CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Complementary foods are foods and liquids other than breast milk or infant formulas

required during the second part of the first year of life for both nutritional and developmental

reasons and also to enable transition from milk feeding to family foods (Koletzko et al., 2008).

After 6 months of age, breast milk is not enough to meet the macro- and micronutrient

requirements of infants (Koletzko et al., 2008; Ijarotimi and Keshinro, 2013). Infants also

develop the ability to chew; hence, begin showing interest for foods other than milk, therefore,

there is the need to introduce healthy complementary foods. According to the Codex

Alimentarius Commission, CAC (2008), complementary foods should be of appropriate

nutritional quality and energy to complement the nutrients obtained from breast milk for

infants and family foods for younger children.

A number of complementary foods have been developed. In Africa, especially in

Ghana, most of these complementary foods are cereal-based (Amagloh et al., 2012a). They are

mostly formulated with maize as the major ingredient and complemented with soybean,

cowpea and/or groundnut. The legumes are added to improve upon the fat and protein content

of the food. However, over the years the problem with malnutrition, especially micronutrient

deficiencies of vitamin A, iodine and iron, have led to the supplementation of complementary

foods (Bhandari et al., 2001; Lutter et al., 2008; Nestel et al., 2003). Vitamin A and iron

deficiency are amongst the world’s most prevalent nutritional problems (Amagloh et al.,

2012a; Lutter et al., 2008).

 Infant mortality is a perennial public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, despite global

significant improvements in child survival (Oyarekua, 2013; Ogbo et al., 2017). Evidence

suggests that infant mortality in this region could be reduced during the weaning period- a time

when complementary foods are introduced to infants (Muoki et al., 2012; Ogbo et al., 2017).

Mothers, due to economic challenges and inadequate nutrition knowledge, give nutritionally

deficient complementary foods to their children. Commercial infant formulas, which could

serve as alternative, are beyond the reach of low and middle class families, who constitute the

majority of Nigerian population (Ijarotimi et al., 2012). Nutritional improvement of staple

foods has been advocated as a suitable means to reduce childhood malnutrition in developing

countries (Muoki et al., 2012).

Sweet potato as a complementary food has been identified as a viable product both for

supplementing the nutritional needs of babies in developing countries while enhancing the

utilization of the crop. A number of studies by Ijarotimi and Ashipa (2006), Sanoussi et al.

(2013) and Haque et al. (2013) have, thus, been conducted in this wise. Some varieties have

high amount of β-carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A (Burri et al., 2011; Picha and

Padda, 2009); hence, could help reduce vitamin A deficiency amongst children.

Notwithstanding the high energy content of sweet potato and other micronutrients such as

vitamin A, C, potassium, iron and zinc, it is low in protein and fat contents; hence, the need to

complement it with legumes and/or cereals when being used in complementary foods.

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is a nutritionally important grain in the tropics

(Rampersad et al., 2003). It is rich in protein (19 - 26 %) and minerals (Rampersad et al.,

2003). The antinutrients in pigeon pea are easily removed by processing (Odeny, 2007). Pigeon

pea was long considered to be one of the two species of the genus Cajanus DC. However, this
genus is now thought to be congeneric with Atylosia and Endomallus, and also includes

species of Rhynchosia and Dunbaria. Cajanus is now recognized as having 32 species. Pigeon

pea, though indigenous to many communities in south western Nigeria, is grossly underutilized

and is virtually unknown to many of the young people in the communities. The use of pigeon

pea to improve the protein quality of starchy staples has been reported (Adeola et al., 2012;

Muoki et al., 2012).

The major drawback in the research works on sweet potato-based complementary foods

including those by Ijarotimi and Ashipa (2006), Sanoussi et al. (2013) and Haque et al. (2013)

was the viscous nature of the resultant complementary foods. Amagloh et al. (2013) employed

three processing methods (extrusion, roller drying and oven toasting) to resolve this drawback.

These processes also improved the nutrient composition of the complementary foods.

However, to further improve the nutrient composition of the sweet potato-based

complementary food and to enhance the suitability of sweetpotato in the baby food industry,

studies into the use of the OFSP, which has higher βcarotene compared with the cream flesh

used, is needed. Moreover, soybean, which is the protein and fat source for the complementary

food has been reported to lack methionine and cysteine (Edema et al. 2005). These amino acids

are abundant in cereals such as millet or maize. Therefore, a blend of legume (pigeon pea) in

the formulation of a complementary food, which was lacking in the study by Amagloh et al.

(2013), will improve on its protein quality.

1.1 Objective of the Study

Therefore, the objective of this study is to formulate a sweet potato-pigeon pea

complementary food fortified. The characteristics of the complementary food formulated

including acceptability and nutrient are also studied.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam)

The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam.) is an admirable plant because it is the only

representative of its kind capable of developing nutritious tuberous roots, which are consumed

worldwide. Sweet potatoes are part of the set of foods that make up the roots and tubers

commodity. This group represents the sixth most important food crop in the world (Huaman,

2002; FAO, 2020). It should be noted that the sweet potato epithet is used to refer to the set of

tuberous roots that are produced by the plant of the same name. Regarding the name, the

expression sweet potato can induce a misunderstanding of identity and support dubious

comparisons with other food, the potato (Solanum tuberosum) (USDA, 2020).

It is certain that the sweet potato is a tuberous root and is part of the Convolvulaceae

family. But the potato is a tuber and a member of the Solanaceae family. The word “potato”

originates in the Arawak language that was pronounced by ancestral indigenous peoples who

inhabited regions of Central and South America and was used by Spaniards to refer to sweet

potatoes. “Camote” is another expression used to identify sweet potatoes especially in

countries in South America and comes from the Nahuatl language expressed by Aztec and

indigenous peoples who inhabited Mexico. It is worth mentioning that “kumara” (word

originating in the South American indigenous Quechua language) is the name of the sweet

potato in Oceania (Vidigal, 2016; Cunha, 2019).

The historical roots linked to the origin of the sweet potato and the events involved in

its continental spread are controversial topics and intrigue researchers to this day. The leading
theory related to its appearance indicates that sweet potato is a plant that comes from the

Americas, particularly from regions that comprise Central America and South America.

Fragments of food found in archaeological sites located in Peru reveal the possibility that sweet

potatoes were used more than 10,000 years ago (O’brien, 202; Woolfe, 2002; Austin, 2008).

The history of its spread from the Americas to various parts of the world is entangled

with significant sailing events and is intertwined with the chronicles of some of the most

famous explorers. The arrival of sweet potatoes in Europe is credited to Christopher Columbus,

who, during his exploration trip to the New World, collected in Hispaniola (today São

Domingos Island) several spoils including samples of sweet potatoes, and transported them to

Spain, presenting them in 1493 to the Spain Catholic Monarch Queen Isabella I of Castile and

King Ferdinand II of Aragon (Kingsburry, 2002; Hawkes and Francisco-Ortega, 2003).

