Damian Wanyigha Ndillo BA Thesis 02 2013/2014

2. Problems of the Pentateuch and the new approaches of modern criticism; theology of the Exodus.
Historical books and their literary genres; composition and theology of one of them.
OUTLINE
Introduction
1. Pentateuch
1.1 The Meaning of Pentateuch
1.2 The Books of Pentateuch: A Brief analysis
1.2.1 Genesis
1.2.2 Exodus
1.2.3 Leviticus
1.2.4 Numbers
1.2.5 Deuteronomy
1.3 The General Themes/Theology of Pentateuch
1.3.1 Sovereignty of God
1.3.2 God works through History
1.3.3 Fallen Condition of Humanity
1.3.4 Salvation
1.3.5 Holiness
2. New Approaches to Modern Criticism
2.1 Problems of Pentateuch
2.1.1 The Question of number of books
2.1.2 The Question of authorship
2.2 Modern Critical approaches regarding Mosaic authorship
2.3 Attempts to solve the Problem of Mosaic authorship
2.3.1 Source-Reduction criticism: documentary hypothesis
- Characteristics of the tradition (JEPD)
- Criticism against source & reduction
2.3.2 Canonical criticism
2.3.3 Recent documents
3. Theology of Exodus
3.1 Deliverance
3.2 Covenant
3.3 The law
3.4 Presence of God
4. Historical Books
4.1 Meaning
4.2 Brief analysis of Historical books
4.2.1 Joshua
4.2.2 Judges
4.2.3 1 & 2 Samuel
4.2.4 1 & 2 KIngs
4.3 Literary Genres
4.3.1 Narrative genre: Myth, legend, and, fable & fairytale
4.3.2 Legal genre
4.4 Composition & Theology of Joshua
4.4.1 Composition
4.4.1.1 Authorship
4.4.1.2 Date
4.4.1.3 Place
4.4.2 Theology
4.4.2.1 The land
4.4.2.2 Rest

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4.4.2.3 Covenant
4.4.2.4 Ark of the covenant
4.4.2.5 Ritual purity
4.4.2.6 Harem

INTRODUCTION
 In the Catholic bible [O.T], the books are arranged according to the following sequence: Pentateuch,
History, Wisdom & Poetry and Prophecy. Of these the 5 books of the Pentateuch and the 16 books of
history narrative deal with the history of the people of Israel. Yet only the 16 books from Joshua to 2
Maccabees are considered as Historical books.
 The Protestants do not consider Deutero-canonical books as inspired and canonical. Thus they have only
12 books under the historical books.
 The Jews divide the bible into 3 sections [TANAK]. For them the historical books fall under the Title former
prophets.
 Pentateuch & Historical books covers almost ¼ of the OT.
 5 Bks of Pentateuch & 6 Historical bks.
 Lays the foundation for the study of the OT coz of the importance of these books in both Jewish &
Christian Theology.

1. PENTATEUCH
1.1 The Meaning of Pentateuch
 Composite word Pentateuchos deriving from Greek Penta = 5 & teuchos = vessel, receiver, container or
instrument.
 Teuchos gradually came to be understood as “scroll”.
 Contains 1st 5 books/ scroll of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus & Deuteronomy),
thus Greek word Pente.
 5 books known as hamisha humshe hattora –“the 5 5 th of the Torah or the 5fold Torah”.
 Jewish tradition it’s known as the Torah.

1.2 The Books of Pentateuch: A Brief Analysis of

 Names of the 5 books derive from the LXX & taken over by the Vulgate.
 Hebrew titles of the books from key word in the 1 st verse of the book:
i. Genesis = “Beginning” – bereshit (Gen 1:1)
ii. Exodus = “Names” – shemot (Ex 1:1)
iii. Leviticus = “And He Called” – wayyiqra (Lev 1:1)
iv. Numbers = “In the wilderness” – bemidbar (Nb 1:1)
v. Deuteronomy = “Words” – haddebarim (Deut 1:1)
 The Pentateuch canon of the Hebrew Bible is based on various reasons:
 Deut 34:10-12 gives the most fundamental demarcation for the Pentateuch, 4 it specifically puts Moses
above any other prophetic figure in Israel’s history.
 Moses’ Law is superior to all legislations coz of its relation with YHWH (cf. Ex 33:11; Num 12:6-8). Moses
had direct contact with YHWH without intermediary/ schemes like visions or dreams (Num 12:6-8).
 The Exodus = most important event in Israel’s history, & no other event can be compared to it. T4
foundation of Israel goes back to Moses, & not to David or Solomon.
 We may summarize the Pentateuch as follows. Genesis is a book of origins. It describes the beginnings of
the universe and the origins of God's people. Exodus traces the salvation of his people, who are helpless
to save themselves. Leviticus calls for holiness as the only natural lifestyle for the Israelites and as the
only possible response to God's grace. Numbers is a book of wanderings in which God's people suffer the
consequences of their unbelief. But the story ends on a positive note, when Deuteronomy presents a
program for renewal.

