122.81 N
Acceleration
Fnet=ma
Fx=ma
Facosα=ma
100cos14=15a
97.0295=15a
a =6.47 m.s-2
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Example 2: A single object moving on a horizontal plane with friction.
A 15 kg cement block is pulled across the floor with a force of 100 N, which forms an angle of
14° with the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor is 0,4.
Calculate the acceleration of the cement block.
Step 1: The system is with friction, force is applied at an angle to the horizontal
and the object is accelerating. Fnet=ma
Frictional force Fk=µkN=µk(mg-Fasinα)
Vertical component of force applied Fx= Fa cosα
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram
N 100 N N Fy
Fx
Fg Fg
Step 3: Calculate acceleration Fnet=ma
Step 4: Fnet=ma
Fx-fk=ma
Facosα-µkN=ma
100coos14-0.4(15×9.8-100sin14)=15a
47.906=15a
a= 3.194 m.s-2
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2. Two body system both on a flat horizontal plane (joined by a light inextensible string)
Example 3: Two bodies joined by a light inextensible string, both on a flat horizontal plane
with friction.
Two blocks of masses 2 kg and 3 kg, joined by a light inelastic string, move on a rough
horizontal surface under the influence of a force of 42 N as shown. The coefficients of kinetic
friction between the surface and the 2 kg and 3 kg blocks are 0,1 and 0,15 respectively.
Calculate the tension in the rope joining the two blocks.
Step 1: Two blocks are on the horizontal plane joined by string and both bodies are
moving at the same acceleration.
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram for both blocks to identify forces acting on each
object
N N
Fk T T 42 N
fk
Fg Fg
Step 3: Calculate tension T of the system, note tension will be the same on both
Directions in the cable.
Cable exerts on the adjoining part.

Since acceleration and tension is the same.
Step 4: Fnet=ma
Block 2kg: T-fk=ma
T-µkN=ma
T-µkmg=ma
T-0.1(2×9.8)=2a
T-1.96=2a…………………….eq 1 (two unknowns)
Block 3kg: Fnet=ma

42-T-fk=ma
42-T-µk(mg)=ma
42-T-0.15(3×9.8)=3a
37.59-T=3a…………………………eq 2 (two unknowns)
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ADD TWO EQUATIONS (eq 1 + eq 2) TO SOLVE FOR ONE UNKNOWNS
T-1.96=2a
+
37.59-T=3a
35.63=5a
a= 7.13 m.s-2
to get T use any of the equations
(eq 1) T-1.96=2a (eq 2) 37.59-T=3a
T-1.96=2(7.13) 37.59-T=3(7.13)
T-1.96=14.252 37.59-T=21.39
T=16.21 N T= 16.21 N
Example 4: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, both on a flat horizontal plane
without friction.
Three blocks of masses 1 kg, 2 kg and 3 kg moves on a frictionless horizontal surface under
the influence of a force of 42 N as shown.
4.1 State Newton’s third law of motion in words

Calculate the:
4.2 Acceleration of the system
4.3 Tension in rope joining the 1 kg and the 3 kg blocks
4.1 When object A exert a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exert an

oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.
4.2 Step 1: Draw free body diagram for each block

N N
F2-1 T 42 N
T
F1-2
Block 3 kg Block 1 kg
Fnet=ma Fnet=ma
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42-T=ma T+F3-1 -F1-3 =ma
42-T=3a…………. (eq 1) T=a………..(eq 2)
Eq 1 +Eq 2
42=4a
a= 10.5 m.s-2
4.2 Calculate tension using one of the equations:

42-T=3a T=a
42-T=3(10.5) T= 10.5 N
T=10.5 N
Example 5: Two blocks of 25 kg and 15 kg are connected by a light string on a horizontal

surface. Assume that the string cannot stretch. A force of magnitude 240 N is applied to the
block of 15 kg forming an angle of 60° with the horizontal as shown in the sketch below. The
coefficient of kinetic friction for both blocks is 0,20.
5.1 State Newton’s Second Law of Motion in words.

5.2 Draw a free body diagram for each block.
5.3 Calculate the magnitude of acceleration of the system
5.1 ’When a net force act on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force and
object.
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5.2 Free-body diagram
N N
240 N
fk
fk T T
Fg Fg
5.3 Fnet=ma
For 25 kg For 15 kg
Fnet=ma Fnet=ma
T-fk=ma Fx-T-fk=ma
T-µk(mg)=ma Facosα-T-µk(mg-Fy)=ma
T- 0.2(25×9.8)=25a Facosα-T-µk(mg-Fasinα)=ma
240cos60-T-0.2(15×9.8-240sin60) =15a
T-49=25a………. eq 1 107.831-T=15a………..eq 2
Add eq 1 to eq 2
58.831=40a
a= 1.47 m.s-2
3. One on a horizontal plane with or without friction, and a second hanging vertically
from a string over a frictionless pulley
Example 6: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, one on a horizontal plane
without friction, and a second hanging vertically from a string over a frictionless pulley.
In the diagram below, a 1 kg mass on a smooth horizontal surface is joined to a 2 kg mass
by a light, inextensible string running over a frictionless pulley.
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Calculate the tension in the string.
Step 1: The system is frictionless and note that 2 kg is not on the surface.
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram for both objects to identify forces acting on both
objects, since 2 kg is not in contact with the surface, therefore no normal
force (N).
N T
Fg Fg
Step 3: Start by calculating acceleration of the system using Fnet=ma
Step 4: Block 1 kg Block 2 kg
Fnet=ma Fnet=ma
T=ma Fg-T=ma
mg-T=ma
2×9.8-T=2a
T=a………eq 1 19.6-T=2a…………eq 2
Eq 1 + eq 2
T=a
19.6-T=2a
19.6=3a
a=6.53 m.s-2
Use equation 2 to calculate Tension (T)
19.6-T=2a
19.6-T=2(6.53)
T= 6.53 N
Example 7: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, one on a horizontal plane with
friction, and a second hanging vertically from a string over a frictionless pulley.
In the diagram below, a 1 kg mass on a rough horizontal surface is joined to a 2 kg mass by
a light, inextensible string running over a frictionless pulley. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the 1 kg mass and the surface is 0,13
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Calculate the acceleration of the system.
Step 1: The 1 kg block is on the surface and is experiencing frictional force.
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram for both blocks to identify forces acting on each.
N T
Fk T
Fg Fg
Step 3: The system is accelerating therefore use Fnet=ma
Block 1 kg Block 2 kg
Fnet=ma Fnet=ma
T-fk=ma Fg-T=ma
T-µkmg=ma mg-T=ma
T-0.13(1×9.8)=a 2×9.8-T=2a
T-1.274=a…………………………. eq 1 19.6-T=2a………………..eq 2
Add equation 1 to equation 2
T-1.274=a
19.6-T=2a
18.326=3a
a= 6.12 m.s-2
Note that when the surface is with friction acceleration decreases.
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4. Two objects on an inclined plane with or without friction.
Example 8: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, both on an inclined plane
without friction.
Calculate the:
8.1 Tension in the string if the system accelerates up the inclined plane at 4 m∙s-2
8.2 Magnitude of F if the system moves up the inclined plane at CONSTANT VELOCITY
Step 1:
8.1 The two blocks are on the incline and on frictionless surface and the system
Is accelerating, therefore Fnet=ma
8.2 The system is now moving at CONSTANT VELOCITY, therefore Fnet=0
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram with components of gravitational force for both
Blocks, thus fg// and fg┴,, it is important to resolve into components for
Calculations
N
T N F
Fg T Fg
N T N F
Fg// Fg┴ Fg// Fg┴

T
BLOCK 6 kg BLOCK 3 kg
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Step 3: 8.1 Fnet=ma
8.2 Fnet=0
Step 4: calculations
8.1 Fnet=ma
T-Fg//=ma
T-mgsinα=ma
T- 6×9.8sin30= 3×4
T=12+29.4
T= 41.4 N
8.2 Fnet=0
F-T-Fg//=0
F-41.4-mgsinα=0
F-41.4-3×9.8sin30=0
F=56.1 N
Example 9: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, both on an inclined plane with
friction.
Two objects of mass 6 kg and 3 kg respectively are connected by a light inelastic string.
They are pulled up an inclined plane which makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal, wi
th a force of magnitude F. The mass of the string may be ignored.
The coefficient of kinetic friction for the 3 kg object and 6 kg object respectively is 0,1 and
0,2.
Calculate the:
9.1 Tension in the string if the system accelerates up the inclined plane at 4 m∙s-2
9.2 Magnitude of F if the system moves up the inclined plane at CONSTANT VELOCITY
Step 1:
8.1 The two blocks are on the incline and on a surface with friction and the
System is accelerating, therefore Fnet=ma
8.2 The system is now moving at CONSTANT VELOCITY, therefore Fnet=0
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram with components
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N T N F
fk fk
Fg T Fg
N T N F
Fk fk
Fg// Fg┴ T Fg┴

Fg//
Step 3: 8.1 Fnet=ma Acceleration of 4 m.s-2

8.2 Fnet=0 due to constant velocity
8.1 Fnet=ma
T-Fg//-fk=ma
T-mgsinα-mgcosα=ma
T-6×9.8sin30-6×9.8cos30=6×4
T= 104.32 N
8.2 Fnet=0
F-T-Fg//-fk=0
F-104.32-mgsinα-mgcosα=0
F-104.32-3×9.8sin30-3×9.8cos30=0
F= 144.48 N
23 | P a g e
5. Both objects hanging vertically from a string over frictionless pulley
Example 10: Two-bodies joined by a light inextensible string, both hanging vertically from a
string over a frictionless pulley.
Two blocks, one with a mass of 2 kg and the other with a mass of 4 kg, hang over a
frictionless pulley on a thin, light rope.
Calculate the:
10.1 Acceleration of the blocks
10.2 Tension in the rope
Step 1: Both objects are hanging on a string and are accelerating, therefore Fnet=ma
Step 2: Draw free-body diagram for both blocks
T T
Fg Fg
Step 3: Start by calculating acceleration then Tension using Fnet=ma
10.1.
Block 2kg Block 4kg
Fnet=ma Fnet=ma
T-Fg=ma Fg-T=ma
T-mg=ma mg-T=ma
T-2×9.8=2a 4×9.8-T=4a
T-19.6=2a……………..eq 1 39.2-T=4a……………. eq 2
24 | P a g e
Add equation 1 to equation 2
T-19.6=2a
39.2-T=4a
19.6=6a
a= 3.27 m.s-2
10.2 Calculate Tension using any of the two equations
Using equation 1 Using equation 2
T-19.6=2a 39.2-T=4a
T-19.6=2(3.27) 39.2-T=4(3.27)
T-19.6=6.54 39.2-T=13.08
T=26.14 N T=26.14 N
25 | P a g e
Activities
ACTIVITY 1
In the diagram below, a small object of mass 2 kg is sliding at a constant velocity of