Among the countries that produce sweet potatoes, China occupies the first position,

followed by countries that make up the African and Asian continent, such as Malawi, Nigeria,

Ethiopia, India, Angola, Uganda, among others (FAO, 2020). In underdeveloped countries,

mainly in Asia, Africa and Latin America, sweet potatoes are essential food for supplying the

domestic market. In areas in Central and Sub-Saharan Africa, orange fleshed sweet potatoes

are widely used to combat hypovitaminosis A, one of the most severe malnutrition problems

faced by vulnerable populations (Low et al., 2007; Low et al., 2017). In Brazil, the productive

potential of sweet potatoes is still mitigated due to the low added value that this food has, and

most of the harvest is traded through the retail trade of staple foods. In contrast, Brazilian

agricultural research centers, such as the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation

(EMBRAPA), invest in genetic improvement programs for sweet potato cultivars intending to
obtain plants suitable for cultivation in Brazilian soil, which have productive characteristics

satisfactory and nutritional (Rodrigues, 2016; Sousa et al., 2019).

2.1.1 Sweet potato taxonomy and morphology

The sweet potato is a perennial plant, belonging to the Convolvulaceae family,

recognized mainly for generating tuberous roots that are used all over the world, for the most

diverse purposes. It is a dicotyledonous angiosperm because, during the germination period

and the beginning of its growth, the sweet potato presents the formation of two cotyledons,

which assist in the generation and storage of the energy necessary for the development of the

plant (Soto and Saldivar, 2020).

The study of plant taxonomy is old and extensive. To classify the various plant

specimens, the work of many researchers culminated in different nomenclature systems, for

example, Species Plantarum, the Hutchinson system (Hutchinson, 2003), the Takhtajan system

(Takhtadzhian and Takhtajan, 2007), Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) (Angiosperm

Phylogeny Group, 2016), Wu Zhengyi (Zhou and Sun, 2016), the Thorne system (Thorne and

Reveal, 2007), et cetera.

According to the APG system, which describes the updated classification of clades,

orders and families associated with the group of angiosperm plants, the taxonomy of sweet

potatoes originates from the Angiosperms clade and dismembers together with the Eudicot,

Superasterids and Asterids clades, which in turn branches the class Lamiids, which groups the

order Solanales that hold the family Convolvulaceae (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2009;

Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2016). The Convolvulaceae family is broad and cosmopolitan.

It is commonly known as The Morning Glory Family because of its floral pattern. The plants
that belong to this family are, in the vast majority, reptiles, vines or shrubs, generate roots and

rhizomes, and some species produce latex and alkaloids. Its flowers exhibit a gamma petal

configuration (five joined petals) in an infundibuliform shape, and a chalice with five separate

sepals. This family has about 59 genera distributed in more than 1600 specimens (Buril et al.,

2012; Singh, 2019).

Among several genera that make up the Convolvulaceae family, the Ipomoea genus is

the most expressive, which aggregates more than 500 specimens (Singh, 2019). It is worth

mentioning that sweet potato is the leading representative of the genus Ipomoea, as it is the

only plant of the genus capable of producing nutritious tuber roots and of high economic

expression. The tuberous roots of sweet potatoes are widely consumed as food, handled, and

commercialized worldwide. During the growth of the plant, the stem develops in a crawling

way, prostrate to the ground, manifesting repetitive sprouting, being able to generate roots in

the points where the internodes present contact with the soil. The stem is tender and flexible,

consisting of the epidermis, the cortex, and the vascular system. It has a cylindrical shape and

slightly flattened with a predominance of green color, and may also have a purple, violet or

purple depending on the type of cultivar (Barrera, 2009).

The stem epidermis may be glabrous or slightly pubescent, consisting of a thin band of

cells and stomata to establish transpiration and gas exchange processes in the plant. The cortex

has cell layers that accumulate chlorophyll, in addition to latex-producing ducts, which are also

present throughout the stem structure. A thin layer of endoderm separates the cortex from

vascular bundles, composed of tissues such as phloem and xylem, which act in the conduction

of sap and nutrients. The central region of the stem is formed by the medulla that is composed

of parenchyma cells (Delazari et al., 2018). The length of the stem can vary from 1 to 5 m, and
the thickness between 3 to 10 mm. Internodes can develop from 2 to 20 cm apart along the

stem (Silva et al., 2008).

The petiole that is born from the stem can measure up to 30 cm in length and be

glabrous or pubescent, in which the sweet potato leaves develop. The stems and petioles have

nutrients which can be used for animal feed mainly in the creation of pigs and cattle either in

natura or in the form of silage (Viana et al., 2011). The leaves are simple, glabrous, or slightly

pubescent, with an aspect that varies between ovate, orbicular, sagittal, cordiform or elliptical,

and grows petiolate with the entire edges, with the corded base being its main characteristic.

The growth of the leaves along the stem presents a spiral configuration of a pentamer pattern or

phyllotaxis 2/5, that is, the genetic spiral completes two turns that group five leaves, with the

sixth leaf developing relatively above the first leaf (Saueressig, 2018).

2.2 Social Relevance of Sweet Potato

Sweet potato is a food of high nutritional value and consumed worldwide. It is rich in

vitamin C and vitamin A (orange-fleshed sweet potato), and a source of energy, fiber, vitamin

B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), and potassium. Colored-fleshed sweet potatoes

also have bioactive compounds that help to maintain consumer health (Mohanraj and

Sivasankar, 2014). The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides information

about the nutritional composition of various types of food, including their primary means of

consumption, through the database called Food Data (United States Department of Agriculture,

2020).

It is noteworthy that the sweet potato is a nutritious food and of high energy value. The

natural tuberous roots have a high content of starch, complex carbohydrates, and fibers, as well
as minerals and vitamins. When sweet potatoes are cooked, there is a variation in micronutrient

density, with an increase in the content of some minerals and vitamin C.

The predominant component of sweet potato on a dry basis is starch, which can vary

between 65% to 89% of the composition in different cultivars. Starch is a type of carbohydrate

made up of glycosidic chains, which form two portions of polysaccharides called amylose and

amylopectin. Starch is considered as the primary energy reserve of plants. The sweet potato

starch provides energy to the body, especially when the tuberous roots are subjected to

cooking, as the starch chains are transformed into maltose, which increases the glycemic index

of this food (Owusu-Mensah et al., 2016). Sweet potato leaves and branches also have several

micronutrients and bioactive compounds. The physicochemical composition of the leaves

reveals the presence of several nutrients such as vitamins and minerals, in addition to fibers

and bioactive compounds. Sweet potato leaves are consumed as food, especially by inhabitants

of countries in the African continent, Asia, and Pacific Ocean islands (Johnson and Pace,

2010). The branches and leaves also have a suitable fermentation profile to be used in the

production of silage for animal feed (Viana et al., 2011).

Sun et al. (2014), evaluated the nutritional composition of leaves of 40 Chinese sweet

potato cultivars and identified a high content of protein, sodium, potassium, and polyphenols.