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1.2.1 Genesis
 The name carries the content of the book. Gk genesios.
 It lays the foundation of the whole Pentateuch coz in it we get the cosmic origin & divine-human
relationship is established.
 It is the biggest & has 2 main parts: a) Premordial history (divine human rshps). Primordial coz are not
chronological = 1 -11; b) Patriarchal cycles/stories. Can be proved historically = 12 – 50.
 Distinct coz of its genre which is different from other books.
Structure
I. Primevial History (Gen 1:1 – 11:26)
a) Origin of Universe & Human race (1 – 5)
b) Origin of sin (6 – 8:2a)
c) Aftermath of floods (8:2b – 11:26)
II. Patriarchal Cycle (Gen 11:27 – 50:26)
a) Abrahamic cycles (11:27 – 25:18)
b) Cycle of Jacob (25:19 – 36)
c) Jacob’s family (37 – 50)

1.2.2 Exodus
 Forms the central part of the story of Pentateuch.
 The bk’s name Exodus is a Gk word = departure, exit, way out, that indicates its main theme: the
departure of Israel from the Egyptian bondage under the leadership of Moses.
Structure
I. Liberation Narrative: 1:1 – 15:21
a) Preparation for deliverance: 1 – 4
b) Encounter with Pharaoh: 5:1 – 11:10
c) 10th Plague & the Exodus from Egypt: 12 - 15
II. The Lord’s presence among Israelites: 15:22 – 18:27
a) Bitter water: 15:22-27
b) Manna & quells: 16
c) Water from the rock: 17:1-7
d) Fight against Amalech: 17:8-16
e) Jethro came into the camp: 18
III. The Conduct of Israel as a Holy nation & people: 19 – 24
a) Contact of God at Mt Sinai: 19
b) Decalogue: 20:1-17
c) Moses becomes mediator of the covenant: 20:18 – 21
d) Code of the Covenant: 21 – 23:19
e) Receives the promise of entering Canaan: 23:20-33
f) Holiness code: 24
IV. The Story of the Tabernacle/ tent: 25 – 31
a) Construction of tent: 25
b) Ornaments, altar, curtains, frames: 26 – 27
c) Priestly vestments: 28
d) Ordination of priests: 29
e) Description/ construction of the altar of incense: 30
f) Priestly duties mentioned & Sabbath: 31
V. Israel is confronted with sin: 32 – 34
a) Golden calf: 32
b) Moses comes down from the Mt: 33
c) Moses renews the covenant: 34
VI. Obedience of Israel especially in construction of the Tent: 35 – 40
a) Instructions for construction (materials): 35
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b) Construction: 36 – 39
c) Moses blesses/ consecrates the tabernacle: 40:1-33
d) Glorious presence of God: 40:34-38

1.2.3 Leviticus
 It deals with the theme of holiness i.e. God’s holiness which transforms His people (they’re now separated
= theology of separation i.e. one consecrated for God; no longer of this world & are given purity laws).
Holiness of God can only be served by holy people. Holiness dispels all impurities among Israel.
 Its theology emphasizes the presence of Yahweh among His people which demands holiness. God’s
presence symbolized by Tent where they meet Him thru mediation of Moses & Aaron.
Structure
I. Laws of Sacrifices: 1 – 7
a) Voluntary sacrifices: 1 – 3
b) Obligatory sacrifices: 4:1 – 6:7
c) Instructions for priests: 6:8 – 7:38
II. Worship at the tabernacle (Inauguration of the Cult): 8 – 10
a) Consecration of Aaron & his sons: 8
b) Inauguration of the tabernacle: 9
c) Death of Nadab & Abihu: 10
III. Laws of purity & sanctity: 11 – 16
a) Ritual cleanliness & uncleanliness: 11
b) Ritual cleanliness in birth: 12
c) Skin cleanliness & uncleanliness: 13 – 14
d) Genital discharges: 15
e) Day of atonement: 16
IV. Sanctification of the people: 17 – 26 (25 – Code of sanctity)
V. Appendix (replica of 25): 27

1.2.4 Numbers
 Deals with life of Israel as a nation, people who’ve God in their midst (there is failure of 1 st Generation &
Moses). A lot of complains against God.
 Theologically teaches Israel how to walk with Yahweh who’s present in the tent. He’s in their midst &
accompanies them. Since they are called to be holy, separated/ set apart, there’re testing in their faith.
 They experience God’s protection when confronted with danger but punished when strayed. Gives
condition for entering the Promised Land; trust in the Lord & follow ordinances given.
Structure
I. The formation of Israel community at Sinai: 1:1 – 10:10
a) Holiness & the tent/camp: 1 – 6
b) Holiness of Israel & the tabernacle: 7 – 10:10
II. The March/ Sojourn to the plains of Moab: 10:11 – 21:35
a) Solemn departure from Sinai: 10:11-36
b) Testing in the wilderness: 11 – 19
c) Israel leaves the wilderness, marching towards the promised land: 20 – 21
III. Preparation for the acquisition of the promised land: 22 – 36
a) Story of Balaam & the blessing: 22 – 24
b) Sin of Israel at Baal Peor: 25
c) Instructions for inheritance: 26 - 36

1.2.5 Deuteronomy
 2nd writing of the law & in fact book of the law & repetition of the law.

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 It’s here we’ve the Torah proper: laws, ordinances which give Israel its identity coz it touches @ sphere of
life & clarifies laws. We’ve the ethical code (10 commandments) & Holiness code (liturgical). Deuteronomic
code is at the centre of the book, it’s where the book gets its identity (12:1 – 26:19).
 Usually divided into 4, demarcated by the statement “these are the words which Moses spoke to all Israel
on the other side of Jordan in the wilderness” (repeated 4 times).
Structure
I. Summary of the story of Israel: 1 – 3
a) Editorial Preface: 1:1-5
b) Author affirms Israel’s faith: 1:6-45
c) 1st campaign to conquer the land: 1:46 – 3:29
II. Repetition of the Law: 4:1 – 11:32
a) The call to obedience: 4:1-43
b) Introduction to the covenant law: 4:44 – 5:5
c) The 10 Commandments: 5:6-21
d) Exhortations of Moses (they are 8): 5:22 – 11:32
III. Deuteronomic law code: 12:1 – 26:19
a) Laws governing the central sanctuary: 12:1 – 14:21
b) Regulation governing sacred division of time: 14:22 – 16:17
c) Concerning public authority & leadership: 16:18 -18:22
d) Matters of life & death: 19 – 21
e) Reiterates the value of life in relation to divine life: 22
f) General rules for life: 23 – 25
g) Liturgy & thankfulness: 26
IV. Epilogue of the book: 27 – 30
a) Law is both blessing & curse: 27:1-10
b) Unpermitted conduct in Israel: 27:11-26
c) God’s order: blessing & curse: 28
d) Great farewell discourse of Moses: 29
V. Appendix: 31 – 34
a) Preparation for life under law of Moses:31:1-29
b) Song of Moses: 31:30 – 32:52
c) Blessing of Moses: 33
d) Death of Moses: 34