1,5 m⋅s-1 down a rough plane inclined at 7o to the horizontal surface.
1,5 m⋅s-1
2 kg
7o
Horizontal surface
At the bottom of the plane, the object continues sliding onto the rough horizontal
surface and eventually comes to a stop.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the object and the surface is the same for
both the inclined surface and the horizontal surface.
1.1 Write down the magnitude of the net force acting on the object. (1)
1.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for the object while it is on the inclined
plane. (3)
1.3 Calculate the:
1.3.1 Magnitude of the frictional force acting on the object while it is

sliding down the inclined plane (3)
1.3.2 Coefficient of kinetic friction between the object and the surfaces
1.3.3 Distance the object travels on the horizonta l surface before it

comes to a stop (5)
[15]
26 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 3
A block, of mass 8 kg, is placed on a rough horizontal surface. The 8 kg block, which is
connected to a 2 kg block by means of a light inextensible string passing over a light
frictionless pulley, starts sliding from point A, as shown below.
8 kg 15°
A B C
2 kg
3.1 State Newton's Second Law in words. (2)
3.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for the 8 kg block. (4)
3.3 When the 8 kg block reaches point B, the angle between the string and the
horizontal is 15° and the acceleration of the system is 1,32 m·s-2.
3.3.1 Give a reason why the system is NOT in equilibrium. (1)
3.3.2 Use the 2 kg mass to calculate the tension in the string. (3)
3.3.3 Calculate the kinetic frictional force between the 8 kg block and the
horizontal surface. (4)
3.4 As the 8 kg block moves from B to C, the kinetic frictional force between the
8 kg block and the horizontal surface is not constant.
Give a reason for this statement. (1)
The horizontal surface on which the 8 kg block is moving, is replaced by another

horizontal surface made from a different material.
3.5 Will the kinetic frictional force, calculated in QUESTION 3.3. 3 above, change?
Choose from: YES or NO. Give a reason for the answer. (2)
[17]
27 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 4
4.1 The sketch below shows a large suitcase with a mass of 32 kg rests on a rough
incline at an angle of 30 ̊ to the ground.
4.1.1 Define normal force in words. (2)
4.1.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram of all the forces acting on the
suitcase. (3)
4.1.3 Calculate the magnitude of the force of friction that keeps the suitcase
stationery on the incline. (3)
4.1.4 Calculate the coefficient of static friction between the suitcase and the
incline, if the suitcase is just about to move on the incline. (3)
4.2 On ANOTHER rough inclined plane, two crates 30 kg and 50 kg are

connected with a strong string as in the sketch below. The angle of inclination
is UNKNOWN.
The ratio of the parallel and perpendicular components of the gravitational

force on each crate is 5:3. A force of 500 N is applied as shown on the 50 kg
crate so that the crates move with an acceleration of 2 m·s-2 up the incline.
4.2.1 Calculate the magnitude of the TOTAL FRICTIONAL FORCE present. (6)
4.2.2 Calculate the magnitude of the tension in the string connecting the
two crates. (2)
[19]
JENN CONTENT MANUAL NEWTON’S LAWS AND APPLICATIONS TEACHER/LEARNER 31
28 | P a g e
Topic 14: Electrostatics (Grade 11)

Coulomb's law
 State Coulomb's law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point
charge (Q1) on another point charge (Q2) is directly proportional to the product of
the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance (r)between them:
kQ1Q2
 Solve problems using the equation F = for charges in one dimension (1D) (restrict
r2
to three charges).
kQ1Q2
 Solve problems using the equation F = for charges in two dimensions (2D) – for
r2
three charges in a right-angled formation (limit to charges at the 'vertices of a right- angled
triangle').
Electric field
 Describe an electric field as a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a
force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test
charge would move if placed at that point.
 Draw electric field patterns for the following configurations:
o A single point charge
o Two point charges (one negative, one positive OR both positive OR both negative)
o A charged sphere
 Define the electric field at a point: The electric field at a point is the electrostatic
F
force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that point. In symbols: E  .
q
F
 Solve problems using the equation E 
q
.
 Calculate the electric field at a point due to a number of point charges, using the equation
kQ
E  2 to determine the contribution to the field due to each charge. Restrict to three
r
charges in a straight line.
IMPORTANT TERMS & DEFINITIONS:
Coulomb's law The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge on
another point charge is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r)
kQ1Q2
between them. In symbols: F =
r2
Electric field A region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force.
Electric field at a The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit
point positive charge placed at that point.
F
In symbols: E  Unit: N∙C-1
q
Direction of electric The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test
field charge would move if placed at that point.
29 | P a g e
IMPORTANT UNITS:
coulomb (C) Unit of electric charge – the charge is 1 coulomb when a current of 1 ampere
passes a point in a conductor in one second. (1 C = 1 A∙s)
volt (V) Unit of potential difference – 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb. (1 V = 1 J∙C-1)
N∙C-1 or V∙m-1 Unit of electric field
newton (N) Unit of force
joule (J) Unit of energy or work done
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS TABLE:
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

Acceleration due to gravity
g 9,8 m·s-2
Swaartekragversnelling
Universal gravitational constant
G 6,67 x 10-11 N·m2·kg-2
Universele gravitasiekonstant
Speed of light in a vacuum
c 3,0 x 108 m·s-1
Spoed van lig in 'n vakuum
Planck's constant
h 6,63 x 10-34 J·s
Planck se konstante
Coulomb's constant
k 9,0 x 109 N·m2·C-2
Coulomb se konstante
Charge on electron
e- -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Electron mass
me 9,11 x 10-31 kg
Elektronmassa
Mass of Earth
M 5,98 x 1024 kg
Massa van Aarde
Radius of Earth
RE 6,38 x 103 km
Straal van Aarde
FORMULAE TABLE:
kQ 1Q 2 kQ
F= E=
r2 r2
W F
V= E=
q q
Q Q
n= or / of n=
e qe
30 | P a g e
Study of charges at rest
Neutral (uncharged): ELECTROSTATICS
Number of protons = number of electrons
Charging of objects
Quantisation of charge Two kinds of charge By contact: Electrons transferred
All charges are multiples of the smallest Positive: electron deficient from one object to another.
charge i.e. the charge on one electron: Negative: excess of electrons
1,6 x 10-19 C Rubbing
Conservation of charge
Charge cannot be created or destroyed. It can Rod: neutral Rod: positive (e- lost)
only be transferred from one object to another. Cloth: neutral Cloth: negative (e- gained)
Electric field
Region in space where an electric charge
Electrostatic force experiences a force. Represented with field lines.
Like charges repel
Unlike charges attract Definition of electric field: E =
Coulomb’s law
F Q1Q2 and F :
-
k = 9 x 109
N∙m2∙C-2
Electric field at a certain distance from a point charge: E =
Electric field patterns
31 | P a g e
LEARNER & TEACHER MANUAL
TOPIC: Electrostatics Duration: 3 HOURS
Key Concepts:
1. Coulomb’s law
2. Free-body diagram
3. Solving problems for charges in 1D and 2D using Coulomb’s law equation.
4. Electric field
5. Electric field patterns
6. Electric field calculations (1D)
WORKED EXAMPLE
1.1 Two small, identical, metal spheres, P and Q, on insulated stands, are
INITIALLY NEUTRAL. They are then charged to carry charges of
-10 x 10-9 C and +2 x 10-9 C respectively as shown below.
-10 x10-9 C +2 x10-9 C
P Q
The charged spheres are brought together so that they touch each other
and are then separated.
1.1.1 Calculate the charge on each sphere after they have been
separated. (2)
1.1.2 From which sphere are electrons REMOVED? Only write P or Q. (1)
1.1.3 Calculate the number of electrons transferred between the

spheres. (4)
1.1.4 Draw the RESULTANT electric field pattern of the two spheres
AFTER THEY ARE SEPARATED and returned to their original
positions. (3)
1.2 Two point charges, qA and qB, are placed 50 cm apart. The charge on qA
is +4 x 10-9 C. Point P, which is between qA and qB, is 20 cm to the right
of qA and 30 cm to the left of qB as shown in the diagram below. The NET
electric field at point P is ZERO.
qA = +4 x 10-9 C P qB
20 cm 30 cm
32 | P a g e
1.2.1 Define the term electric field at a point. (2)
1.2.2 Is qB positive or negative? Give reasons. (3)
1.2.3 Calculate the magnitude of the charge on qB. (4)
1.2.4 Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by qA

on qB. (4)
[23]
SOLUTIONS
1.1.1
(2)
1.1.2 P (1)
1.1.3
(4)
1.1.4
Direction of field lines is correct.
Rigting van veldlyne is korrek.
Shape of field is correct.
Veldpatroon is korrek.
Field lines touch spheres.
Veldlyne raak aan sfere.
Note: -1 for crossing field lines.
Nota: -1 vir kruisende veldlyne.
(3)
1.2.1 The electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at
that point.
Die elektrostatiese krag wat per eenheidspositiewe-lading ondervind word

wat by daardie punt geplaas is. (2)
33 | P a g e
1.2.2 qB is positive/positief
The electric field due to qA points to the right because qA is positive.

The field due to qB should point to the left in order for the net field to
be zero.
OR
Since Enet is zero, EA and EB must be in opposite directions.
Therefore, qA and qB have the same charge.
Die elektriese field van qA wys na regs omdat qA positief is.

Die veld as gevolg van qB moet dus na links wys ten einde 'n netto veld
van nul te hê.
OF
Omdat Enet nul is, het EA en EB teenoorgestelde rigtings.
Dus moet qA en qB dieselfde lading hê. (3)
1.2.3
If a learner shows "k" instead of the value
; in both substitutions, accept it.
As 'n leerder 'n "k" in beide instellings wys
in plaas van die waarde, aanvaar dit.
(4)
1.2.4 POSITIVE MARKING FROM 1.2.3.
(4)
[23]
34 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 1
1.1 A small neutral sphere acquires a charge of -1,95 x 10-6 C.
1.1.1 Were electrons ADDED TO or REMOVED FROM the sphere? (1)
1.1.2 Calculate the number of electrons which were added or removed. (3)
1.1.3 Define the term electric field at a point. (2)
1.1.4 Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point 0,5 m from
the centre of the charged sphere. (3)
1.2 Two point charges, q1 and q2, are fixed 0,02 m apart. The magnitude of
charges q1 and q2 is the same and q1 is NEGATIVELY charged.
The small charged sphere with the charge of -1,95 x 10-6 C is placed at
point P, 0,03 m east of charge q2, as shown in the diagram below. The sphere
at point P experiences a net electrostatic force of 1,38 N west.
N
-1,95 x 10-6 C
0,02 m 0,03 m
●
q1
●
q2
●P W E
FE = 1,38 N
S
Calculate the magnitude of the charge on q2. (5)
[14]
ACTIVITY 2
2.1 A small sphere A carrying a charge of -5 µC hangs vertically from a ceiling by

means of an inextensible string. Point P is 100 mm to the right of sphere A as
shown on the Diagram 1 below.
DIAGRAM 1
P
A = -5 µC 100 mm
2.1.1 Did charged sphere A LOSE or GAIN electrons to acquire a charge of