The authors suggest that the consumption of sweet potato leaves may help to combat

malnutrition problems in underdeveloped countries. The tremendous social relevance of sweet

potatoes becomes evident when considering the nutritional requirement of the human being

combined with the commitment to food production. Sweet potatoes are a convenient food to be

used as a nutritional supplement in the diet of vulnerable people. Countries and international

institutions invest in public policies and social projects to aid populations that have problems
related to malnutrition, mainly for the group of women, pregnant women, lactating women, and

children. The projects seek to promote improvements in the diet by encouraging the production

and consumption of nutritious foods, which can prove to guarantee positive effects for the

consumer's health (Wuehler and Ouedraogo, 2011).

In this sense, sweet potato is a food capable of filling the deficiency of important

nutrients for the maintenance of metabolism, as is the case of retinol, also known as vitamin A.

Hypovitaminosis A is considered a severe health problem in several countries that make up the

region known as Sub-Saharan Africa. This public health problem encouraged the design of

proposals aimed at promoting cultivation and encouraging the consumption of orange-fleshed

sweet potatoes, a food rich in β-carotene, a substance considered provitamin A (Burri, 2011).

Williams et al. (2013), reported that chronic pathologies resulting from malnutrition,

mainly related to hypovitaminosis A, figure as a significant problem for Timor-Leste. The

authors evaluated the introduction of three sweet potato cultivars for cultivation by local

farmers in the seasons 2006- 2007 and 2007-2008, and report that at least one cultivar had

production potential under the conditions of local agriculture, combined with the necessary

nutritional quality to mitigate the demand for vitamin A by the country's vulnerable population.

Laurie et al. (2013), evaluated 57 South African sweet potato cultivars for morphological

characteristics and genetic diversity, which come from research to improve native cultivars. Its

results showed some sweet potato cultivars with better flavor, longer storage time, and high

production capacity with tolerance to dry soils. The authors emphasize the results that are

useful for the advancement of cultivation improvement studies, as well as for nutrition

programs, for example, the Sweet potato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA),

which acts to stimulate the increase in potato consumption of orange pulp in Africa.
 The Helen Keller International institution promoted the project The Reaching Agents of

Change (RAC) that worked in Tanzania, Mozambique, Nigeria, Ghana, and Burkina Faso. The

project generated political and social changes in the different countries by ensuring the

cultivation and supply of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, making this a significant food for

local populations (Helen Keller International, 2014).

2.3 Nutritional Composition of Sweet Potato

The sweet potato is a good source of the basic nutrients and different vitamins,

minerals, polyphenols, antioxidants, and ACN.

2.3.1 Proximate composition

Orange-fleshed sweet potato is a second staple food crop in many countries of African

and Asian continents for most of the population, so the proximate composition is very

important to understand the role of this tuber crop in basic nutrition. In this section summarized

is the proximate composition of the sweet potato reported by different researchers.

Moisture is the major component in OFSP, which accounts for >62% and <75%

(Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). Other root and tubers also

reported similar moisture contents such as potato (79%), cassava (60%), WFSP (77%), and

yam (70%) (USDA, 2018). Usually, roots and tubers are consumed in fresh after boiling or

minimal processing with traditional practices. Different researchers reported the various drying

techniques for OFSP and converted into flour to the moisture content of <11% (Rodrigues et

al.., 2016). The low moisture content is very important for OFSP flour to maintain long shelf

life. These similar trends were reported in case of staple grains also, and usually at the time of

harvesting, cereals possess moisture contents >22% to 25% and dried to 9%–13% for long-
term storage (Liu et al., 2007). The moisture content of sweet potato reported variation in

different studies; this may be related to the diversity in variety, agroclimatic conditions,

agriculture practices employed, etc.

Ash is an inorganic residue in any food substance, which directly denotes the mineral

content. The ash values were reported from the range of 1.17% – 4.33% (Mohammad et al.,

2016), this broad range is obvious, and it happened due to the varietal and agrogeological

differences. Also, processes such as peeling and blanching were followed by drying reported

on the ash contents (Endrias et al., 2016). The ash contents of sweet potato are comparable

with other roots and tubers.

Proteins are very important nutrients for structural, functional performers of different

biomolecules in human body, and they provide the essential amino acids required for

metabolism. The protein in the range of 1.91%–5.83% was reported in sweet potato

(Mohammad et al., 2016). Usually, roots and tuber are the poor source for protein, which is

similar in case of the sweet potato. The protein contents of the OFSP are in similar to those of

potato (2%), cassava (1.4%), WFSP (1.6%), and yam (1.5). In contrast, the protein

compositions of OFSP are very low as compared to the staple food grains, such as maize

(9.4%), rice (7.1%), wheat (12.6%), and sorghum (11.6%) (USDA, 2018). So, to combat the

Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM), it is very important to consume the protein-rich pulses and

animal foods among communities where OFSP is considered as second staple (Neumann et al.,

2002).

Very low concentration (<1%) of the fat was reported in sweet potato; usually, this

trend is the property of roots and tubers (Lyimo et al., 2010; Mohammad et al., 2016;
Rodrigues et al., 2016). The fat concentration of the OFSP is even little better than other roots

and tubers such as potato (0.09%), cassava (0.28%), WFSP (0.05%), and yam (0.17%) (USDA,

2018). Usually, staple crops contain less concentration of the oils and fats; this is true in case of

rice (0.66%) and wheat (1.54%). The fat concentrations directly influence the energy density of

the food, but people with limited energy to avoid certain disease can consume sweet potato (Hu

et al., 2001). However, people in underdeveloped countries in Africa are consuming sweet

potato more so, and supplementation of the oilseeds and high energy foods is highly

recommended to certain vulnerable groups (need high energy) (Butte, 2000). The high starch

(65.41%) concentration was reported in OFSP on fresh weight basis (Rodrigues et al., 2016).

This is similar to other staple cereal, roots, and tubers. Starch is one of the very important

energy sources for the consumers. So, sweet potato can consume as the staple crop because of

high concentration of carbohydrates (Jobling, 2004).

Crude fiber is one of the non-digestible carbohydrates, which provides the fecal

bulkiness, less intestinal transit, role in cholesterol level reduction, and trapping dangerous

substance like cancer-causing agents, and also encourages the growth of natural microbial flora

in gut (Dhingra et al., 2012; Satija and Hu, 2012; Slavin, 2013; Sánchez‐Zapata et al., 2015).

The total dietary fiber of 3.6% (maximum) was reported in sweet potato, but the lower

concentrations like 0.35% were reported in different varieties of sweet potato (Endrias et al.,

2016). These variations may be related to the varietal and agroclimatic differences of the crop.

The crude fiber of OFSP is higher than potatoes (2.2%) and cassava (1.8%); however, the

comparable concentrations of yam were reported in OFSP. In case of the staple cereals such as

maize (7.3%) and wheat (12.2%), they reported high concentration of the fiber than OFSP

(USDA, 2018). Usually, cereals contain outer bran layers, which are high source of the crude
fibers. The good concentration of crude fiber is an advantage for OFSP consumers. Very

limited studies are reported on soluble and insoluble fibers of OFSP, Huang et al. (2009)

reported high concentration of the insoluble dietary fiber (1.35%–2.64%) compared to soluble

(0.15%–1.00%), and this is a positive nutritional aspect of the OFSP.