1.3 The General Themes/ Theology of Pentateuch (in Summary)

Several important themes run throughout the Pentateuch. The first of these is foundational for the rest.
1.3.1 Sovereignty of God
The Pentateuch begins by emphasizing God's sovereignty The Israelite creation story (Gn 1-2) is unlike the
creation stories of other ancient Near Eastern cultures.
 While other peoples speculated about origins of deities, Genesis assumes the pre-existence and eternity
of God.
 The Israelite God created the whole universe with no assistance from anyone. He created it without using
pre-existent matter and did so effortlessly, through the power of his spoken word. The early church saw
the importance of the ideas of "creation out of nothing" (creatio ex nihilo) and creation by divine decree
(fiat). These have always been central doctrines of the Christian faith. So the simple style of Genesis 1
powerfully establishes God's sovereignty over his creation.
 The Pentateuch demonstrates God's supreme dominion by rehearsing his dealings with individuals like
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and Moses. Throughout their lives God assured them of his presence,
protection, and guidance.
o In dramatic fashion, God demonstrated his sovereign Lordship over Egypt. He called Abram out of
Ur of Mesopotamia, the eastern extremity of the ancient world. He protected him and guided him
to Palestine, his people's future home.
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o The plagues were spectacular demonstrations that God was Lord of Egypt and, indeed, of all the
earth.
o God's dramatic appearance at Mount Sinai (Ex 19) and his dominion over Israel during her desert
wanderings further confirmed that his sovereignty knew no boundaries, geographical or otherwise.

1.3.2 God works through history

 A second dominant, overarching theme of the Pentateuch is the importance of history. Unlike the writings
of creation religions Confucianism Buddhism, etc., Old Testament religion attributed special significance to
history from the beginning. Other ancient eastern religious expressed their theology in terms of Myths, in
which important events took place beyond time and space. But in the Old Testament, God created history
and worked in and through its events. This is most apparent in Israel's distinctive creation story.
 Besides establishing God's sovereignty, the creation narratives describe the beginning of history by relating
the creation of time and space (Gn 1:5, 9-10). Because history is part of God’s creation, it follows that he is
sovereign over human history and may alter it if he chooses. Thus, the Israelites saw their national history as
an arena for divine intervention. They came to know God better by studying his acts in history. The plagues
of Egypt and the giving of the Sinai covenant are more than the nation's historical heritage. They are
theological truths that the Israelites recognized as unique, divine revelation.
 So the Old Testament consistently presents theological truth through the medium of history. From the
divine perspective, the revelation of God's truth is always incarnational, that is, God reveals himself in time
and space.

1.3.3 The fallen condition of man

 A third important theme of the Pentateuch is its systematic appraisal of the condition of humanity. The
message is painfully simple: Humankind is fallen. God created Adam and Eve as the climax of his perfect
creation. They were at peace with God, having ready access to his presence and enjoying his favour.
They were also at peace with his creation around them, capable of enjoying its rich and perfect fullness.
This portrait of paradise is the biblical definition of shalom, "peace." Shalom means more than the absence
of conflict. It refers to a life where wholeness and well-being are present. Shalom-peace is present when
God is not hindered by human sin and is free to add significance and meaning to an otherwise
meaningless existence.
 But sin entered the Garden of Eden and immediately changed this perfect picture (Gn 3). Humanity's
parents experienced separation from their gracious Creator for the first time. The loss of a peaceful
relationship with God also affected the way they related to creation and to each other. These effects of sin
accumulated and worsened, so that the message was clear: Humanity was incapable of righting its own
wrongs. The fallenness of humanity leaves every individual with specific needs only God can address.

1.3.4 Salvation
 The fourth principal theme of the Pentateuch is salvation. This is not just a New Testament doctrine. The
Pentateuch relates the salvation of God in story form. God's love and grace moved him to take specific
steps to remedy the human dilemma. The events signify God’s love and grace, and the single thread of
redemption ties these events together.
 God was not forced by any third party or external circumstances to reach down to fallen humanity. His
sovereignty means he has no needs, including the need for human love and worship.

1.3.5 Holiness
 The Pentateuch's emphasis on God's sovereign grace in redemption leads naturally to the fifth major
theme. The only proper human response to God's grace and love is personal sanctity. So the Pentateuch
strongly emphasizes the concept of holiness. This sovereign God is supreme in his moral character. When
he draws his people to himself, he invites them to imitate his character (Lv 11:44). God expected Israel’s
new relationship with him to alter their conduct forever. Holiness is the human appropriation of God's
grace.

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 In the Pentateuch God's grace is always followed by law. God is never content to be in relationship with his
people if they are making no effort to imitate his character. So law is not intended to restrict life, but to
instruct God's people in the "paths of law." Law plays a dominant role in the Pentateuch.
 So the Pentateuch contains the story of God's people. God intends that this story-a story of his saving
grace poured out freely on needy humans should become our story as well.