-5 µC? (1)
2.1.2 Calculate the number of electrons lost or gained by charged sphere A,

to acquire a charge of -5 µC. (3)
35 | P a g e
2.1.3 Calculate the electric field at point P, due to charged sphere A. (5)
2.2 An identical sphere B carrying an unknown charge placed on an insulated

stand is brought closer to sphere A. Charged sphere A swings to the right and
comes to rest so that the string makes an angle of 30° with the vertical and the
tension in the string is 25 N. The distance between the two charged spheres is
50 mm as shown on Diagram 2 below.
DIAGRAM 2
30o
B A = -5 µC
50 mm
2.2
2.2.1 Is the charge on sphere B POSITIVE or NEGATIVE? Give a reason for

your answer. (2)
2.2.2 Calculate the magnitude of the charge on sphere B. (6)

[17]
36 | P a g e
37 | P a g e
38 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 4
Two charged spheres, R and S, are both stationary on a smooth, insulated surface
inclined at an angle of 25° to the horizontal. Sphere S, of mass 0,01 kg and carrying a
charge of –6 x 10-9 C, is connected to a 0,03 m long, light inextensible string attached
to point P at the top of the incline.
Sphere R, carrying a charge of +5 x 10-9 C, is held such that the distance between the
centres of the spheres is r, as shown in the diagram below.
Ignore the effects of friction.
●P
–6 x 10-9 C
S 0,03 m
-9
+5 x 10 C
R
r
25°
Sphere R exerts an electrostatic force of magnitude 1,2 x 10-3 N on sphere S.
4.1 State Coulomb's law in words. (2)
4.2 Calculate the distance r between the spheres. (3)
4.3 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for sphere S. (4)
4.4 Calculate the:
4.4.1 Tension in the string (4)
4.4.2 Net electric field at point P (5)

[18]
39 | P a g e
Acids and Bases

Acid-base reactions
 Define acids and bases according to Arrhenius and Lowry-Brønsted theories:
Arrhenius theory: Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+/H3O+/hydronium ions) in aqueous
solution. Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution.
Lowry-Brønsted theory: An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor. A base is a proton (H+ ion)
acceptor.
Relative strengths of acids and bases

 Distinguish between strong acids/bases and weak acids/bases with examples.
Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples of weak acids are ethanoic acid and oxalic acid.
Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH- ions.
Examples of strong bases are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH-
ions.
Examples of weak bases are ammonia, calcium carbonate, potassium carbonate,
calcium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
 Distinguish between concentrated acids/bases and dilute acids/bases.
Concentrated acids/bases contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in
proportion to the volume of water.
Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion
to the volume of water.
40 | P a g e
Acid-base reactions
 Write down the reaction equations of aqueous solutions of acids and bases.
Examples: HCℓ(g) + H2O(ℓ) → H3O+(aq) + Cℓ-(aq) (HCℓ is a monoprotic acid.)
NH3(g) + H2O(ℓ) → NH 4 (aq) + OH-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → 2H3O+(aq) + SO 24  (aq) (H2SO4 is a diprotic acid.)
 Identify conjugate acid-base pairs for given compounds.
 Describe a substance that can act as either acid or base as ampholyte. Water is a good
example of an ampholyte substance. Write equations to show how an ampholyte
substance can act as acid or base.
 Write down neutralisation reactions of common laboratory acids and bases.
Examples: HCℓ(aq) + NaOH(aq)/KOH(aq) → NaCℓ(aq)/KCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
HCℓ(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
(COOH)2(aq) + NaOH(aq) → (COO)2Na2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
NOTE: The above are examples of equations that learners will be expected to write
from given information. However, any other neutralisation reaction can be
given in the question paper to assess, e.g. stoichiometry.
Hydrolysis
 Define hydrolysis as the reaction of a salt with water.
 Determine the approximate pH (equal to, smaller than or larger than 7) of salts in salt
hydrolysis.
o Hydrolysis of the salt of a weak acid and a strong base results in an alkaline
solution, i.e. the pH > 7. Examples of such salts are sodium ethanoate, sodium
oxalate and sodium carbonate.
o Hydrolysis of the salt of a strong acid and a weak base results in an acidic
solution, i.e. the pH < 7. An example of such a salt is ammonium chloride.
o The salt of a strong acid and a strong base does not undergo hydrolysis and the
solution of the salt will be neutral, i.e. pH = 7.
Acid-base titrations
 Motivate the choice of a specific indicator in a titration. Choose from methyl orange,
phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue.
 Define the equivalence point of a titration as the point at which the acid/base has
completely reacted with the base/acid.
Define the endpoint of a titration as the point where the indicator changes colour.
 Perform stoichiometric calculations based on titrations of a strong acid with a strong
base, a strong acid with a weak base and a weak acid with a strong base. Calculations
may include percentage purity.
 For a titration, e.g. the titration of oxalic acid with sodium hydroxide:
o List the apparatus needed or identify the apparatus from a diagram.
o Describe the procedure to prepare a standard oxalic acid solution.
o Describe the procedure to conduct the titration.
o Describe safety precautions.
o Describe measures that need to be in place to ensure reliable results.
o Interpret given results to determine the unknown concentration.
pH and the pH scale

 Explain the pH scale as a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to express the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
 Calculate pH values of strong acids and strong bases using pH = -log[H3O+].
 Define Kw as the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the ion product of
water or the ionisation constant of water, i.e. Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 1014 by 298
41K.| P a g e
 Explain the auto-ionisation of water, i.e. the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+
ions and OH- ions.
 Interpret Ka values of acids to determine the relative strength of given acids. Interpret Kb
values of bases to determine the relative strength of given bases.
 Compare strong and weak acids by looking at:
o pH (monoprotic and diprotic acids)
o Conductivity
o Reaction rate
IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
CHEMICAL CHANGE: ACIDS AND BASES

Acid-base indicator A dye used to distinguish between acidic and basic solutions by means of the colour
changes it undergoes in these solutions.
Amphiprotic A substance that can act as either an acid or a base.
substance/ampholyte
Arrhenius theory An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H +)/ hydronium ions (H3O+)
when it dissolves in water.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when it dissolves in water.
Auto-ionisation of water A reaction in which water reacts with itself to form ions (hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions).
Concentrated Contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the volume
acids/bases of water.
Conjugate acid-base A pair of compounds or ions that differ by the presence of one H + ion.
pair Example: CO32- and HCO3- OR HCℓ and Cℓ-
Conjugate acid and A conjugate acid has one H+ ion more than its conjugate base.
base Example: HCO3- is the conjugate acid of base CO32-
CO32- is the conjugate base of acid HCO3- .
Dilute acids/bases Contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the volume
of water.
Diprotic acid An acid that can donate two protons.
Example: H2SO4
Dissociation The process in which ionic compounds split into ions.
Endpoint The point in a titration where the indicator changes colour.
Equivalence point The point in a reaction where equivalent amounts of acid and base have reacted
completely.
42 | P a g e
Hydrolysis The reaction of a salt with water.
Ionisation The process in which ions are formed during a chemical reaction.
Ion product of water The product of the ions formed during auto-ionisation of water i.e. [H3O+][OH–] at
25 °C.
Ionisation constant of The equilibrium value of the ion product [H 3O+][OH–] at 25 °C.
water (Kw)
Ka value Ionisation constant for an acid.
Kb value Dissociation or ionisation constant for a base.
Lowry-Brønsted theory An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
Monoprotic acid An acid that can donate one proton. Example: HCℓ
Neutralisation The reaction of an acid with a base to form a salt (ionic compound) and water.
pH The negative of the logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration in mol·dm-3.
In symbols: pH = -log[H3O+] Unit: None
pH scale A scale from 0 – 14 used as a measure of the acidity and basicity of solutions where
pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 is basic and pH < 7 is acidic.
Salt The ionic compound that is the product of a neutralisation reaction.
Standard solution A solution of precisely known concentration.
Strong bases Dissociate COMPLETELY in water to form a high concentration of OH- ions.
Examples: sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Strong acids Ionise COMPLETELY in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples: hydrochloric acid (HCℓ), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)
Titration The procedure for determining the amount of acid (or base) in a solution by
determining the volume of base (or acid) of known concentration that will completely
react with it.
Weak acids Ionise INCOMPLETELY in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples: ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and oxalic acid (COOH)2
Weak bases Dissociate/ionise INCOMPLETELY in water to form a low concentration of OH- ions.
Examples: ammonia (NH3), sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
m N
n n
M NA
n m V
c or/of c n
V MV Vm
c a v a na
 pH = -log[H3O+]
c b v b nb
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at/by 298 K
43 | P a g e
ACTIVITY 1 40 MARKS: 40 MINUTES
1.1 According to the Arrhenius theory, an acid ...
A is a proton donor.
B is a proton acceptor.
C forms hydroxide ions in water.
D forms hydronium ions in water. (2)
1.2 The following reaction is a Lowry-Bronsted acid base reaction.
NH3(g) + HCℓ(g) ⇋ NH4Cℓ(g)
The reason the reaction is classified as an acid base reaction is that …
A NH3 accepts a proton.

B HCℓ accepts a proton.
C NH3 donates a proton.
D HCℓ donates an electron. (2)
1.3 Consider the following reaction:
CH3NH2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) CH3NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The CH3NH2 acts as a/an …
A proton donor.
B proton acceptor.
C oxidising agent.
D reducing agent. (2)
1.4 In the reaction X + H2O  H3O+ + HSO4 – , X represents the following:
A acid SO42–
B base SO42–
C acid H2SO4
(2)
D base H2SO4
44 | P a g e
1.5 Consider the four different solutions. Which of these solutions is a dilute weak
acid solution?
A 0,1 mol∙dm-3 HC solution
B 5 mol∙dm-3 CH3COOH solution
C 0,5 mol∙dm-3 oxalic acid solution
D 5 mol∙dm-3 NaOH solution (2)
1.6 Which ONE of the following is a CORRECT description for a 0,1 mol∙dm-3
hydrochloric acid solution?
A Dilute strong acid
B Dilute weak acid
C Concentrated weak acid
D Concentrated strong acid (2)
1.7 Consider the reactant Y in the following reaction:
Y + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O+ + H2PO −4
The formula of Y is:
A PO 34−
B H2PO −4
C HPO 24−
D H 3 PO 4 (2)
1.8 An aqueous solution that contains more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions is
a(n)
A basic solution
B acidic solution
C neutral solution
D standardised solution (2)
45 | P a g e
1.9 Consider the reaction represented by the equation below:
H 3 PO 4 (aq) + HCO 3− (aq) ⇌ H 2 PO −4 (aq) + H 2 CO 3 (aq) Ka > 1
The strongest base in the above reaction is:
A H 2 PO −4
B HCO 3−
C H 3 PO 4
D H 2 CO 3 (2)
1.10 Consider the reaction represented by the balanced equation below.
H 3 PO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(ℓ) ⇌ H 3 O+(aq) + H 2 PO −4 (aq)
Which ONE of the following is a conjugate acid-base pair?
A H 3 O+(aq) and H 2 O(ℓ)
B H 3 PO 4 (aq) and H 2 O(ℓ)
C H 3 PO 4 (aq) and H 3 O+(aq)
D H 3 O+(aq) and H 2 PO −4 (aq) (2)
1.11 Which ONE of the following pairs is NOT a conjugate acid-base pair?
A H3O+ and OH−
B NH+4 and NH 3
C H2PO−4 and HPO24−
D H 2 CO 3 and HCO3− (2)
1.12 The conjugate base of HPO 24  is …
A OH 
B PO 34
C H2PO 4
D H3PO4 (2)
46 | P a g e
1.13 Consider the reaction represented by the equation below:
H 3 PO 4 (aq) + HCO 3− (aq) ⇌ H 2 PO −4 (aq) + H 2 CO 3 (aq) Ka > 1
The strongest base in the above reaction is:
A H 2 PO −4
B HCO 3−
C H 3 PO 4
D H 2 CO 3 (2)
1.14 Consider the reaction represented by the balanced equation below.
H 3 PO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(ℓ) ⇌ H 3 O+(aq) + H 2 PO −4 (aq)
Which ONE of the following is a conjugate acid-base pair?
A H 3 O+(aq) and H 2 O(ℓ)
B H 3 PO 4 (aq) and H 2 O(ℓ)
C H 3 PO 4 (aq) and H 3 O+(aq)
D H 3 O+(aq) and H 2 PO −4 (aq) (2)
1.15 Which ONE of the following pairs is NOT a conjugate acid-base pair?
A H3O+ and OH−
B NH+4 and NH 3
C H2PO−4 and HPO24−
D H 2 CO 3 and HCO3− (2)
1.16 The conjugate base of HPO 24  is …
A OH 
B PO 34
C H2PO 4
D H3PO4 (2)
47 | P a g e
1.17 Which ONE of the following solutions, each of concentration 0,1 mol∙dm-3, has
the highest pH?
A HNO 3 (aq)
B NH 4 Cℓ(aq)
C Na 2 CO 3 (aq)
D CH 3 COOH(aq) (2)
1.18 Reactions I and II below have equilibrium constants (Kc) greater