Energy density is a very important property of the staple crops, for example, 344.52–

375.05 kcal/100 g in OFSP (Nascimento et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). The energy of

OFSP is comparable with the cereals such as maize (365.2 kcal/100 g) and rice (365 kcal/100

g); in comparison with the other roots and tubers, the energy composition of the OFSP was

reported better. Due to this property, the OFSP is one of the choices for staple foods (Prentice

and Jebb, 2003). pH and TSS are very important parameters that influence the taste and overall

sensory acceptability of foods. The almost neutral pH (6.52) and TSS (acidity) of 1%

(Rodrigues et al., 2016) were reported in the OFSP. It denotes the plain flavor of the OFSP,

which is suitable for all age groups as a staple food.

2.3.2 Mineral Composition of the Sweet Potato

Minerals are the inorganic components, having very specific and important role in

metabolism (Soetan et al., 2010). Consumption of optimum concentration of minerals is

recommended (Soetan et al., 2010).

Calcium plays a major role in muscle function, formation and strengthening of bones,

teeth, conducting nerve impulses, blood clotting, and maintaining a normal heartbeat (Zemel,

2009). Humans in the ages of 18–50 require 1,000 mg of calcium per day as recommended

daily allowance (RDA). Individuals younger than 18 years need superior concentration (1,300

mg) of Ca for developing bones and teeth (Wosje and Specker, 2000). The calcium content of
24.40–45.54 mg/100 g was reported in sweet potato, and this variation in the Ca concentration

attributed to varietal and agrogeological conditions (Ukom et al., 2009; Laurie et al., 2012;

Sanoussi et al., 2016; Endrias et al., 2016). The Ca content in sweet potato was reported as

superior to common staple cereals, roots, and tubers. Sorghum (28 mg/100 g), maize (7 mg/100

g), rice (28 mg/100 g), wheat (29 mg/100 g), potato (12 mg/100 g), cassava (6 mg/100 g),

WFSP (30 mg/100 g), and yam (17 mg/100 g) are reported to have superior concentration of

Ca than common staples (USDA, 2018). In all the common roots and tubers, high

concentration of the Ca, high amount of sweet potato has to consume, or the food rich in Ca

(animal-based food) has to incorporate into the staple diets to achieve RDA of Ca was reported

in sweet potato.

Magnesium is one of the six important key macro-minerals and essential mineral in

>300 metabolic functions and possesses role in strong bones, appropriate muscle tasks, optimal

blood pressure, and appropriate cardiac tempo (Saris et al., 2000). Sales and Pedrosa (2006)

reported the DNA synthesis and stability depend on magnesium. The RDA of Mg to men and

women is 420 and 320 mg, respectively. The Mg concentration of 3–37 mg/100 g was reported

in OFSP, and this variation was attributed to the varietal and agroclimatic conditions (Ukom et

al., 2009; Laurie et al., 2012; Endrias et al., 2016; Sanoussi et al., 2016). Staple cereals are

good source of the Mg than sweet potato and other roots and tubers. Maize and wheat contain

high concentration of the Mg (125 mg/100 g), but rice (25 mg/100 g) and other tuber crops

such as potato (23 mg/100 g), cassava (21 mg/100 g), WFSP (31 mg/100 g), and yam (21

mg/100 g) are similar to OFSP (USDA, 2018). The Mg‐ rich food supplementation is highly

recommended in the consumers of OFSP to meet RDA of magnesium.

 Phosphorus is a necessary mineral in human body after calcium and possesses a pivotal

role in abundant metabolic process, including energy metabolism and bone mineralization, and

DNA and RNA framework (Karp et al., 2007). The RDA of 700 mg phosphorus is for healthy

adults, and phosphorous of 15–51 mg/100 g was reported in OFSP, which is almost equal to

the other roots and tubers such as potato (57 mg/100 g), cassava (27 mg/100 g), WFSP (47

mg/100 g), and yam (55 mg/100 g) (Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al.,

2016). In contrast, staple grains contain high concentration of the phosphorous, maize, rice,

and wheat are reported to have 210 mg/100 g, 115 mg/100 g, and 288 mg/100 g of

phosphorous, respectively (USDA, 2018). The consumption of whole grains is recommended

achieving RDA of phosphorous along with the sweet potato.

Potassium along with Na and Ca regulates the fluid balance, maintains normal heart

rhythm (Khaw and Barrett-Connor, 2007), and is accountable for nerve signals and muscle

functions. Potassium in the range of 138–334 mg/100 g was reported in sweet potato (Lyimo et

al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016), and these amounts are better than rice

(115 mg/100 g) and maize (287 mg/100 g), but wheat (363 mg/100 g) contains similar amount

of K with OFSP (USDA, 2018). In case of roots and tubers, cassava (271 mg/100 g) contains

lesser concentration of potassium than OFSP, but potato (421 mg/100 g) and yam (816 mg/100

g) contain higher amount of K, and among all, yam is rich source of potassium. Children older

than 13 years and adults RDA of K are 4,700 mg, but lactating women require 5,100 mg. The

roots and tubers are good source of K, and OFSP is moderately providing the RDA of

potassium for consumers (Constán‐Aguilar et al., 2014).

 About 6% of iron in humans is present in certain proteins, which are crucial for

respiration and energy metabolism process and implicated in the amalgamation of collagen and

certain neurotransmitters (Bashiri et al., 2003). About quarter of the Fe in humans is deposited

as ferritin, located in cells, and circulated in the blood circulation system. Iron deficiency is

known as erythropoiesis, and worst Fe deficiency leads to anemia (Abbaspour et al.,, 2014).

The RDA of iron is 1.8 mg in adults, and merely 10%–30% of the Fe in diet is bioavailable

(Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). OFSP was reported to be

0.63–15.26 mg/100 g of iron, whereas maize (2.71 mg/100 g), rice (0.8 mg/100 g), wheat (3.19

mg/100 g), potato (0.78 mg/100 g), cassava (0.27 mg/100 g), WFSP (0.61 mg/100 g), and yam

(0.54 mg/100 g) reported to be lesser than the OFSP (USDA, 2018). So, OFSP is a good source

for providing the RDA of iron.

Zn plays an important role in body where deficiency symptoms are shown in many

ways (Powell, 2000). Antinutritional factors are prime known inhibitor of zinc, which

abundantly present in cereals and grains (Janet, 2003). Zinc is required for good immune

system function, cell growth, wound healing, and insulin function (Chausmer, 2008). OFSP

was reported to be 0.24–0.93 mg/100 g of zinc, but staple food grains such as maize (2.21

mg/100 g), rice (1.09 mg/100 g), and wheat (2.65 mg/100 g) have high concentration of the Zn,

whereas potatoes (0.29 mg/100 g), cassava (0.34 mg/100 g), WFSP (0.3 mg/100 g), and yam

(0.24 mg/100 g) contain the zinc in the range of OFSP (Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al.,

2015; Endrias et al., 2016). RDA of Zn varied depends on the age, 14 years old and above need

11 mg/day, and women in age 19 and above need 8 mg/ day (Lutter and Rivera, 2003),

whereas pregnant and lactating women need 13 and 14 mg/day, respectively. OFSP provides

very small quantities of the Zn, but the bioavailability is more comparative to the cereals and
grains because of no or less antinutritional factors (phytate) (Wanasundera and Ravindran,

2004).