Theology of Pentateuch
 Some Scholars have doubted whether there is such thing as theology of the Pn coz of the diversity of
sources.
 Recent studies have demonstrated that one can speak of theology of the Pn since the exilic redactors
didn’t simply collect the material without a theological vision which they intended to communicate to their
readers. They certainly felt that there was something unique in their Jewish tradition. That is why there is
consistency in the treatment of certain theological principles & concepts in the Pn.
 Some of these theological concepts are:
i. Transcendence of God
 Presents God as a transcendent God. Created by Word; He spoke & it came to be.
 Nothing that exists co-eternally with God.
 Pn underscores Monotheism = nothing to equate with Him (Ex 20:3; Deut 5:7)
 God isn’t totally removed from his creation. He interacts with it & cares 4 it.
 He is immanent & providential. A divine person.
ii. Epithets of God
 He is faithful to his word & can’t be manipulated by human beings. Only repentance & intercession
changes his mind (Gen 18:16-33; Ex 32:11-14).
 He’s holy & pure = only creatures can approach him & that’s why Israel must be a holy nation.
 Compassionate = coz of his steadfast & unfailing love.
 Truthful = his faithfulness is coupled with truth.
 Just = always portrayed as just & righteous to all. Rewards & punishes.
iii. God’s activities
 Creating = sole creator of all that exists.
 Sovereign ruler or Lord of creation.
 Father of his pple Israel.
 Redeemer/ saviour = Egyptian bondage.
 Judge = rewards & punishes.
iv. The universe
 God isn’t to be confused with it. He remains transcendental though immanent & providential.
 Allows it to run its course as he had established; bt human manipulation of it can’t affect his being.
v. Human beings, Sin, Salvation, Covenant & the Law.
 HB as crown of creation (Gen 1:26-28). Created in his image & likeness = have capacity 4 rshp with God
& ability to transcend themselves. World created to provide 4 humans.
 Sin of disobedience distorted the rshp & mandate to rule the world. Sin has led humans to usurp God’s
authority by attempting 2 define themselves what is good & what is bad/evil.

2. THE NEW APPROACHES TO MODERN CRITICISM WITH REGARDS TO PENTATEUCH

 Pn = a compendium of bks that contain different protagonists/ figures & themes in different literary &
chronological periods.
 Pn contains 2 major literary genres: legislative & narrative texts.
 The following analysis is an attempt to identify these features & solns that have bn proposed in P’cal
biblical scholarship.

2.1 The Problems of Pentateuch

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 There are 2 main problems in the Pentateuch:

2.1.1 The Question of the Number of Books

 Opinions as to what makes the Pentateuch:
i. Hexateuch
 Proposed by Some authors like G. Von Rad.
 “Six scrolls”, suggesting the inclusion of Joshua.
 Reason: the fulfilment of the whole story of Israel’s origin was the acquisition of the Promised land,
narrated in Joshua.
 T4 the short historical creed of Israel in Deut 6:21-23, 26:5-9 is repeated in Josh 24:2-13, concluding it
with the gift of the Promised Land.
ii. Tetrateuch
 Suggestion from Martin Noth.
 4 scrolls, excluded the book of Deuteronomy.
 He found no Deuteronomistic material in Genesis – Numbers. No connection btn Gen – Num & Deut.
 Refuted Hexateuch coz the major sources of Pentateuch: J (Yahwist), E (Elohist), P (Priestly) & D
(Deuteronomist) aren’t present in Joshua.
 Regarded Deut as preface for Deuteronomistic History in Joshua to 2Kings.
 Deut 1 – 3 makes no sense if not understood as beginning of a new level of Israel’s History that would
unravel in Josh – 2 Kings.
 Joshua can only conquer the PL if he remains faithful to the Law of Moses (Josh 1:7-8; 23:6). Israel’s
unfaithfulness punished with loss of PL (2Kgs 17:7-23)
 In short, Deut history is the story of Israel’s faithfulness & unfaithfulness to the Law of Moses. 1 st 4 bks
work of Priestly scribes who collected material from oral traditions, while bk of Deut was work of Dstic
scribes.
iii. Enneateuch
 By others = Nine scrolls, Genesis to 2 Kgs.
 They understood the block as beginning from creation to the Babylonian Exile.
 Main motif of the story is PL:
 Yhwh promised the Land to Patriarchs (Gen)
 Israel sojourned toward it in the desert (Ex – Num)
 Conquering (Josh)
 Judges defended it (Jdg)
 The Kings made it a kingdom (1 Sam – 2 Kgs), 1 st a united kingdom & later a divided one (Northern &
Southern).
 Finally, Israel lost PL & destruction of the temple by being exiled to Babylon.

2.1.2 The Question of Mosaic Authorship

 The tradition that Moses wrote the Pn was based on 2/3 texts:
 Ex 24:4 = Moses then wrote down everything the Lord had said.
 Ex 17:14; 34:27 = The Lord said to Moses, write this on a scroll as something to be remembered & make
sure that Joshua hears it, coz I’ll completely blot out this memory of Amalek from under heaven.
 Moses was also a historical figure (Exodus to Deuteronomy).
However, there’re many aspects that militate angst the tradition:
 The literary description of the circumstances doesn’t favour such exercise.
 The report is so abrupt that no preliminary information is granted.
 It’s difficult to comprehend how he could have described his own death & its aftermath in Deut 34:4-12.
 The literary problem leaves Mosaic authorship questionable.

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2.2 Modern Critical Approaches regarding Mosaic Authorship {Literary Problem in Pn (Indications
against Mosaic Authorship)}
 Study of Gen = applied to rest of Pn.
 Umberto Cassuto lists 5 literary aspects that were observed in Gen: Different names of Deity; Variations
of language style; Contradictions & divergences of view; Duplications & repititions; &, Signs of composite
structures in the sections
 For instance: Double a/cs of creation story (Gen 1 – 2:4a; 2:4b – 3:24); 3 a/cs of wife/sr (Gen 12:10-20;
20:1-18; 26:1-11); Double episode of Meriba (Ex 17:1-7; Num 20:1-13); 3 codices of law: D’c (Deut 12 –
26), Covenant (Ex 21 – 23), Code of Holiness (Lev 17 -26); Intertwined a/cs inside narratives: Flood story
(Gen 6 – 9), Beg’ of story of Joseph (Gen 37); Cros’ of Red sea (Ex 14).