than 1.
I: H3X + HCO 3 ⇌ H2X− + H2CO3 Kc > 1
II: H3O+ + H2X− ⇌ H2O + H3X Kc > 1
Based on the reactions above, the ACIDS in order of INCREASING

STRENGTH (weakest to strongest) are …
A H3X, H2X−, H3O+
B H2CO3, H3X, H3O+
C H3X, H2CO3, H3O+
D H3X, H3O+, H2CO3 (2)
1.19 A hydrochloric acid solution, HCℓ(aq), and an acetic acid solution,

CH3COOH(aq), of EQUAL CONCENTRATIONS are compared.
How do the H3O+(aq) concentration of HCℓ(aq) and the pH of HCℓ(aq)
compare to that of CH3COOH(aq)?
[H3O+] of HCℓ(aq) pH of HCℓ(aq)

A Higher than Higher than
B Higher than Lower than
C Equal to Equal to
D Higher than Equal to (2)
48 | P a g e
(2)
49 | P a g e
50 | P a g e
A Grade 12 class wants to determine the percentage of ethanoic acid in a certain bottle
of vinegar. They titrate a sample taken from the bottle of vinegar with a standard
solution of sodium hydroxide. The equation for the reaction is:
CH 3 COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH 3 COONa(aq) + H 2 O(ℓ)
2.1 The sodium ethanoate (CH 3 COONa) formed during the above neutralisation
reaction undergoes hydrolysis to form an alkaline solution. Write down an
equation for this hydrolysis reaction. (3)
2.2 Ammonium chloride crystals, NH 4 Cℓ(s), dissolve in water to form ammonium

and chloride ions. The ammonium ions react with water according to the
balanced equation below:
NH +4 (aq) + H 2 O(ℓ) ⇌ NH 3 (aq) + H 3 O+(aq)
2.2.1 Write down the name of the process described by the underlined
sentence. (1)
2.2.2 Is ammonium chloride ACIDIC or BASIC in aqueous solution? Give

a reason for the answer. (2)
2.3 A learner dissolves ammonium chloride (NH 4 Cℓ) crystals in water and
measures the pH of the solution.
2.3.1 Define the term hydrolysis of a salt. (2)
2.3.2 Will the pH of the solution be GREATER THAN, SMALLER THAN

or EQUAL TO 7? Write a relevant equation to support your answer. (3)
Acid rain does not cause damage to lakes that have rocks containing
limestone (CaCO3). Hydrolysis of CaCO3 results in the formation of ions,
which neutralise the acid.
2.4.1 Explain, with the aid of the relevant HYDROLYSIS reaction, how
limestone can neutralise the acid. (3)
Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa(aq), forms when ethanoic acid reacts with

sodium hydroxide.
2.4.2 Will the pH of a sodium ethanoate solution be GREATER THAN 7,

LESS THAN 7 or EQUAL TO 7? (1)
2.4.3 Explain the answer to QUESTION 2.4.2

. with the aid of a balanced
chemical equation. (3)
51 | P a g e
Example 1
A hydrochloric acid solution has a concentration of 0,2 mol·dm -3 at 25 °C. Calculate
1. H3O+concentration in the solution.
2. pH of the solution.
3. OH– concentration in the solution
Solution 1
Strong Acid Monoprotic Acid

ionise completely in
water to form a high HCl An acid that can
concentration of donate one
H3O+ ions proton.
Steps to follow when calculating the pH of monoprotic acid.
Write down a balanced equation HCℓ + H2O → H3O+ + Cℓ-
1 mol 1mol
1. Use ratios to calculate the 1:1 ratio (Monoprotic acid)

concentration of [H3O+].
 [H3O+] = [HCℓ]
= 0,2 mol·dm-3
2. Substitute the concentration of

[H3O+] in the formula, pH = -log [H3O +]
pH = -log [H3O+], to calculate pH = -log (0,2)
the pH. pH = 0,70

[H3O+] in the formula, Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14
Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14  (0,2) [OH-] = 1,0 x 10-14
,to calculate the OH– 1,0 x 10−14
  [OH−]= =
concentration in the solution 0,2
 [OH-]= 5 x 10-14 mol·dm-3
52 | P a g e
Example 2
A sulphuric acid solution has a concentration of 0,2 mol·dm-3 at 25 °C. Calculate
3. OH– concentration in the solution
Solution 2:
Strong Acid Diprotic Acid

ionise completely in water
to form a high H2SO4 An acid that can
concentration of H3O+ donate two protons.
ions
Steps to follow when calculating the pH of diprotic acid.
Write down a balanced equation H2SO4 + H2O → 2H3O+ + SO42-
1 mol 2mol
1:2 ratio (Diprotic acid)

1. Use ratios to calculate the
concentration of [H3O+].
 [H3O+] = 2[H2SO4]
= 2(0,2)
= 0,4 mol·dm-3

[H3O+] in the formula, pH = -log [H3O +]
pH = -log [H3O+], to calculate pH = -log (0,4)
the pH. pH = 0,4
3. Substitute the concentration of Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14

[H3O+] in the formula,  (0,4) [OH-] = 1,0 x 10-14
Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14 1,0 x 10−14
  [OH−]= =
to calculate the OH– 0,4
concentration in the solution  [OH-]= 2,5 x 10-14 mol·dm-3
Page | 52
Example 3
Sodium hydroxide solution has a concentration of 0,4 mol·dm-3 at 25 °C. Calculate
1. OH– concentration in the solution.
Solution 2
Strong Base
NaOH dissociates completely in water to form a
high concentration of OH-ions.
Steps to follow when calculating the pH of a base.
Write down a balanced equation NaOH → Na+ + OH-
1 mol 1mol
1. Use ratios to calculate the 1:1 ratio

concentration of [OH-].
 [OH-] = [NaOH]
= 0,4 mol·dm-3
2. Substitute the concentration of [OH-]

in the formula, Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14
Kw = [H3O +] [OH-]= 1,0 x 10-14, to  [H3O +] (0,4) = 1,0 x 10-14
1,0 x 10−14
calculate the OH– concentration in  [H3O +] = 0,4
the solution [H3O +] = 2,5 x 10-14 mol·dm-3
3.
Option 1
Substitute the concentration of [H3O+] in pH = -log [H3O +]
the formula, pH = -log [H3O+], to calculate pH = -log (2,5 x 10-14)
the pH. pH = 13,60
Option 2
• Substitute the concentration of [OH-] pOH = -log [OH-]
in the formula, pOH = -log [OH-], to pOH = -log (0,4)
calculate pOH pOH = 0,4
• Substitute pOH in the formula
pH = 14 – pOH to calculate the pH pH = 14 – pOH
= 14 – 0,4
= 13,60
The formulas in option 2 are not included in the data sheet. You
must know and understand them by heart or use option 1
method to avoid mixing pH and pOH formulas. Page | 3
Example 4
The pH of a hydrochloric acid solution is 4,5 at 25 °C. Calculate
2. Concentration of HCl.
Solution 1
Strong Acid Monoprotic Acid

ionise completely in
water to form a high HCl An acid that can
concentration of donate one
H3O+ ions proton.
Steps to calculating the concentration of monoprotic acid if given the pH
HCℓ + H2O → H3O+ + Cℓ-

Write down a balanced equation.
1. Substitute the pH value in the pH = -log [H3O +]

formula, pH = -log [H3O+],  4,5 = -log [H3O +]
and calculate the  [H3O +] = 10-4,5
concentration of [H3O+]. [H3O +] = 3,16× 10-5 mol·dm-3
HCℓ + H2O → H3O+ + Cℓ-
1 mol 1mol
concentration of the HCl.
1:1 ratio (Monoprotic acid)
 [HCℓ] = [H3O +]
=3,16× 10-5 mol·dm-3
Page | 55
Example 5
The pH of a sulphuric acid solution is 4,5 at 25 °C. Calculate
2. Concentration of HCl.
Solution 2:
Strong Acid Diprotic Acid

ionise completely in water to
form a high concentration
H2SO4 An acid that can
of H3O+ ions donate two protons.
Steps to calculating the concentration of diprotic acid if given the pH
Write down a balanced equation. H2SO4 + H2O → 2H3O+ + SO42-
3. Substitute the pH value in the pH = -log [H3O +]

formula, pH = -log [H3O+],  4,5 = -log [H3O +]
and calculate the  [H3O +] = 10-4,5
concentration of [H3O+]. [H3O +] = 3,16× 10-5 mol·dm-3
H2SO4 + H2O → 2H3O+ + SO42-
1 mol 2mol

concentration of the H2SO4. 1:2 ratio (Diprotic acid)
1
 [H2SO4] = 2[H3O +]
1
= 2 (3,16× 10-5)
= 1,58 × 10-5 mol·dm-3
Page | 56
3.1 Nitric acid (HNO 3 ), an important acid used in industry, is a strong acid.
(3)
Calculate the pH of a 0,3 mol∙dm-3 nitric acid solution.
3.2 A learner wishes to identify element X in the hydrogen carbonate, XHCO3.