Human body acquires sodium from food and drink, and losses through sweat and urine;

kidneys play a crucial role in sodium level adjustments (Reynolds et al., 2006). Sweet potato

was reported to be 23–59 mg/100 mg, staples foods such as maize (35 mg/100 mg) contain the

Na within the range of sweet potato; however, rice (5 mg/100 mg), wheat (2 mg/100 mg),

potato (6 mg/100 mg), cassava (14 mg/100 mg), and yam (9 mg/100 mg) contain less

concentrations (Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). RDA of

sodium is 1,500 mg; less concentrations of the sodium in food source may not have any health

problem, because the addition of sodium in form of table salt is a common practice in human

food preparation for sake of taste.

2.3.3 Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C naturally presents in two isomers as ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acid, and

they are metabolites in various plants, animals, and fungi (Drouin et al., 2011). The biological

activity of ascorbic acid depends on redox state, acting as cofactor for eight human enzymes

and different antioxidants (Padayatty and Levine, 2016). Vit. C is known as one of the safest

and most effective nutrients, and involves in immune system functions (Padayatty et al., 2003),

cardiovascular disease (Simon, 2002), prenatal health problems, eye disease, and skin

wrinkling (Vitamin C and Eye Health, 2007). Vitamin C is extremely essential in synthesis of

collagen (Varani et al., 2000), carnitine (Johnston et al., 2006), and neurotransmitters (Lee et

al., 2001), and in the formation and maintenance of bone material (Wang et al., 2007), to fight

against the oxidative stress (Bendich and Langseth, 2005). Adult men and women require 90
and 75 mg of the Vit. C as the RDA, respectively (Naidu, 2003). Grace et al. (2014) reported

Vit. C concentration in OFSP as 870 µg/g (db) of ascorbic acid, which is very less than the

different fruits and vegetables.

2.4 Role of Sweet Potato in Handling Vitamin A Malnutrition

Black et al. (2003) reported the role of retinol deficiency in night blindness,

susceptibility to infections, cognitive development problems and immune system function,

susceptibility to respiratory infection, diarrhea, measles, and malaria (Thurnham et al., 2003).

UNICEF (2018) identified the retinol deficiency in 140 million children illness and death.

WHO reported VDA is a critical community problem, and it influenced the health of one third

of children aged from 6 to 59 months in 2013; children in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (48%) and

South Asia (44%) are the major affected. It also reported that 250,000–500,000 VAD children

are in fate of blind in each year due to the vitamin A deficiencies, and 50% of them died within

12 months of vision loss (WHO, 2018).

One of the easiest ways to introduce more VA into the diet is by consuming the

carotene-rich plant-based foods like sweet potato. This is a good source of carotenoids, and

they readily convert into retinol in human body. International Potato Center (2017) reported

that supplementation of 100–150 g of the sweet potato in human diet can prevent VAD in

younger's and also radically diminish maternal mortality. Low et al. (2007) reported that in

Mozambique 50 million children <6 year got benefited by consumption of WFSP along with

sweet potato. Sweet potato is popularizing to combat VAD in several SSA countries (Kapinga

et al., 2009), including South Africa (Faber et al., 2002; Laurie and Faber, 2008) through

community-dependent food intervention programs. In different strategies, incorporation of

sweet potato resulted in VA increase in different targeted groups (Haskell et al., 2004; Low et

al., 2007).

Hortz et al. (2012) reported in their studies that introduction of OFSP in SSA countries

such as Uganda and Mozambique is raised in VA intakes among children and women. Jones

and de Brauw (2015) reported that biofortified sweet potato in Mozambique facilitated the

improved child health status and also reported the decrease in incidence and extent of diarrhea

in children < 5 years. Low et al. (2007) concluded that amplified production and utilization of

the sweet potato improved the nutritional status of the consumers in African countries,

especially in Nigeria (Fetuga et al., 2013). With recent introduction of sweet potato in East

African countries such as Nigeria, peoples and government and nongovernment agencies

concern on growth and utilization (Hagenimana and Low, 2000).

Still more efforts are required from the agriculture and health extension officers to

encourage production and utilization of sweet potato connecting households with young

children in pastoral areas of VAD populations (Low et al., 2007). Prolonged storage of sweet

potato is usually achieved by drying (sun drying), and during the traditional drying (sun

drying) techniques, microbial contamination was reported as the major problem due to the high

moisture content of the fresh sweet potato. Amajor et al. (2014) reported that sweet potato

flours can produce by sun drying and milling of the fresh sweet potato roots. Sweet potato flour

prepared by milling of dried slices can also utilize as entire flour or as a combined with others.

2.5 Products from sweet potato

Orange‐fleshed sweet potato consumed frequently in family meal of different SSA

countries by boiling, steaming, roasting, and drying (Low et al., 2007). Traditional sweet
potato products are having significant role in income generation in small-scale businesses and

entrepreneurs run by women. In developing nations such as Uganda and other SSA countries,

dehydrated and minimally processed foodstuffs from OFSP have recognized as the significant

for domestic utilization and for small-scale commerce in domestic markets (Sweet Potato

Knowledge Portal, 2018). Sweet potato and their products are highly promoting in the different

African countries such as Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mali by local governments and NGOs

with the help of international research organizations (Abidin et al., 2015).

Semi-processed products from sweet potato have been extensively studied in some SSA

countries such as Kenya were reported. Complementary food in form of porridge by sweet

potato flour was highly accepted by the assessors (Stathers et al., 2013). Researchers are

concentrated on the methods to develop retention of the carotenes by the processing and are

trying to develop the traditional foods by incorporating OFSP such as bread (Nzamwita et al.,

2017), cookies (Kolawole et al., 2018), juices (Muhammad et al., 2012), and porridge (Pillay et

al., 2018).

2.5 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.)

Among legumes, Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is predominantly grown and consumed

in India. It is also known as red gram, arhar, tur dal which belongs to the family of

Leguminosae (Ghadge et al., 2008).

Pigeon pea was long considered to be one of the two species of the genus Cajanus DC.

However, this genus is now thought to be congeneric with Atylosia and Endomallus, and also

includes species of Rhynchosia and Dunbaria. Cajanus is now recognised as having 32 species.

It is a leguminous shrub that can attain a height of 5 m. Pigeon pea probably evolved in South
Asia and appeared around 2000 BC in West Africa, which is considered a second major centre

of origin. The slave trade took it to the West Indies, where its use as bird feed led to the name

“pigeon pea” in 1692 (Van der Maesen, 2005). Leaves are 2trifoliate and spirally arranged on

the stem. Flowers occur in terminal or axillary racemes, are 2-3 cm long and are usually

yellow, but can be flocked or streaked with purple or red. Pods are flat, usually green in colour,

sometimes hairy, sometimes streaked or coloured dark purple, with 2-9 seeds/pod. Seeds are,

widely variable in colour and weigh 4-25g/100 (Sheldrake, 2004). While the major use of

pigeon pea is in the dry split seed form (dhal); Pigeon pea pods and seed are harvested and

eaten as a green vegetable in a number of countries.