2.3 Attempts to Solve the problem of Mosaic Authorship

2.3.1 Source & Redaction Criticism
 The 1 scientific questions about the origins of the material in the Pn came with observations by Richard
st

Simon & Baruch Spinoza in the 17th c that these books were full of repetitions & contradictions & seemed
to lack the style of a single author.
 In the next century, Belgian Dr Jean Astrut (1753) was able to identify these problems in Pn & raised the
issue of different sources.
 Proposals taken over by Julius Wellhausen (1844 – 1918) & R. S. Direr (1846 – 1914) who dvpd the D’ry
Hypothesis.
 Pn = product of 4 main sources that were interwoven by redactors: P, J, D & E.
 Theory was further dvpd & refined by Martin Noth.
2.3.1.1. P D’ment
 Exilic/ early post exilic period (5 – 4 c BC).
 Fragmentary, producing a kind of chain narratives followed by genealogies, itenaries & brusque story line.
 Priestly writer told these stories to a specific audience around the time of Israel’s exile or shortly after it.
 Some scholars have regarded it as a redactional work & not strictly as a source.
 Has several indicators 4 its structure e.g. more than 10 generation formula in Gen, & 10 itenerary formula
marking Israel’s journey in the desert (bt doesn’t contain the story of Abel & Cain, episodes on life of
Abraham & Sara, Jacob & Essau; story of Joseph; events of Sinai; sojourn in the desert).
 The main theological thought of P writer is that God set the world in motion in the majestic splendour of the
creation narrative, crowned by God’s Sabbath. God’s purpose will never fail.
2.3.1.2 J
 J source is spontaneous & natural, free & genuine.
 This document was produced in the south 9th C BC.
 Purpose of God according to J was to proclaim that Israel was the Lord’s chosen mediator to bring
salvation & blessing to the troubled humanity described in Gen 2 – 11.
 It is nowadays regarded as weak & elusive. It has lost its acceptance as an independent source as it is
interwoven into the larger P dmnt.
2.3.1.3 E
 Written in the N kingdom under the influence of the early prophets in 8 th C BC.
 Some have connected it with prophets Elijah & Hosea. However these prophets don’t use the name
Elohim.
 The poorest of the 4. It’s thought to contain only fragmentary texts that couldn’t fit into J or P.
 It can be said that it is a complementary source, which didn’t want to take or lose anything from the older
sources.
2.3.1.4 D
 Comes from the Josianic reforms in 622 BC.
 Concentrates on the centralization & ritualization of Israel religion.
 Its main concept is the Covenant.

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 Writers of D worked out during the exile interpreted the whole history of Israel in the light of the Law of
Moses.
In short, there are mainly 2 principle theologies in the Pentateuch: the D’stic & Priestly theology based on 2
different views of history & israel’s project.

2.3.2 Basic Laws Underlying the Documentary theory

 The law of antiquity or precedence (old is Gold) – old things were highly valued. Deemed superior to
recent things.
 The law of conservation: nothing is eliminated – derivative of the 1 st law 4 what is highly valued is normally
conserved. A law is never abolished.
 The law of continuity and actuality – preserved only valuable things. 2 desires were side by side: they
sought a link with past & wanted to show that what is preserved had a value in present.
 Economic law (written only when it is necessary).

2.3.3 Criticism of the Dry Theory by Modern Critics

 Dry Hyp was accepted by many scholars. However they accepted it as far as written sources are
concerned.
 From 1975 many scholars found it difficult to identify the distinctive characteristics btn J & E; & some even
questioned the extension of P.
 They ended up with 3 dry sources (E, P & D). J was reduced almost nothing.
 There is also a problem of determining the end of the use of the dry sources 4 they appear to continue
throughout the monarchic period.
 In footsteps of Umberto Cassuto, Norman R disagreed with the dry hypothesis 4 2 reasons:
- It is illogical & self contradictory = it tries to ans the problem of repetitions & contradictions, it
doesn’t rule out or prove that the hypothetical sources didn’t have repetition & contradictions.
- There are better explanations of repetitions & stylistic variations.
 Modern scholars think that the law was written after the prophets; therefore pn is the latest part of the Hb
Bible.
 Some documents were supposed to come from the Post-exilic period bt the Hb language & style don’t
correspond to that of other documents deriving from the same period eg Ezra, Nehemiah & Chronicles.
 Even some descriptions of worship such as sacrifices & rituals don’t match with real practices of the exilic
or pe era.
 Modern Scholars seek to read the pn in its unified form instead of fragmenting it. Consequently, a new
form of source & redactional criticism emerged that applies new methods, such as sociological & cultural
factors. They read the text thematically & synchronically.

3. THE THEOLOGY OF EXODUS

 Theology of Exodus analysed in 4 main areas: Liberation/ Deliverance, Covenant, The Law & Presence of
God.

3.1 Deliverance/ Liberation

 Major theme.
 Liberation from Egyptian bondage thru the hand of Moses (chs 1 – 15).
 The 10 plagues, the Passover,& the crossing of the Red sea [the pesach (killing of the Egyptians’ 1 st born),
& the crossing of the Red sea (note the repetitive phrase “I’ll harden his heart so that he will not let the
pple go” (Ex 4:21; 9:12; 10:20; 14:4a) “& the Egyptians will know that I am the Lord” (14:4b) & thus be
glorified (14:17, 18)] indicates that YHWH was in total control of the situation, including Pharaoh’s life.
 YHWH was using Pharaoh to demonstrate His sovereignity so that Israel will fully trust in Him.
 The Crossing of the Red sea made the pple fear the Lord & believe in the Lord & Moses His servant
(14:31).
 God is our saviour.
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 Typology of NT story in Xst’s event = 3 Exodus: From Egypt (prototype – not coz of sin); Babylonian exile;
&, From sin (xn in diaspora).