To do this she dissolves 0,4 g of XHCO3 in 100 cm3 of water. She then titrates
all of this solution with a 0,2 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) solution. Methyl
orange is used as the indicator during the titration.
Calculate the pH of the hydrochloric acid solution. (3)

3.2.1
3.3 Learners use the reaction of a 0,15 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution with a
sodium hydroxide solution in two different experiments. The balanced
equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + H2

(3)
3.3.1 Calculate the pH of sulphuric acid solution.
3 .4 Calculate the pH of a 0,5 moldm-3 sodium hydroxide solution at 25 °C. (4)
3.5 Ethanoic acid (CH 3 COOH) is an acid that ionises incompletely in water
according to the following balanced equation:
CH 3 COOH(aq) + H 2 O(ℓ) → CH 3 COO─(aq) + H 3 O+(aq)
3.5.1 Write down the term used for the underlined phrase above. (1)
3.5.2 An ethanoic acid solution has a pH of 4 at 25 °C. Calculate the

concentration of the hydronium ions, H 3 O+(aq) in the solution. (3)
3.5.3 Is ethanoic acid a WEAK acid or a STRONG acid? Give a reason for
the answer. (2)
3.6 The water in a certain lake has a pH of 5.
3.6.1 Calculate the concentration of the hydronium ions in the water. (3)
3.7 The pH of a hydrochloric acid solution, HCℓ(aq), is 1,02 at 25 °C.
3.7.1 Calculate the concentration of the HCℓ(aq). (3)
Page | 57
3.8 Carbonated water is an aqueous solution of carbonic acid, H 2 CO 3 .
H 2 CO 3 (aq) ionises in two steps when it dissolves in water.
3.8.1. The pH of a carbonic acid solution at 25 °C is 3,4. Calculate the

hydroxide ion concentration in the solution. (5)
3.9 A sulphuric acid solution is prepared by dissolving 7,35 g of H 2 SO 4 (ℓ) in

500 cm3 of water.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets are added to the 500 cm3 H 2 SO 4 solution.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
H 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2NaOH(s) → Na 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(ℓ)
After completion of the reaction, the pH of the solution was found to be 1,3.
Assume complete ionisation of H 2 SO 4 .
3.9.1 Calculate the concentration of the H2 SO 4 (aq) (4)
3.10 A learner adds distilled water to a soil sample and then filters the mixture.
The pH of the filtered liquid is then measured.
He then gradually adds an ammonia solution, NH 3 (aq), to this liquid and

measures the pH of the solution at regular intervals. The graph below shows
the results obtained.
Graph of pH versus volume of NH 3 (aq)
12
8
pH
0 2 4 6 8 10
3
Volume of NH3(aq) added (cm )
3.10.1. Is the soil sample ACIDIC or BASIC? Refer to the graph above and
give a reason for the answer. (2)
3.10.2. Calculate the concentration of the hydroxide ions ( OH − ) in the

reaction mixture after the addition of 4 cm3 of NH 3 (aq). (4)
Page | 58
3.11 Like all equilibrium constants, the ionic product, Kw, of water changes its
value as the temperature changes, as shown in the table below.
TEMPERATURE (° C) Kw VALUE
25 1,0 x 10-14
65 2,92 x 10-14
3.11.1 Is the ionisation of water EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? (1)
3.11.2 Water is an ampholyte. Explain what this statement means. (1)
3.11.3 Show, by means of a suitable calculation, that the pH of water

at 65 °C is 6,77. (4)
Page | 59
BASIC CALCULATIONS
MASS SOLUTIONS
m n m
n= c= or/of c=
M V MV
n is number of moles (mol) c is concentration (mol.dm−3)

m is mass (g) v is volume (dm3)
M is molar mass (g.mol−1)
EXAMPLE 1
3
A laboratory technician dissolves a 4,5 g sample of the magnesium oxide in 100 cm
-3
hydrochloric acid of concentration 1,5 mol∙dm . Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric
acid added to the magnesium oxide.
Choose the correct formula

SOLUTION 1 and copy formulae correctly
Given Data: n (HCl) =? from the data sheet.
m (MgO) = 4,5 g 𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉
Convert cm3 to dm3 by dividing the volume by 1000.
𝑛
V (HCl) = 100 cm3 1,5 =
0,1
100
V (HCl) = = 0,1 dm3 𝑛 (𝐻𝐶𝑙) = 0,15 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000
c (HCl) = 1,5 mol∙dm -3
EXAMPLE 2
A sulphuric acid solution is prepared by dissolving 7,35 g of H2SO4(ℓ) in 500 cm3 of water.
Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 present in this solution.
SOLUTION 2
Given Data: n (H2SO4) =? 𝑚
𝑐=
m (H2SO4) = 7,35 g M(H2SO4) = 2(1) + 32 + 4(16) 𝑀𝑉
Convert cm3 to dm3 by 7,35
= 98 g.mol-1 𝑐=
dividing the volume by 1000. (98)(0,5)
𝑚 OR
V (H2SO4) = 500 cm3 𝑛= 𝑐 = 0, 15 mol∙dm−3
𝑀
Page | 60
V (H2SO4) =
500
= 0,5 dm3 7,35 𝑛
1000 𝑛= 𝑐=
98 𝑉
n (H2SO4) =?
𝑛
𝑛 (H2SO4) = 0,08 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0,15 =
0,5
𝑛 (H2SO4) = 0,08 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Acid-base titrations
An acid-base titration is a procedure for determining the amount of acid (or base) in
a solution by measuring the volume of the base (or acid) of known concentration
that will completely react with it.
𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑛𝑎
=
𝑐𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑛𝑏
The solution of known concentration is called a standard solution.
The equivalence point of a titration is the point at which the acid/base has completely
reacted with the base/acid.
The endpoint of a titration is the point where the indicator changes colour.
Burette to measure accurately the

volume of the base (or acid) added.
The scale can be read to an accuracy of
3
half a division, that is to 0,05 cm .
Retort stand Burette
H2SO4(aq)
Erlenmeyer flask Erlenmeyer flask containing a

precise volume of the acid (or
NaOH(aq) base) and a suitable indicator.
The precise volume is
measured using a pipette.
Pipette
Page | 61
Motivate the choice of a specific indicator in a titration. Choose from methyl
orange, phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue.
Titration of a strong acid and a strong base.
pH of the Salt pH range of the

Acid Base Indicator used
formed indicator
Strong Acid strong base Neutral
bromothymol blue 6,0 – 7,8
Yellow Blue (pH =7)
• When a strong acid reacts with a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of a

strong base, the resulting salt solution is neutral.
• The endpoint of the titration of a strong acid (e.g., HCℓ) with a strong base (e.g.,
NaOH) is at pH = 7.
• The best choice of indicator will be bromothymol blue because the pH at the
endpoint of the titration falls within the range in which the indicator will change
colour (yellow to blue) i.e., pH 6,0 - 7,8.
Titration of a strong acid with a weak base

formed indicator
Strong Acid weak base Acidic
Methyl orange 3,1 - 4,4
Red Yellow pH < 7
• When a strong acid reacts with a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of a weak

base, the resulting salt solution is acidic.
• The endpoint of the titration of a strong acid (e.g., HCℓ) with a weak base (e.g.,
Na2CO3) is at pH < 7.
• The best choice of indicator will be methyl orange because the pH at the
colour (red to orange to yellow) i.e., pH 3,1 – 4,4.
Page | 62
Titration of a weak acid and a strong base

formed indicator
Weak Acid strong base Basic
Phenolphthalein 8,3 – 10,0
Clear Red pH > 7
• When a weak acid reacts with a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of a strong

base, the resulting salt solution is basic.
• The endpoint of the titration of a weak acid (e.g., CH3COOH) with a strong acid
(e.g., NaOH) is at pH > 7.
• The best choice of indicator will be phenolphthalein because the pH at the
colour i.e., pH 8,3 – 10,0.
EXAMPLE 3
Learners use the reaction of a 0,15 mol∙dm -3 sulphuric acid solution with a sodium hydroxide
solution in two different experiments. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
They use 24 cm3 of H2SO4(aq) in a titration to neutralise 26 cm3 of NaOH(aq). Calculate the
concentration of the NaOH(aq).
SOLUTION 3
Given Data: Titration formula
𝑐𝑎 = c(H2SO4) =0,15 mol∙dm-3
Convert cm3 to dm3 by dividing H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
the volume by 1000. 1 mol 2 mol
V (H2SO4) = 24 cm3
24 𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑛𝑎 This formula should
V (H2SO4) = = 0,024 dm3 =
1000 only be used for
𝑐𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑛𝑏
V (NaOH) = 26 cm3 neutralisation
(0,15)(0,024) 1 reactions.
26 =
V (NaOH) = 1000 = 0,026 dm3 𝑐𝑏 (0,026) 2
c (NaOH) = 𝑐𝑏 =? 𝑐𝑏 = 0,28 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3

c (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) = 0,28 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3
Page | 63
Given Data: Stoichiometric calculations
c (H2SO4) =0,15 mol∙dm-3
Convert cm3 to dm3 by dividing Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4.
the volume by 1000. 𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉
V (H2SO4) = 24 cm3
𝑛
24 0,15 =
V (H2SO4) = 1000 = 0,024 dm 3
0,024
V (NaOH) = 26 cm3 𝑛 (H2SO4) =3,6 x 10−3 mol

26
V (NaOH) = = 0,026 dm3
1000
Step 2: Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to
c (NaOH) =?
calculate the number of moles of the other substance
required:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
Label formulae when doing
multistep calculations 1 mol 2 mol
n(NaOH) = 2 n(H2SO4)
= 2(3,6 x 10 -3)
= 7,2 x 10-3 mol
Step 3: Simply calculate the concentration of NaOH.
𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉
7,2 × 10−3
𝑐=
0.026
c (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) = 0,28 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3
Page | 64
Learners prepare a solution of known concentration by dissolving 2 g pure sodium

hydroxide crystals, NaOH, in water in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.
4.1 Write down the term for the underlined phrase. (1)
4.2 Calculate the:
4.2.1 Concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution (4)
4.2.2 pH of the solution (4)
4.4 A learner wishes to identify element X in the hydrogen carbonate, XHCO3.

To do this she dissolves 0,4 g of XHCO3 in 100 cm3 of water. She then titrates
all of this solution with a 0,2 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) solution. Methyl
orange is used as the indicator during the titration.
4.4.2 Give a reason why methyl orange is a suitable indicator in this

titration. (1)
4.5 The Ka values for two weak acids, oxalic acid and carbonic acid, are as follows:
NAME FORMULA Ka
Oxalic acid (COOH)2 5,6 x 10-2
Carbonic acid H2CO3 4,3 x 10-7
Learners prepare 2 dm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 0,1 mol∙dm-3.