It is observed that pigeon pea is economically and nutritionally an important legume

and is a major source of protein for the poor communities of many tropical and subtropical

regions of the world (Singh et al., 2004). It (Cajanus cajan (L.) occupies an important place in

rain fed agriculture. Globally, it is cultivated on 4.79 M ha in 22 countries (FAO, 2008) but

with only a few major producers in the world. In Asia, India (3.58 M ha), Myanmar (560,000

ha), and Nepal (20,703 ha) are important pigeon pea producing countries. In the African

continent, Kenya (196,261 ha), Malawi (123,000 ha), Uganda (86,000 ha), Mozambique

(85,000 ha) and Tanzania (68,000 ha) produce considerable amounts of pigeon pea. The

Caribbean islands and some South American countries also have reasonable areas under pigeon

pea cultivation.

In general, pigeon pea can be grown both as an annual crop or perennial plants in

homestead and is consumed either as decorticated splits or in the form of green seeds as

vegetables. Sowing should be undertaken at the onset of the rainy season with row to row and
plant to plant spacing of 100 cm and 50 cm, respectively. The seeds are placed about 5 cm

deep and covered firmly with soil (Saxena et al., 2010).

2.5.1 Pest management

Once the crop is well established, pigeon pea can smother weed growth in the field and

help maintain the field weedfree for the following crop in the rotation. Some pigeon pea

varieties are reportedly resistant to the rootknot nematode. Also, studies have shown that

pigeon pea roots inoculated with beneficial mycorrhizal fungi not only improve the availability

of nutrients to the plant but also the plant’s tolerance of nematodes and diseases. These fungi

are often naturally available in the soil (Saxena et al., 2010).

When managed as a green manure crop, pigeon pea generally has few insect pests.

However, if allowed to form pods, pigeon pea may attract pod borers and agromyza fruit flies.

In Hawaii, reports indicate that pigeon pea is attacked by the scale insect Coccus elongatus, a

stem borer, a pod borer (Lycaena boetica) and leaf-eating caterpillars. Pigeon pea can be a host

to root-knot and reniform nematodes, but this varies among cultivars Saxena et al. (2010).

2.5.2 Uses of Pigeon pea

Pigeon pea has been used to accomplish functions ranging from food, feed, fodder and

forage to therapeutics, which underscores its versatility.

Human food

Pigeon pea is a versatile crop grown primarily as a vegetable in the Caribbean islands

and South America and as a multi-use grain crop (dhal) in India and some regions of Africa.

The whole dry seed of pigeon pea may be cooked alone or together with other vegetables. Over
90% of the crop is consumed mainly as de-hulled splits. The immature seed of pigeon pea can

be used as a vegetable, which is more nutritious than the dry seeds. The green vegetable pigeon

pea has a good market in the west and frozen and canned peas could be exported to the western

countries (Saxena et al., 2002).

Sometimes very young pods are harvested (before the seeds develop) and cooked like

French beans in curries. The other food items that can be prepared from pigeon pea are fresh

sprouts, tempe, ketchup, noodles, snacks and various extruded food products (Saxena et al.,

2002). Pigeon pea flour is an excellent component in the snack industry and has been

recommended as an ingredient to increase the nutritional value of pasta without affecting its

sensory properties (Torres et al., 2007).

Animal feed, fodder and forage

Pigeon pea is also widely used as fodder and feed for livestock (Rao et al., 2002). Its

foliage is an excellent fodder with high nutritional value. The seeds are used as animal feed and

its fodder has been demonstrated to increase the intake of low quality herbage resulting in high

animal live weight (Karachi and Zengo, 2008). By-product of split and shriveled seeds are used

as livestock feed and as an inexpensive alternative to high cost animal feed sources such as

bone meal and fish meal (Chisowa, 2002). Pigeon pea produces forage quickly and can be used

as a short-lived perennial forage crop. The leaf and young pods can be harvested and

conserved, or fed fresh. Indian farmers have used pigeon pea plants and grains as animal

fodder or feed for centuries.

Even today, plants are left in the field to be eaten by animals after the crop is harvested.

In China, fresh and dry pigeon pea leaves are valued as fodder and the threshing from crop are
used as feed for milk livestock. The by-products such as seed coats, broken bits and powder

from dhal mill form a valuable feed for cows, poultry and pigs (Saxena et al., 2002). High

biomass produced by pigeon pea crop can be used as quality fodder. Studies conducted in

Australia, Colombia, China, and India reported the production of 30-50 tonness per ha-1 fodder

yield of pigeon pea. This fodder contains about 24% crude protein, 36 percent crude fibre and

significant amount of minerals. Seed and pod meal contain 5 to 10 percent crude protein and 2

to 4 percent fat and ash. In a research conducted in the Philippines by (Sugui et al., 2007),

pigeon pea is found to be a cheap source of poultry feed. Birds fed with 15 percent pigeon pea

seeds and 85% broiler mass produced heavier and higher daily gain in weight, better efficiency

in feed conversion, and good quality carcass.

2.5.3 Processing of pigeon pea

Like other legume seeds, pigeon pea’s nutritive value is masked by the occurrence of

anti nutritional factors, example trypsin inhibitors haemaglutinin and saponin (Francis et al.,

2001). Pigeon pea seeds contain protein inhibitors (Typsin and Chymotrypsin) and amylase

inhibitors which affect the activity of digestive enzymes thereby causing digestive losses (Faris

and Singh, 2000). Pigeon pea seeds have appreciable amounts of unavailable carbohydrates

which adversely affect bioavailability of certain vital nutrients. Some of the flatulence causing

oligo-saccharides such as staychyose, raffinose, and verbascose are also present in pigeon pea

seeds (Kamath and Belavady, 2008).

Anti-nutritional factors have been reported to have deleterious effects and can interfere

with food utilisation, health and production of animals (Makkar et al., 2003). These anti-

nutritional substances must be inactivated before they can be safely consumed. Some simple
and inexpensive domestic processing techniques, such as soaking, sprouting, germination and

cooking, are commonly employed for legumes (Prodanor et al., 2004). Tabekhia and Luh in

studying effects of soaking, cooking, and retorting on phytate retention in dry beans, showed

that heat processing can lower the phytate level and increase the availability of minerals

(Tabekhia and Luh, 2008).

Soaking reduces anti-nutritional factors particularly oligosaccharides and raffinose

family. Maximum loss of phytate occurs when pigeon pea is soaked. High content of phytate is

lost with the discarded soaking solution. The extent of the loss increases with an increase in the

period of soaking. The reduction in phytate contents of pigeon pea during soaking can be

attributed to leaching out of this antinutrient into soaking media under the influence of the

concentration gradient. While soaking it in water for 24 h at room temperature and 55oC,

phytate content decreased by 50% and about 90%, respectively (Cheryan, 2002).