3.2 Covenant
 2nd major & is a dominant theme.
 After liberation, God established a unilateral covenant (not bilateral) with Israel, making them His pple:
holy, priestly & kingly (19:6) = remains a typology.
 They had to establish an intimate rlshp with Him (19 – 24). When the covenant was broken, it was
renewed in Ex 32 – 34 i.e. there’s a call to intimate rshp with God.
 The covenant became the benchmark of their fidelity/ faithfulness or unfaithfulness to God, & 4 the
acquisition of the PL = Cov & PL are linked & can’t be separated. Becomes condition 4 acquiring the PL.
Measure of their faithfulness.
 Theme of Historical books depends on this.

3.3 The Law

 Understood as God’s will on His pple (considered as holy).
 It was the condition for their covenant with Yahweh at Sinai.
 It was God’s will for all aspects of Israel’s personal & public life.
Contained 3 characteristics:
 Theophanic: Given in a terrifying theophany (19:16-25) in order to give the law absolute & holy authority
beyond human claims. Can’t be abrogated/ rectified/ modified.
 Only 10 commandments came from God’s mouth, giving them transcendental/ divine power.
 The rest of the laws or ordinances in the Exodus are from Moses (20:22-26; 21:1-23; 29; 34:11-21) who
instructs them = are casuistic in nature & accepted them coz Moses was understood as mediator of God
per excellence.

3.4 Presence of God

 Exodus describes a concrete institutional milieu that demonstrates God’s continued presence in the midst
of Israel.
 2nd part of the bk (25:1 – 40:38) is a description of Israel’s struggle to find a viable way in which the Holy
God is present in their midst.
 Tarbenacle (Tent) makes possible the presence of His glory (40:32-38) = it is where God’s glory is
manifested (concrete presence of God’s glory).
 Symbolized by the Tent & meet Him there thru mediation of Moses & Aaron.
 Typology of tent will result into temple = Church.

4. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS

4.1 The General Description of Historical Books
 The Pentateuch records the birth of God's people. The account continues in the second section of the
canon known as the "historical books.
 The bible is not a historical book, yet it contains history. The history it narrates is not the objective,
scientific history. But the history of the people of Israel. It is a religious history. It recounts Yahweh’s
dealings with the people of Israel.
 They trace the history of God's relationship with his nation, revealing his faithfulness and steadfast love for
his people even when they broke covenant. Scholars like Robert Noth regarded this history as a Dstic
revision of Israel’s history (indicated by the use of the expression “until this day” Josh 4:9; 5:9).
 This history begins in the book of Genesis and extends to the book of Esther. Can be divided into 3
categories: the first sequence is found in the books from Genesis to 2kings [creation to exile] and it is
called primary history; 2nd block is the secondary history & 3rd block is the deuteronomic history.
 Both the Primary & secondary history have same starting points but have different end points. Both begin
with the account of Adam and recount the same history of the Hebrew people but conclude as the 2
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different points in history. The primary history concludes with the exile in 587 BC, while the secondary
history goes beyond exile and finishes in the 5 th century BC, with the installation of a Jewish Prime Minister
Mordecai in the Persian government marking the end of Jewish oppression by the Persians.
4.1.1 Primary History (Primary Historical Books)
 The primary historical books form a single work giving a story of Israel as a people from its conquest of the
land under Joshua to its expulsion from the land through exile spanning from Joshua-kings.
 We find the early history of Israel’s conquest & dwelling of the PL, the formation of the unified monarchy,
the separation of the kingdom into the North & South & the Babylonian Exile. Contains 6 books, namely,
Joshua, Judges, 1&2 Samuel, 1&2 Kings.
4.1.2 Secondary History (Secondary Historical Books)
 Secondary history gives additional information on primary history. The second sequence consists of
6books of Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1&2 Chronicles, Esther.
4.1.3 Deuterocanonical Historical books
4 books comprising of Judith, Tobith, 1&2 Maccabees which gives some inspirational readings and ethical
values. some information on Israel.

4.2 Joshua
4.2.1 Brief Description (M.D. Coogan)
 It records the story of the conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land under the leadership of Joshua.
 One of the promises Yahweh gave to the patriarchs and their descendants was land and the conquest of
Canaan is its realization.
 The promise was to be put on hold because of the sins of Israelites during the wilderness wonderings but
a new generation is ready to launch into the Promised Land.
 The land is conquered and settled during Joshua’s life time.
 The Author – scholars think that Joshua is a literary creation not as a historical fact. The assertion is
based on the parallels to Moses and that in most texts where the history of Israel is cited Joshua and his
events are not mentioned.
 The author writes a kind of historical-theological fiction, in order to present a picture of the ideal Israel
under ideal leader.

4.2.2 Content/ Structure

I. 1:1-18 – Introduction = Joshua receives his commission
II. 2:1 – 12:24 – The conquest of the 12 tribes of Israel under the leadership of Joshua.
a) 2 – 6 = Destruction of Jericho at Passover
b) 7:1 – 8:29 = Destruction of Achan & Ai
c) 8:30-35 = Building an altar on Mt Ebal
d) 9:1 – 10:43 = Destruction of the South
e) 11:1-15 = Destruction of the North
f) 11:16 – 12:24 = Summary of Destruction
III. 13:1 – 21:45 – distribution of the Land
a) 13:1-7 = redistribution of the Land
b) 13:8-33 = Land for the tribes beyond the Jordan
c) 14:1-5 = Inheritance by lot
d) 14:6 – 15:63 = Land of Judah
e) 16:1 – 17:18 = Land for the sons of Joseph
f) 18:1-10 = Land survey & lots at Shiloh
g) 18:11-28 = Land for Benjamin
h) 19:1-51 = Land for the remaining six tribes
i) 20:1-9 = towns for refuge
j) 21:1-45 = towns with pasture lands for the levites
IV. 22:1 – 24:33 – Assembly at Shechem
a) 22:1-34 = A second altar built
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b) 23:1 – 24:8
c) 24:19-33 = Joshua’s death & burial