During a titration of the sodium hydroxide solution with dilute oxalic acid ,
the learners find that 25,1 cm3 of the NaOH(aq) neutralises exactly 14,2 cm3 of the (COOH)2(aq).
The balanced equation for the reaction is as follows:
2NaOH(aq) + (COOH)2(aq) → (COO)2Na2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
4.5.1 Calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid solution. (5)
The following indicators are available for the titration:
INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1–4,4
B 6,0–7,6
C 8,3–10,0
4.5.2 Which ONE of the indicators above is most suitable for this
titration? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
Page | 65
4.6 A laboratory technician wants to determine the percentage purity of
magnesium oxide. He dissolves a 4,5 g sample of the magnesium oxide in
100 cm3 hydrochloric acid of concentration 2 mol∙dm-3
4.6.1 Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid added to the

magnesium oxide. (3)
He then uses the apparatus below to titrate the EXCESS hydrochloric acid in
the above solution against a sodium hydroxide solution.
Retort stand Q
Sodium hydroxide solution
Erlenmeyer flask
Hydrochloric acid
4.6.2 Write down the name of apparatus Q in the above diagram. (1)
4.6..3 The following indicators are available for the titration:
INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1 – 4,4 )
B 6,0 – 7,6
C 8,3 – 10,0
Which ONE of the above indicators (A, B or C) is most suitable

to indicate the exact endpoint in this titration? Give a reason for
the answer. (3)
4.6.4 During the titration, the technician uses distilled water to wash any
sodium hydroxide spilled against the sides of the Erlenmeyer flask
into the solution.
Give a reason why the addition of distilled water to the Erlenmeyer

flask will not influence the results. (1)
Page | 66
4.7 X is a monoprotic acid.
4.7.1 State the meaning of the term monoprotic. (1)
4.7.2 A sample of acid X is titrated with a standard sodium hydroxide
solution using a suitable indicator.
At the endpoint it is found that 25 cm3 of acid X is neutralised by
27,5 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution of concentration
0,1 mol∙dm-3. Calculate the concentration of acid X. (5)
4.7.3 The concentration of H 3 O+ ions in the sample of acid X is
2,4 x 10-4 mol∙dm-3.
Is acid X a WEAK or a STRONG acid? Explain the answer by
(3)
referring to the answer in QUESTION 7.3.2.
4.8 A standard solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is prepared in a 250 cm3

volumetric flask. During a titration, 12,5 cm3 of this solution neutralises 25 cm3
of a 0,16 mol∙dm-3 ethanoic acid solution.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:
CH 3 COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) → CH 3 COOK(aq) + H 2 O(ℓ)
4.8.1 Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide used to prepare the
solution above in the 250 cm3 volumetric flask. (7)
4.8.2 Will the pH of the solution in the conical flask at the end point be
GREATER THAN 7, SMALLER THAN 7 or EQUAL TO 7? (1)
4.8.3 Explain the answer to QUESTION 7.2.3 with the aid of a balanced
chemical equation. (3)
-
3
4.9 A learner accidentally spills some sulphuric acid of concentration 6 mol∙dm
from a flask on the laboratory bench. Her teacher tells her to neutralise the
spilled acid by sprinkling sodium hydrogen carbonate powder onto it. The
reaction that takes place is: (Assume that the H 2 SO 4 ionises completely.
H 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2NaHCO 3 (s) → Na 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(ℓ) + 2CO 2 (g)
The fizzing, due to the formation of carbon dioxide, stops after the learner has
added 27 g sodium hydrogen carbonate to the spilled acid.
4.9.1 Calculate the volume of sulphuric acid that spilled. Assume that all
the sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with all the acid. (6)
The learner now dilutes some of the 6 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution in the
flask to 0,1 mol∙dm-3.
4.9.2 Calculate the volume of the 6 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution

needed to prepare 1 dm3 of the dilute acid. (2)
During a titration 25 cm3 of the 0,1 mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution is added to
an Erlenmeyer flask and titrated with a 0,1 mol∙dm-3 sodium hydroxide
solution.
4.9.3 The learner uses bromothymol blue as indicator. What is the
purpose of this indicator? (1)
Page | 67
Electrochemical Reactions
Galvanic cells
 Define the galvanic cell as a cell in which chemical energy is converted to electrical
energy.
 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron (e-) transfer:
Oxidation is a loss of electrons. Reduction is a gain of electrons.
 Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation numbers:
Oxidation: an increase in oxidation number
Reduction: a decrease in oxidation number
 Define an oxidising agent and a reducing agent in terms of oxidation and reduction:
Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/gains electrons.
Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised/loses electrons.
 Define an anode and a cathode in terms of oxidation and reduction:
Anode: the electrode where oxidation takes place
Cathode: the electrode where reduction takes place
 Define an electrolyte as a substance of which the aqueous solution contains ions OR a
substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electricity.
Relation of current and potential difference to rate and equilibrium

 State that the potential difference of a galvanic cell (Vcell) is related to the extent to
which the spontaneous cell reaction has reached equilibrium.
 State and use the qualitative relationship between Vcell and the concentration of product
ions and reactant ions for the spontaneous reaction, namely Vcell decreases as the
concentration of product ions increases and the concentration of reactant ions
decreases until equilibrium is reached at which the Vcell = 0 (the cell is 'flat'). (Qualitative
only. Nernst equation is NOT required.)
Understanding of the processes and redox reactions taking place in galvanic cells
 Describe the movement of ions in the solutions.
 State the direction of electron flow in the external circuit.
 Write down the half-reactions that occur at the electrodes.
 State the function of the salt bridge.
 Use cell notation or diagrams to represent a galvanic cell.
When writing cell notation, the following convention should be used:
o The H2|H+ half-cell is treated just like any other half-cell.
o Cell terminals (electrodes) are written on the outside of the cell notation.
o Active electrodes:
reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species
o Inert electrodes (usually Pt or C):
Pt | reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species | Pt
Example: Pt | Cℓ-(aq) |Cℓ2(g) || F2(g) | F-(aq) | Pt
 Predict the half-cell in which oxidation will take place when two half-cells are
connected.
Page | 68
 Predict the half-cell in which reduction will take place when connected to another
half-cell.
 Write down the overall cell reaction by combining two half-reactions.
 Use the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials to calculate the emf of a standard
galvanic cell.
 Use a positive value of the standard emf as an indication that the reaction is
spontaneous under standard conditions.
Standard electrode potentials

 Write down the standard conditions under which standard electrode potentials are
determined.
 Describe the standard hydrogen electrode and explain its role as the reference
electrode.
 Explain how standard electrode potentials can be determined using the reference
electrode and state the convention regarding positive and negative values.
Electrolytic cells
 Define the electrolytic cell as a cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy
 Electrolysis: The chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy OR the use of electrical energy to produce a chemical change
Understanding the processes and redox reactions taking place in electrolytic cells
 Describe the movement of ions in the solution.
 State the direction of electron flow in the external circuit.
 Write equations for the half-reactions taking place at the anode and cathode.
 Write down the overall cell reaction by combining two half-reactions.
 Describe, using half-reactions and the equation for the overall cell reaction as well as
the layout of the particular cell using a schematic diagram, the following electrolytic
processes:
o The decomposition of copper(II) chloride
o Electroplating, e.g. the electroplating of an iron spoon with silver/nickel
o Refining of metals, e.g. copper
o The electrolysis of a concentrated solution of sodium chloride
Page | 69
CHEMICAL CHANGE: ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS
Galvanic cell A cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. A galvanic (voltaic)
cell has self-sustaining electrode reactions.
Electrolytic cell A cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
Redox reaction A reaction in which an electron transfer takes place.
Oxidation A loss of electrons./An increase in oxidation number.
Reduction A gain of electrons./A decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidising agent A substance that is reduced/gains electrons/whose oxidation number decreases.
Reducing agent A substance that is oxidised/loses electrons/whose oxidation number increases.
Anode The electrode where oxidation takes place.
Cathode The electrode where reduction takes place.
Electrolyte A solution that conducts electricity through the movement of ions.
Electrolysis The chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy OR the use of electrical energy to produce a chemical change.
Salt bridge The connection between two half-cells needed to ensure electrical neutrality in the
cell. OR: A component used in a galvanic cell to complete the circuit.
Electrodes An electrical conductor used in a galvanic cell to make contact with a non-metallic
part of the circuit e.g. the electrolyte.
Cell notation A short way to represent a galvanic cell.
When writing cell notation, the following convention should be used:
o The H2|H+ half-cell is treated just like any other half-cell.
o Cell terminals (electrodes) are written on the outside of the cell notation.
o Active electrodes:
o Inert electrodes (usually Pt or C):
Example: Pt | Cℓ-(aq) |Cℓ2(g) || F2(g) | F-(aq) | Pt
Overall cell reaction The reaction obtained by combining two half-reactions.

Positive value of the The reaction is spontaneous under standard conditions.
standard emf
Standard conditions for Temperature: 25 °C / 298 K
a galvanic cell Concentration: 1 mol∙dm-3
Pressure (gases only): 101,3 kPa / 1 atmosphere
Standard hydrogen The reference electrode used to compile the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials.
electrode The hydrogen half-cell was given a standard reduction potential of 0 V.
Half-cell notation: Pt | H2(g) | H+(aq)
Half-reaction: 2H+ + 2e- ⇌ H2
Electroplating The covering of an object with a metal by making it the cathode in an electrolytic cell.
Page | 70
Activity 1
1.1. Define the following terms:
1.1.1 Galvanic cell. (2)
1.1.2 Electrolytic cell. (2)
1.1.3. oxidation in terms of electron (e-) transfer. (2)
1.1.4 reduction in terms of electron (e-) transfer. (2)
1.1.5 oxidation in terms of oxidation numbers. (2)
1.1.6 reduction in terms of oxidation numbers. (2)
1.1.7 oxidising agent in terms of oxidation and reduction. (2)
1.1.8 reducing agent in terms of oxidation and reduction. (2)
[16]
Page | 71
TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
TABEL 4B: STANDAARD-REDUKSIEPOTENSIALE
Half-reactions/Halfreaksies E θ (V)
Li + e  3,05
+
⇌ Li

 2,93
+
K +e ⇌ K
Cs + e  2,92
+
⇌ Cs

 2,90
2+
Ba + 2e ⇌ Ba
Sr + 2e  2,89
2+
⇌ Sr
+ 2e  2,87
2+
Ca ⇌ Ca
Na + e  2,71
+
⇌ Na
+ 2e
Increasing strength of reducing agents/Toenemende sterkte van reduseermiddels

 2,36
2+
⇌
Increasing strength of oxidising agents/Toenemende sterkte van oksideermiddels
Mg Mg
+ 3e  1,66
3+
Aℓ ⇌ Aℓ

 1,18
2+
Mn + 2e ⇌ Mn
+ 2e  0,91
2+
Cr ⇌ Cr
 
2H2O + 2e ⇌ H2(g) + 2OH  0,83
+ 2e  0,76
2+
Zn ⇌ Zn
+ 3e  0,74
3+
Cr ⇌ Cr

 0,44
2+
Fe + 2e ⇌ Fe
+ e
2+
 0,41
3+
Cr ⇌ Cr

 0,40
2+
Cd + 2e ⇌ Cd
+ 2e  0,28
2+
Co ⇌ Co

 0,27
2+
Ni + 2e ⇌ Ni
+ 2e  0,14
2+
Sn ⇌ Sn

 0,13
2+
Pb + 2e ⇌ Pb
+ 3e  0,06
3+
Fe ⇌ Fe
+ 
2H + 2e ⇌ H2(g) 0,00
S + 2H + 2e
+
⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
+ 2e
4+ 2+
Sn ⇌ Sn + 0,15
2+  +
Cu +e ⇌ Cu + 0,16
2 + 
SO 4 + 4H + 2e ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
2+ 
Cu + 2e ⇌ Cu + 0,34
2H2O + O2 + 4e ⇌ 4OH + 0,40
+ 
SO2 + 4H + 4e ⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
Cu + e
+
⇌ Cu + 0,52
 