Blanching is the heating of legumes for a short period of time with either steam or

water. Blanching methods include steam blanching, hot water blanching, microwaves and hot

gases. A typical blanching process consists of holding the legumes in water for 1.5 to 5 min at

77-82°C. It is a crucial step for the inactivation of enzymes. Inactivation of enzymes enables

preservation of nutritive content, colour, flavour or texture during processing and storage. It is

simply used to remove unpleasant flavours such as tannins and phytic acid (Yeum and Russell,

2002; Yadav and Sehgal, 2002).

Dehulling is the process of removing the hulls (or chaff) from beans and other seeds

which further improves the nutrient value of the grain. Removal of hull facilitates reduction of

fibre and tannin content and causes improvement in the appearance and texture of the grains.
 Cooking is the oldest method of bean processing. Cooking improves the nutritive value

of the protein in legumes. It makes the beans edible by making them tender and aids in flavour

development. The term cookability of legume seeds refers to the condition by which they

achieve a degree of tenderness during cooking, which is acceptable to consumers. Cooking

generally inactivates heat sensitive anti-nutritive factors such as trypsin and chymotrypsin

inhibitors and volatile compounds. In addition, it minimises the presence of antinutrients in

legumes which can ause severe toxic effects. For instance, it inactivates heat – sensitive factors

such as trypsin inhibitors, volatile compounds such as HCN, phyto-lectins and off-flavour

volatile components. Cooking also improves the palatability. The phytate content of legume

seeds decreases during cooking. It is due to the formation of insoluble complexes between

phytate and other components (Crean and Haisman, 2003). The loss of phytate is low during

cooking in comparison to the soaking process, due to small portion of phytate in dry peas

becoming insoluble in water when the phytate binds with calcium ions during cooking (Kataria

et al., 2009).

Jyothi and Sumathi (2005) studied the effect of alkali treatments on the nutritive value

of common beans. They observed the phytate loss with the pressure cooking of beans in

alkalies (e.g. sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate). With all pressure

cooking in alkalies, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate were found to cause more loss

of phytate in comparison to sodium hydroxide. Loss of phytate is greater during pressure

cooking than ordinary cooking.

The supplementation of cereals with protein rich legumes is considered as one of the

best solutions to protein-calorie malnutrition in the developing world (Chitra et al., 2006).

Pigeon pea flour has been tested and found to be suitable to be consumed as bread, cookies and
chapattis due to its high level of protein, iron (Fe) and P content (Harinder et al., 2009). It has

therefore been recommended in school feeding programmes and to the vulnerable sections of

the population in developing nations. The protein-rich seeds have also been incorporated into

cassava flour to produce acceptable extruded products (Rampersad et al., 2003).

2.2.4 Nutritional composition of pigeon pea

Proximate composition: The proximate compositions such as moisture, protein, fat,

carbohydrate, ash and dietary fiber of pigeon pea is shown in Table 1 (Eltayeb et al., 2010;

Olalekan and Bosede, 2010; Adamu and Oyetunde, 2013; Kunyanga et al., 2013; Oke, 2014).

The pigeon pea seed is made up of 85% cotyledon, 14% seed coat, and about 1% embryo. It is

a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. It’s protein content ranges

between 20-22% CHO between 51.4 – 58.8%, Crude fibre between 1.2 – 8.1% and lipid

between 0.6 – 3.8%.

 Table1: Proximate composition of pigeon pea (g/100g).

Oke, Eltayeb et al. Eltayeb et al. Adamu, Kunyunga et al.

Proximate
(2014) (2010) (2010) (2013) (2013)
Moisture 11.20 8.0 8.45±0.95 0.24 11.27±0.04
Protein 22.40 21.0 24.46±0.32 30.53 17.95±0.06
Fat 2.74 1.7 4.78±0.22 3.68 2.77±0.57
Carbohydrat
48.19 63.6 56.63±0.48 50.08 57.45±0.04
e
Fibre 7.25 2.5 1.10±0.10 5.54 6.98±0.08
Ash 8.22 3.2 4.58±0.40 9.93 3.58±0.21
Carbohydrates: The starch and non-starch are the major constituents of carbohydrates of

pigeon pea consisting of significant amount of α-galactosides. Different carbohydrate fractions

of pigeon pea are (i) available carbohydrates which are digested in the small intestine and (ii)

unavailable carbohydrates like oligosaccharides, resistant starch, non-cellulosic

polysaccharides, pectins, hemicelluloses, and cellulose, which are not digested in the small

intestine (Cummings and Stephen, 2007). The unavailable carbohydrates of pigeon pea like

fructans and raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) are the major water soluble

carbohydrates which adversely affect bioavailability of certain vital nutrients (Apata, 2008;

Devindra et al., 2012).

Glycemic carbohydrate: Carbohydrates which provide glucose for metabolism is referred to

as ‘glycaemic carbohydrate’, whereas carbohydrates that reaches the large intestine prior to

being metabolized, are called as ‘nonglycaemic carbohydrate’. Most of the available

carbohydrates, some oligosaccharides and rapidly digested starches may be classified as a

glycaemic carbohydrate (Cummings and Stephen, 2007). In a study cooked legumes including

pigeon pea, chickpea, black gram, mung bean and white bean were tested for blood glucose

response among healthy human subjects. The glycemic response to pigeon pea was 30.99

(Panlasigui, 2009). Recently Devindra et al. (2016) have reported the lower glycemic index of

pigeon pea among the commonly consumed legumes tested.

Amino acid profile: Generally the sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and cystine)

are limiting in pulses. Pigeon pea seeds contain high amounts of lysine, leucine, aspartic acid,
glutamic acid and arginine and provide essential amino acids when consumed with cereals and

other sulphur containing amino acids (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2015). In a study Pigeon pea can

replace soybean without adversely affecting the performance of rabbits (Adamu and Oyetunde

2013).

Fatty Acid Profile: The major saturated fatty acid in pigeon pea is the palmitic acid which

constitutes 15-25% in the neutral lipids, 20-40% in the glycolipids, and 26-30% in the

phospholipids. A study was conducted to know the nutritional potential of nine underexploited

legumes in Southwest Nigeria. The most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)

identified in pigeon pea was linoleic acid (C18:2) (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2015).

Caprylic, lauric, oleic and eicosanoic acids were present only in small quantities. The

resistant starch derived from processed red gram showed a higher amount of short chain fatty

acids. Whereas Indian food composition tables reported the palmitic acid content of pigeon pea

as 236 ± 11.0, oleic acid was 78.55± 6.71, stearic acid was 40.95± 3.31 mg/100g respectively

(Longvah et al. 2017).

Vitamin and mineral content: Pigeon pea is a good source of water soluble vitamins, like

thiamine, riboflavin, niacin etc. Vitamin content of pigeon pea is summarized in Table 5.

Pigeon pea was reported to be the richest vegetable for Vitamin C with 569 mg/100g. Its

content was three times higher than for peppers and could cover more than 949% of the

recommended daily intake (RDI) of Vitamin C and pigeon pea was found to have high

carotenoid content with 364.3 µg/100g when compared to other pulses (Ellong et al., 2015).