4.3 Judges
4.3.1 Brief Description (M. O’CONNOR)
 Judges is the book that narrates the story when Israel was under the leadership of the judges.
 It is characterized by apostasy. Because they continually turned away from serving Yahweh, Israel is
continually given into the hands of her neighbours who oppress her.
 Through wars, Yahweh teaches Israel the painful results of apostasy. The author of the book used the
following cycle to explain this theme:
- Sin: "The Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD."
 War as judgment: "The Lord sold them into the hands of their neighbouring enemy nation."
- Repentance: “the Israelites cried out to the Lord to beg for pardon."
- Deliverance by a judge: "Yahweh raised up for them a judge who delivered them."
 The way understand Judges is to see that Israel was living on a threshold or border of life an experience
sometimes described as liminal. The book asks how did Israel live without a great leader?
 The judges are said to be raised up by Yahweh, and are thereby associated with the actions of God. The
Gideon story, combining divine revelation with judgeship, is the richest of the major stories of the book.

4.3.2 Content/ Structure

I. 1:1 – 2:5: Introduction. Judges as leaders in transition (they represent an era of decline)
i. 1:1-21: Judah’s moderate success
ii. 1:22:36: The failed campaign of the house of Joseph
iii. 2:1-5: judgement in all the Israelites (Deuteromistic criterion in judging success)
II. 2:6 – 3:6: Decline to sin. They neglected the covenant
i. 2:6-10: A new Genesis is born
ii. 2:11-23: Deuteronomistic pattern/ cycle. Apostacy – punishment – mercy.
iii. 3:1-6: The theology that the pagan nations remain a test of Israel’s fidelity
III. 3:7 – 16:21: Central part of the book – The coming of judges
i. 3:7-11: Othniel, the model judge
ii. 3:12-31: Ehud & Shamgar
iii. 4:1 – 5:31Deborar, Barak & Joel
a) 4:1-24: The story of Siseras death
b) 5:1-24: The song of Deborah & Barak
iv. 6:1 – 10:5: the decline begins (Gideon & Abimelek; Tola & Jair)
a) 6:1 – 8:35: The story of Gideon – he exterminated the idols which were copied from
Palestine
- 6:1-32: He destroyed the alter of Baal
- 6:33 – 8:3: Gideon became stranger & successful in his campaign
- 8:4-35: Gideon declined/ fell back to idolatry coz he wanted to become king like others
b) 9:1-57: Abimelek fighting for kingship (was fighting against Gideon) – a failure
c) 10:1-5: Tola & Jair – 2 minor judges who’re really assassinated (not prominent). Fight for
leadership among the sons of Israel.
v. 10:6 – 12:15: 4 Judges; Jephtah, Ibzam, Elon & Abdon
a) 10:6 – 11:11(Story of Jephtah) Oppressed Israel & God intervenes after they repented,
the coming of Jephtah
b) 11:12-40: The war against the Amorites & Jephtah’s daughter
c) 12:1-7: Jephtah & the Ephraimites (they fought)
d) 12:8-15: Minor Judges appear: Ibzam, Elon, Abdon
vi. 13:1 – 16:31: Samson the last Judge
a) 13:1-25: Birth of Samson
b) 14:1-20: Samson the Riddler
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c) 15:1-20: Samson the avenger
d) 16:1-3: Samson the loose person (Delilah)
e) 16:4-31: Samson & His death
IV. 17:1 – 21:25: The Conclusion of the book – the disintergration of Israel (judges couldn’t put/ keep
Israel together)
i. 17:1 – 18:31: Israel goes back to idolatry
ii. 19:1-30: Atrocity of Gebeah
iii. 20:1 – 21:25: The unholy civil war

4.4 1 & 2 Samuel (A.F. CAMPBELL/J.W. FLANNAGAN)

4.4.1 Brief Description of the Books
 The books deal with the period in which two significant elements came into prominence in Israel: the figure
of the prophet and the institution of the kingship.This is the golden era of the kingdom of Israel. The book
narrates how Israel entered into monarchy.
 The main focus is the rise of David and building of the kingdom.1 Sam. Opens with the emergence of
Samuel as a Prophet to all Israel; 2 Sam. Closes on the eve of the first dynastic transfer of royal power,
from David to Solomon.
 Composition – were assembled over a period of hundreds of years, stretching from the beginnings of the
monarchy and the end of the period of the judges.
 Some passages are duplicated, others lack continuity. Thus some scholars have tried to explain the text
using the same theory as for the Pentateuch. Others have talked about basic ‘building blocks’ originally
independent narratives rather than continuous sources: prophetic record; the Ark narrative; Story of
David’s rise to power; Nathan’s prophecy; Report of the Ammonite war; Succession Narrative.