I2 + 2e ⇌ 2I + 0,54
O2(g) + 2H + 2e
+
⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
3+  2+
Fe +e ⇌ Fe + 0,77
 + 
NO 3 + 2H + e ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
+ 
Ag + e ⇌ Ag + 0,80
+ 2e
2+
Hg ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
 + 
NO 3 + 4H + 3e ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
Br2(ℓ) + 2e ⇌ 2Br + 1,07
2+ 
Pt +2e ⇌ Pt + 1,20
MnO2 + 4H + 2e
+ 2+
⇌ Mn + 2H2O + 1,23
O2(g) + 4H + 4e
+
⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
2  3+
⇌
+
Cr2O 7 + 14H + 6e 2Cr + 7H2O + 1,33
 
Cℓ2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cℓ + 1,36
 +  2+
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e ⇌ Mn + 4H2O + 1,51
+ 
H2O2 + 2H +2 e ⇌ 2H2O +1,77
+ e
3+ 2+
Co ⇌ Co + 1,81
F2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2F + 2,87
Page | 72
Activity 2
Corrosion is a redox reaction that takes place in the presence of oxygen and water. Rusting is
the corrosion of iron leading to the formation of iron(III) ions.
A cleaned copper rod and a cleaned iron nail are placed in a beaker containing water at 25°C,
as shown below.
After a while it was observed that the iron nail was coated with rust. The copper rod showed
no visible signs of corrosion.
2.1. Complete the table below:
Oxidation half-reaction (2)
Reduction half-reaction (2)
Net (Overall) redox reaction (3)
Strongest Reducing agent (1)
Substance that is oxidized. (1)
Strongest Oxidising Agent (1)
Substance that is reduced. (1)
2.2 Explain the above observation by referring to the Table of Standard (3)
Reduction Potentials.
[14]
Page | 73
Activity 3
A strip of aluminium is placed in a beaker containing a blue solution of a copper(II) salt. After
a while the solution becomes colourless.
Cu2+(aq)
Aℓ
3.1. Complete the table below:
Oxidation half-reaction (2)
Reduction half-reaction (2)
Net (Overall) redox reaction (3)
Strongest Reducing agent (1)
Substance that is oxidized. (1)
Strongest Oxidising Agent (1)
Substance that is reduced. (1)
3.2 Explain the above observation by referring to the Table of Standard (3)
Reduction Potentials.
Page | 74
Learners conduct an investigation to determine which combination of two half-cells will
provide the largest emf at standard conditions.
Three half-cells, represented as A, B and C in the table below, are available.
HALF-CELL A HALF-CELL B HALF-CELL C

Mg|Mg2+ Pb|Pb2+ Aℓ|Aℓ 3+
The learners set up galvanic cells using different combinations of the above half-cells.
3.3 Use the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials to determine which ONE of the
three half-cells (A, B or C) contains the:
3.3.1 Strongest reducing agent (1)
3.3.2 Strongest oxidising agent (1)
The table below shows two half-cells, A and B, used to assemble an electrochemical cell
under STANDARD CONDITIONS.
3.4 Write down the:

3.4.1 NAME or FORMULA of the reducing agent (1)
Balanced equation for the reaction that takes place (3)
[20]
Page | 75
CONTENT TOPIC: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemical reactions involve the transfer of electrons. In this type of chemical

reaction, one chemical substance loses electrons while another receives them. The
processes of losing and receiving electrons happen at the same time. All ionic compounds
are made in redox reactions. The word “redox‟ refers to reduction and oxidation.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons. (OIL)

Oxidation: An increase in oxidation number
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-(out)
Iron loses two electrons and is oxidised to Fe2+
Cu Cu2+ + 2 e-
Cu is being oxidised, Cu is a reducing agent.
Reduction is the gain of electrons. (RIG)

Reduction: A decrease in oxidation number
The oxygen atom changes to O2- by gaining two electrons.
O2 + 2e- (In) O2-

Oxygen gains two electrons and is reduced to O2-
Br2 + 2e- (In) 2Br-
Gain electrons = reduction (RIG)

Br2 is being reduced, Br2 is an oxidising agent.
Reducing agent is a substance that is oxidised/loses electrons. A strong reducing agent

has a conjugate oxidising agent. Zn conjugate is Zn2+
Oxidising agent is a substance that is reduced/gains electrons. A strong oxidising agent
has a weak reducing agent. Cu2+ has Cu as a weak conjugate reducing agent.
Page | 76
HCl + Ag X; No reaction
H2 is a stronger reducing agent than Ag hence it is oxidised to H+. Thus, Ag cannot reduce
H+ to H2 making the above reaction not feasible under ordinary conditions.
Redox reaction is a reaction in which electrons are transferred from the reducing agent to
the oxidising agent. In a cell redox reaction occur at the electrodes. The anode is the
electrode where oxidation takes place. The cathode is the electrode where reduction takes
place.
HOW TO TELL IF A REACTION IS SPONTANEOUS?
Steps
1. Identify the chemical species in the Table as specified in the reaction systems
(circle only the chemical species). Disregard spectator ions
2. Pick the best reactants.
3. Write out the reaction from the ones you have chosen.
4. Balance the electrons and add the reactions.
e.g. Will the following combination of metals and ions react?
(a) Cu and ZnSO4 (b) Zn and CuSO4
Zn2+ ,SO42- Cu2+,SO42-
Part of redox table
Page | 77
:
POSTIVE SLOPE SPONTANEOUS REACTION (Zn and CuSO4)
Start from the chosen reactants to the opposite side when writing out the half reaction.
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation) Oil
2+
Cu + 2e - Cu (reduction) Rig
Overall equation
Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
Direct Transfer of Electrons
When a zinc plate is placed in a copper solution, the zinc atoms lose electrons. The
oxidation process that occurs, is represented as follows.
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-.
On the other hand, the copper ions in solution are receiving (gaining) the electrons from
the zinc atoms. This reduction process is represented as follows.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s).
If this oxidation-reduction process between zinc and copper ions is allowed to continue for
a longer time, loss of mass in the zinc plate will be observed while the blue colour of the
solution, due to the presence of Cu2+ ions, will lose its colour.
All chemical reactions involve a change in energy as well as a change in chemical

composition. In redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one substance to another
while the substances themselves undergo changes. All these processes deal with changes
in energy. The changes in energy during redox reactions can be summarised as follows:
Redox reactions are exothermic.
Chemical potential energy Redox reaction Electrical potential energy
Page | 78
We distinguish two types of electrochemical cells as summarised below.
Two types of cells: electrolytic and galvanic cells
Both electrolytic and galvanic cells make use of redox reactions.

Electrolytic cells use electrical energy to initiate chemical reactions. Electrical energy is
converted to chemical energy.
Electrical energy Chemical energy
Galvanic (voltaic) cells use chemical reactions to produce electrical energy. Chemical
energy is converted to electrical energy.
Chemical energy Electrical energy
1.2 Galvanic/Voltaic Cell
Theory and Applications
1. Introduction
Galvanic cells (voltaic cells) involves indirect transfer of electrons. A galvanic cell is a cell
in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Galvanic cells make use of
spontaneous redox reactions. The oxidising and reducing agents are separated and the
electron transfer from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent takes place through an
electrical conductor between them. The current in the conductor can be used to do useful
work.
2. Composition and functioning of galvanic cells
Any galvanic cell consists of the following main parts:
• Two half-cells: The one half-cell contains the reducing agent and the other half-cell
contains the oxidising agent.
• A salt bridge – an internal connection between the two half-cells. Ions can move
freely through the salt bridge but no electrons flow through it.
• An electrical conductor – an external connection between the two half cells.
Electrons flow through this conductor from the half-cell containing the reducing
agent to the half-cell containing the oxidising agent.
Page | 79
A sketch of a copper-zinc galvanic cell is shown below.
The following components can be distinguished in the above galvanic cell:
• Zinc half-cell i.e. a Zn rod (called an electrode) placed into a Zn 2+ solution - Zn is

the reducing agent.
• Copper half-cell i.e. a Cu rod (called an electrode) placed into a Cu2+ solution –
Cu2+(aq) is the oxidising agent
• Salt bridge – the internal circuit. The salt bridge consists of a U-tube filled with an
electrolyte e.g. KNO3. It can also be a porous separation between the two half cells.
• An external circuit i.e. conducting wires connecting the two half-cells
In this cell, the Zn rod and the Cu rod are the electrodes. The reaction takes place
between the Zn rod and the Cu2+ ions. The Cu rod serves as a link between the wire and
the Cu2+ solution. No reaction will take place between the Cu rod and the Cu 2+ solution.
The Zn rod is placed in a Zn2+ solution – no reaction will take place between the Zn rod
and the Zn2+ solution. The Zn electrode supplies electrons according to:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2eˉ.
Therefore, it is the negative terminal. Any electrode where oxidation takes place is called
the anode in electrochemistry. Hence, the Zn electrode is the anode of this galvanic cell.
The electrons flow from the Zn electrode through the metallic conductor to the Cu
electrode. More Zn2+ ions enter the solution in the zinc half-cell, causing the Zn electrode
to erode gradually (its mass decreases).
At the Cu electrode, the electrons react with the Cu 2+ ions in the copper half-cell according
to:
Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu
The Cu electrode is the positive terminal. The electrode where reduction takes place is
called the cathode in electrochemistry. Hence, the Cu electrode is the cathode of this
galvanic cell. The concentration of Cu2+ ions in the copper half-cell decreases, while the
copper that is formed is deposited on the Cu electrode, causing the mass of the Cu
electrode to gradually increase.
The reading on the voltmeter is positive if the negative terminal is connected to Zn. A
positive reading on the voltmeter is therefore associated with a spontaneous redox
reaction.
Page | 80
4. Cell reaction
The combination of the two reactions which take place in each of the half-cells produces
the net cell reaction that takes place in the cell.
Negative electrode (anode):
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–……………. oxidation
Positive electrode (cathode):

Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu………………….…. reduction
Net cell reaction:
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
5. Cell notation
A galvanic cell can be represented by abbreviated method, known as cell notation. When
writing cell notation, the following convention should be used:
• The H2|H+ half-cell is treated just like any other half-cell.
• Cell terminals (electrodes) are written on the outside of the cell notation.
• Active electrodes:
Inert electrodes (usually Pt or C):
One vertical line (|) represents phase/state boundary, i.e. it shows there is a phase
change, e.g. from solid phase to liquid phase. Two vertical lines (solid/broken) (||) shows a
salt bridge.
Example: Pt |Cl-(aq) │Cl2(g) // F2(g)/ F-(aq)│Pt
The cell notation for the above copper-zinc galvanic cell is as follows:
Zn(s)│Zn2+(aq) ║Cu2+(aq)│Cu(s)
Key parts of the notation are:
• If half-cell components are in the same phase e.g. H+(aq), MnO4- (aq), they are
separated by a comma.
Page | 81
Functions of the salt bridge
1. It completes the circuit. Electrons flow through the external conductor from the
anode to the cathode of the cell.
2. It maintains electrical neutrality within the solutions in the cell.
3. It separates the two electrolytes
A salt bridge is a U-tube consisting of soluble salts like NaNO3, KNO3, KCl.
3. Microscopic events in a copper-zinc galvanic cell
Electrons released during oxidation of Zn flow through the external conductor from the
Zn electrode to the Cu electrode. At the Cu electrode, the Cu 2+ ions accept the
electrons to form Cu that are deposited on the Cu electrode. The diagram below
illustrates these microscopic events in the cell.
Due to the oxidation of Zn, more Zn2+ ions enter the solution in the Zn half-cell. This will
result in a built-up of positive ions in the Zn half-cell. Negative ions must be found to
balance these newly generated positive ions. Otherwise the cell will stop functioning.
Reduction of Cu2+ ions in the Cu half-cell leaves behind negative ions that were associated
with the Cu2+ ions. This will result in a built-up of negative ions in the Cu half-cell. Positive
ions must be found to balance these excess negative ions.
The salt bridge is needed to prevent the building-up of positive and negative charges in the
half-cells. It allows ions to move freely between the half-cells to keep both solutions
neutral. Therefore, NO3ˉ ions flow in the direction of the Zn electrode (the anode), while K+
(and Zn2+ and Cu2+) flow in the direction of the Cu electrode (the cathode). Positive ions
move through the salt bridge to the cathode and negative ions move to the anode to keep
the cell electrically neutral.
Page | 82
Activity 4
The diagram below represents a galvanic (voltaic) cell functioning under standard
conditions with magnesium and silver as electrodes. A voltmeter connected across the
electrodes shows an initial reading of 3,17 V.
Mg(s) Ag(s)
salt bridge
Mg2+(aq) Ag+(aq)
8.1 State the energy conversion that takes place in this cell. (2)
8.2 Write down the standard conditions under which these cells operate. (2)
8.2 Is the cell reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? (2)
8.3 Write down the:
8.3.1 Reduction half-reaction that takes place in this cell

(2)
8.3.2 NAME or FORMULA of the reducing agent in this cell

(1)
8.3.3 Oxidation half-reaction

(2)
8.3.4 NAME of the oxidising agent

(1)
8.3.5 NAME or FORMULA of the substance whose oxidation number

(1)
DECREASES
8.3.6 The overall (net) cell reaction that takes place when the cell is functioning.
(3)
[16]
Page | 83
Activity 5
Learners set up a galvanic cell and measure its emf under standard conditions.
5.1 Type of electrochemical cell represented above (1)

5.2 Write down the name of component Y. (1)
5.3 Is Aℓ the ANODE or the CATHODE? (1)
5.5 Write down the overall (net) cell reaction that takes place in this cell when it is (3)
working
5.6 Calculate the emf of this cell. (4)
5.7 Write down the cell notation for the galvanic cell above (3)
5.8 Which electrode (Cu or Al) must be connected to the negative terminal of the (2)
voltmeter? Give a reason for the answer.
[15]
Page | 84
Activity 6
6.1. The electrochemical cell shown below functions at standard conditions.
Cu salt bridge Aℓ
Cu2+(aq) Aℓ3+(aq)
6.1.1 Which electrode (Cu or Aℓ) is the anode? (1)
6.1.2 Write down the cell notation for this cell. (3)
6.1.3 Calculate the emf of this cell. (4)
The salt bridge is now removed.
6.1.5 What will the reading on the voltmeter be? Give a reason for your
answer. (2)
Page | 85
7. Standard hydrogen electrode
The standard hydrogen electrode is used as a reference electrode against which all other
half-cells are measured. The reference half-reaction is the reduction of H+(aq) to H2(g)
under standard conditions. A standard reduction potential of 0,00 V is allocated to this half-
reaction:
2 H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g) Eo reduction E = 0,00 V
The standard hydrogen electrode, producing this half-reaction, consists of a platinum wire
that is connected to a piece of platinum metal which serves as an inert electrode for the
reaction. This electrode is in a glass tube. Hydrogen gas is bubbled over the platinum and
through the 1 mol∙dm–3 H+ solution under standard conditions. A sketch of the hydrogen
half-cell is shown below:
Platinum is used as an electrode in the SHE because
• platinum is a conductor of electricity

• platinum is inert, i.e. it does not react with the electrolytes
• platinum has a high affinity for hydrogen
• platinum is a solid.
Page | 86
8. Compiling a list of standard reduction potentials
Standard reduction potentials are determined by connecting the half-cell in which a

particular half-reaction takes place, to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). The
diagram below shows a zinc half-cell connected to the SHE.
The spontaneous reaction, which takes place when a positive voltmeter reading is
registered, involves the oxidation of Zn and the reduction of H +(aq). Zn is therefore the
anode and the SHE is the cathode. The measured cell potential is + 0,76 V. Since the
SHE has a reduction potential of 0,00 V the reduction potential of the Zn2+/Zn half- cell is
Eϴcell = Eϴcathode – Eϴanode

+ 0,76 = 0,00 - Eϴanode
Eϴanode = – 0,76 V
9. Cell potential
By using the numbers in the table, we can calculate the voltage, or emf, that we can
expect from a combination of two electrodes.
Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode
So, first you need to find out where oxidation is taking place (anode) and then reduction
(cathode).
Hint: Always substitute using brackets as the signs may need to change.
10. Reduction potentials.
Reduction potential is the tendency for a chemical species to gain electrons. Oxidation
potential is the tendency for a chemical species to lose electrons (to be oxidised).
Ecell = reduction potential + oxidation potential
An oxidation half reaction is the reverse reaction of the particular reduction half reaction.
Therefore, the oxidation potential of a particular half reaction is equal to the negative of the
reduction potential.
Oxidation potential for half reaction = – reduction potential for half reaction.
Page | 87
11. Using the tables of standard reduction potentials to predict cell potential
With the help of the information from Table 4A or 4B, there are two ways to calculate the
cell potential of a galvanic cell under standard conditions.
Method 1: Using the derived formula for cell potential
• Identify the relevant half-reactions

• Determine from this the relevant oxidising and reducing agents (or oxidation and
reduction half-reactions, or the half-reactions taking place at the anode and
cathode)
• Substitute the E° values as they appear in the table into one of the
formulae above.
Example 1
A voltaic cell is constructed using Ni2+|Ni and Cu2+|Cu half-cells. Determine the cell
potential at standard conditions and write down the cell notation.
Solution
From the Table of Standard Reduction potentials:

Ni2+ + 2eˉ ⇋ Ni (-0,25 V)
Cu2+ + 2eˉ ⇋Cu (+0,34 V)
Method 1:
The copper half-reaction has the more positive cell potential and thus Cu 2+ is a stronger
oxidising agent than Ni2+. The copper half-reaction will be reduction and the nickel half-
reaction will be the oxidation.
The half-reactions will therefore take place as follows:
Ni → Ni2+ + 2eˉ (+0,25 V)
(Note: If the reduction potential is -0,25 V, the oxidation potential is +0,25 V
Cu2+ + 2eˉ → Cu (+0,34 V)
E°cell = 0,59V
Method 2:
From this: Cu2+ is a stronger oxidising agent than Ni2+. Therefore, Cu2+ behaves as the
oxidising agent and Ni as the reducing agent.
E°cell = E°oxidising agent - E°reducing agent
= +0,34 - (-0,25)
= 0,59 V
For the cell notation: Ni undergoes oxidation; therefore, Ni is the anode.
Ni(s) | Ni2+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu
Page | 88
Activity 7
The electrochemical cell illustrated below is set up under standard conditions.
7.1 Define the term anode. (2)
7.2 Identify the anode in the cell above. (1)
7.3 Write down the name of the item of apparatus labelled X. (1)
7.5 State ONE other function of component X. (1)
7.6 Give TWO reasons, besides being a solid, why platinum is suitable to be used
as electrode in the above cell (2)
7.7 What will be the reading on the voltmeter if component X is removed? Give a (2)
reason for this observation.
[9]
Page | 89
Activity 8
A standard electrochemical cell is set up using two standard half-cells, as shown in the
diagram below.
Cℓ2(g) Q
X
Platinum
- X2 (aq)
Cℓ (aq)
8.1 State the energy conversion that takes place in this cell. (1)
8.2 What is the function of component Q? (1)
X is a metal. A voltmeter connected across the cell initially registers 1,49 V.
8.3 Use a calculation to identify metal X. (5)
8.4 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the reducing agent. (1)
8.5 The reading on the voltmeter becomes ZERO after this cell operates for
several hours.
8.5.1 Give a reason for this reading by referring to the rates of oxidation
and reduction half-reactions taking place in the cell. (1)
A silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq), is NOW added to the chlorine half-cell

and a precipitate forms.
8.5.2 How will the reading on the voltmeter be affected?

(Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS the same) (1)
8.5.3 Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain the answer to

QUESTION 8.5.2. (2)
[12]
Page | 90

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SUBJECT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

2022 WINTER CLASSSES

TEACHER AND LEARNER CONTENT MANUAL

Week 1 Topics Week 2 Topic

Newton’s laws Electrochemical

PAPER TOPICS TOTAL MARKS WEIGHTING

Newton’s laws (3 hours) ± 18 ± 12%

PAPER 1: PHYSICS Electrostatics (3 hours) ± 13 ± 9%

Acids and Bases (3 hours) ± 20 ± 13%

PAPER 2: CHEMISTRY Electrochemical reactions (9 hours) ± 28 ± 19%

➢ Examination guideline and outcomes

➢ Examination guideline and outcomes

TOPIC 3: Acids and Bases

➢ Examination guideline and Outcomes

TOPIC 3: Electrochemical reactions

➢ Examination guideline and Outcomes

MIND MAP EXAMINATION CONTENTS ACTIVITIES

BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKED STEPS

Newton's Laws and Application of Newton's Laws

Force diagrams, free-body diagrams

Newton's first, second and third laws of motion

 Apply Newton's laws to a variety of equilibrium and non-equilibrium problems including:

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

1.1 Key concepts

1.2 Frictional force f

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

1.4 Newton’s second law of motion

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:

STEPS FOR DRAWING FORCE DIAGRAM AND FREE BODY DIAGRAM

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

‘’When object A exert a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exert an oppositely

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

MASS AND WEIGHT

❖ Mass is the amount of matter in an object and it measured in kilogram (Kg).

Errors and Misconceptions

Learners are unable to define Newton’s second law in terms of momentum

Suggestions for improvement

1. One object on a horizontal plane

Step 1: The system is without friction, force is applied at an angle to the

Step 3: Calculate normal force N= fg-fy

Step 2: Draw free-body diagram

Step 3: Calculate acceleration Fnet=ma

Cable exerts on the adjoining part.

Block 3kg: Fnet=ma

4.1 State Newton’s third law of motion in words

4.1 When object A exert a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exert an

4.2 Step 1: Draw free body diagram for each block

4.2 Calculate tension using one of the equations:

Example 5: Two blocks of 25 kg and 15 kg are connected by a light string on a horizontal

5.1 State Newton’s Second Law of Motion in words.

Step 3: Start by calculating acceleration of the system using Fnet=ma

Step 4: Block 1 kg Block 2 kg

Use equation 2 to calculate Tension (T)

Step 1: The 1 kg block is on the surface and is experiencing frictional force.

Step 3: The system is accelerating therefore use Fnet=ma

Add equation 1 to equation 2

Note that when the surface is with friction acceleration decreases.

8.2 The system is now moving at CONSTANT VELOCITY, therefore Fnet=0

Fg// Fg┴ Fg// Fg┴

Step 2: Draw free-body diagram with components

Fg// Fg┴ T Fg┴