4.4.2 Content/ Structure

4.4.2.1 1Sam
I. 1:1 – 7:17: Samuel the youth & Israel’s crisis
II. 8:1 – 15:35: Kingship of Saul
III. 16:1 – 31:13: The rise of David & decline of Saul

4.4.2.2 2Sam
I. 1 – 4:Present the difficulties the country encounter after Saul
II. 5 – 8: Description of election of David as king of Israel
III. 9 – 20: Narration of diffulties which David encountered in domestic
IV. 21 – 24: Appendix – Reports isolated events from David’s life

4.5 1 & 2 Kings (J.T. WALSH/C.T. BEGG)

4.5.1 Brief Description of the Books
 The story of these books is centred on the split of the kingdom due to Solomon’s oppressive measures. It
explains the split of the Kingdom.
 David is for Kings the ideal ruler of Judah, he was faithful and obedient to Yahweh.
 Jeroboam I, by contrast represents the unfaithful Israel, hence exile and punishment.
 The role of the prophets in the unfolding history of Israel; through them Yahweh continued to confront his
people.
4.5.2 Content/ Structure

4.6 Literary Genres

There are 2 main literary genre: narrative & legal (law). Narrative is dominant.
4.6.1 Narrative Genre
i. Myth

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 H. Gunkel = story abt deeds of gods & heroes. Deeds which are independent of any historical,
geographical or archaeological context coz they are usually at least in origin, bound up with the cyclical
pattern of nature & its fertility.
 It’s the opposite of history: it is cyclical where history is linear; takes place outside/ beyond time & space;
deals with gods & heroes.
ii. Legend
 Record of fact which could really have happened, of an experience which could have bn had or of a
person who could really have existed bt in a prehistoric era from which we possess only traditional
material of a popular type.
 Saga = similar to legend bt presents more than the individual.
 Etiological legends
iii. Fable & fairy tale
 Fable = narrative literary genre in which the protagonists are usually animals or plants & more rarely can
be humans. It normally ends with a lesson/ moral teaching. Eg Jdg 9:8ff; 2Kgs 14:9ff.
 A fairy tale = novella which is similar to fable & dvps out of a delight in story-telling. Mixes pple & animals,
the sacred & profane. It includes famous historical pple in fictitious contexts. Eg Saul’s story of searching
for the lost animals & found a kingdom (1Sam 9).

4.6.2 Legal
 Intimately connected to the covenant.

5. COMPOSITION AND THEOLOGY OF THE BOOK OF JOSHUA

V.1 Composition (Authorship, Date & Place)
 According to the Babylonian Talmud, it was written by Joshua himself. Unanimously rejected by scholars
for it is unimaginable that Joshua described his own death in ch 24.
 T4 the author is anonymous, & Joshua is merely the main character.
 4 Dtr historian-theology it narrates how Israel under Joshua took possession of the PL.
Some scholars = conquest took place in 3 levels:
 Conquest model = Israel took the land by miraculously storming Jericho (1 – 12).
 Gradual settlement model = Israel infiltrated the Land in scattered nomadic gps & settled in the low dry
plains with their flocks.
 Revolt model = some scholars, Israel took possession not from outside bt from within coz of social strife
that provoked revolt among the peasants.

V.2 Theology of Joshua

 Narrates the fulfilment of the Pn: how Israel conquered & settled in the PL. Its theology is therefore
founded on elements related to the divine promise & its consequences as far as Israel is concerned.

V.2.1 The Land

 The land which belonged to YHWH was given to Israel as gift (cf. Lev 25:23; Deut 9:4-5).
 Allowed to dwell in it under the condition that they keep their covenant with YHWH, by obeying the Torah.
 Lord drove away those who possessed it in order to give it to Israel (cf. Josh 10:40; 11:22; 23:9-13).

V.2.2 Rest
 40 yrs sojourn from Egypt thru the wilderness to PL was strenuous & dangerous.
 In His compassionate love, God gave them rest by settling them in the PL. This rest is a gift from YHWH. It
is part of the inheritance (Josh 1:13). This rest will remain if they keep their covenant with Him.

V.2.3 The Covenant

 Sinai’s established Israel to be YHWH’s possession, a royal, priestly & holy pple (Ex 19:4-6).

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 They’ll remain so if they keep it by abiding by the commandments. Unfaithful they’ll lose it = main
theological principle of the Dstic historian that would govern the hcal bks.
 Joshua always reminded them of this condition by ritually celebrating the covenant (cf Josh 8:30-35) &
renewing, thus reviling it (cf Josh 24).

V.2.4 The Ark of the Covenant

 Symbol of YHWH’s presence in the midst of his pple Israel.
 Israel had to kp themselves holy coz the Lord is holy (cf Lev 11:44).
 Believed thru the AC, YHWH led & protected them by driving away their adversaries.

V.2.5 Ritual purity

 Demand of ritual purity in Leviticus is continued & underscored in Josh 5. Joshua commanded to
circumcise those born in the wilderness b4 they settle in the land (Josh 5:2-5, 7-8).
 Joshua’s encounter with the man with a drawn sword & the demand to remove his sandals in Josh 5:13-15
reminds the reader of Moses’ encounter with the Lord in Ex 3:5.

V.2.6 The Harem

 One of the practices that Israel held dear was the devotion of voluntary dedication of material possession
of God.
 Similar to a vow, one didn’t kp his/her harem faced punishment or pay a redeeming price (Josh 7:10-11).

CONCLUSION
 It is clear from a close scrutiny of the five books, that there is one purpose throughout. The Pentateuch is
a complete and connected account of the origin and development of Divine Redemption.
 Not one of the five books is complete in itself, or free from reference to the others. We may compare
particularly at the first words of each and the historical threads running through all of them.
 The story of redemption is continued and developed throughout, and the legislation contained therein, is
connected and progressive.
 All the later books of the bible either imply the existence of the Pentateuch or else definitively refer to it.
 The Torah is the core work of the bible. Not the work of any one person, it reflects a rare event in literary
history, a literary partnership on which the works of many individuals were brought together into a
meaningful whole that is more than the sum of its parts.
 The Torah is a work of combination. It is a single work, a collection of five books, and is an editorially
brilliant merging of the sources.
 It combines history and literature. It merges prose, poetry, and law. It is concerned with God, with
humankind and with a few individuals.
It contains stories of individual bonds and conflicts with families, and it recounts events involving nations. It
sets a record of human history against a cosmic background and relates it to the Divine Presence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boadt, L., Reading the Old Testament

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