Whereas Indian food composition tables reported the thiamin content of pigeon pea as

0.74 , riboflavin 0.15, niacin, panto thenic acid 1.56, total B6 0.42,biotin 0.65, total folates 229
mg/ 100g respectively (Longvah et al., 2017). There are limi ted studies on the lutein and

zeaxanthin levels in pigeon pea.

Pigeon pea is a good source of minerals such as phosphorus, magnesium, iron, calcium,

sulphur and potassium but low in sodium (Kunyanga et al., 2013). Sangle, (2015) have

reported minerals constituents of two viable mutant varieties of pigeon pea. Mean content of

nitrogen ranged from 1.95%- 3.33% and 2.24% - 3.17%, calcium content ranged from 0.25% -

0.37% and 0.26% - 0.51% and phosphorus content of viable mutants ranged from 0.56 % -

0.72 % and 0.58% - 0.80% in varieties of pigeon pea respectively (Sangle, 2015).Whereas

Indian food composition tables reported the calcium content of pigeon pea as 1.39, copper

1.32, iron 5.37 mg/100g respectively (Longvah et al., 2017).

2.2.5 Anti-nutritional factors

Like other legume seeds Pigeon pea seeds also contain some anti-nutritional factors

including phytolectins, polyphenols (phenols and tannins) and enzyme inhibitors (trypsin,

chymotrypsin, and amylase). These antinutritional factors can be reduced by different

processing methods like chemical soaking (Devindra and Aruna, 2016). Germination was

found to be the best method for decreasing the phytic acid content of pigeon pea. Application

of gamma irradiation can be used as an effective method of preservation of pigeon pea flour

and their products (Bamidele and Akanbi, 2013).

Phenolics such as pcoumaric acid or vanillic acid were also detected in pigeon pea. The

phytochemical analysis of leaf seed and stem extracts of pigeon pea showed the presence of

saponins, tannins, alkaloids flavonoids, anthraquinones and reducing sugars (Harris et al.,

2014), but, cardiac glycosides and terpenoids were absent in some of the components of pigeon
pea. Pigeon pea is a good source of alkaloids (Aja et al., 2015). The results also revealed that

anthocyanins were found to be present in the leaf and seed of pigeon pea and the leaves contain

more of the bioactive compounds than the seeds suggesting the use of different parts of pigeon

pea plant on various diseases (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2015).

2.2.6 Health benefits

The nutritional components of pigeon pea are widely considered crucial for human

nutrition, because of phytochemicals, bioactive compounds which play vital roles in humans.

Traditionally Cajanus cajan leaves have been used by Rabha tribe to cure jaundice and also

described as useful for the treatment of smallpox, chicken pox, measles and also as an

astringent, mouthwash by local people of North East India (Sarma et al., 2015). Pigeon pea can

be a source of remedy in the control of sickle cell anaemia. In India, many Sickle cell disease

(SCD) patients are using pigeon pea for effective management of erythrocytes sickling in

Chhattisgarh (Verma, 2015). In an ethnomedical survey pigeon pea plant was recorded as

traditional medicinal plant used in Northern and South-Eastern Côte d’Ivoire for the treatment

of anaemia (Kone, 2011). Pigeon pea also has anti-ulcer potential (Mansoor, 2015).

The European Society of Hypertension recommends diet and lifestyle approaches as a

basis for prevention and treatment of hypertension. From animal model, it was both water

extracts of pigeon pea and water extracts of B. subtilis fermented pigeon pea improved systolic

blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (Lee et al.,

2015).

Use as functional foods: A study was conducted to investigate the survival of Lactobacillus

reuteri ATCC 55730 in creams, prepared with pigeon peas and oat. The study concluded that
L. reuteri ATCC 55730 had the highest viability in cream with 40% pigeon pea and 20% oat

(Barboza et al., 2012). The effect of the use of pigeon pea as a substrate in the production of a

legume-based fermented product with Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 314 or Lactobacillus

casei ATCC 393 was studied by Parra et al. Pigeon pea-based fermented probiotic product was

suitable for both the strains (Parra et al., 2013). In a study, the effects of a dietary prebiotic,

inulin and probiotic was investigated in mice using cellulose-based AIN-93G diets under

conditions allowed for the growth of commensal bacteria (Kuo et al., 2013).

Prebiotic potential: A prebiotic is defined as a selectively fermented ingredient that allows

specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that

confers benefits upon host well-being and health (Roberfroid et al., 2010). Fermentation of

dietary carbohydrates provides the energy for the growth and activity of the intestinal

microbiota. Several studies established the role of prebiotics in weight control, by improving

microbial balance, ameliorating adiposity and increasing mucosal integrity with decreased

inflammation (John et al. 2012). A number of mechanisms have been implicated in the link

between intestinal microbiota, increased fatty acid metabolism, and storage of calories as fat

(Mallappa et al., 2012). The prebiotics can be a tool to modulate gut microbiota which plays a

role in the pathophysiology of obesity.

A diet rich in non-digestible carbohydrates induced significant weight loss and

concomitant structural changes of the gut microbiota in simple obese children (Zhang et al.,

2015). In another study consumption of prebiotics for 16 weeks significantly improved

bifidobacterial abundance in overweight and obese children and proved that prebiotic fiber is a

potential treatment option to reduce body fat by gut microbiota modulation. Recently Devindra

et al. (2017) have demonstrated the prebiotic potential of red gram raffinose oligosaccharides
in an animal model. The results of the prebiotic potential of red gram oligosaccharides have

shown a hypolipidemic effect and lowered blood glucose level, improved HDL and decreased

LDL. This new array of research may provide enough evidence for the prebiotic potential of

pigeon pea.

Antioxidant potential: The bioactive compounds of pigeon pea seeds contain some defense

machinery. Four important compounds, pinostrobin, cajaninstilbene acid (CSA), vitexin and

orientin isolated from ethanolic extracts of pigeon pea found to possess significant antioxidant

activities (Pal et al., 2011). Antioxidant potential of pigeon pea seed husk was investigated and

results revealed a potent anti-oxidant activity (Rani et al., 2014). The aqueous extract of the

pigeon pea had the highest antioxidant activity possibly because of the presence of polyphenols

(Mahitha et al., 2015). Uchegbu and Ishiwu (2015) studied antioxidant activity of extract of

germinated pigeon pea in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Consumption of germinated pigeon

pea extract resulted in reduction of fasting blood glucose level and LPO in diabetic rats

(Uchegbu and Ishiwu, 2015).

Hypocholesterolemic effect: The consumption of pulses and legumes has been reported to

ameliorate serum cholesterol levels and increase the saturation levels of cholesterol in the bile.

Pigeon pea is a good source of saponins which have been implicated for the control of high

cholesterol level and they bind to the bile salts (Aja et al., 2015).

Overweight and obesity: The diet high in whole grains is associated with the lower body mass

index, smaller waist circumference, reduced risk of overweight and obesity (Butt et al., 2011).

Pigeon pea has high protein content and this dietary protein may promote weight loss by

inducing satiety hence decrease energy expenditure. Using data from the National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), it was observed that adults who consumed a variety

of legumes had significantly lower body weights compared with those who did not consume

legumes (Polak 2015).

Role in diabetes (Hypoglycemia): It is acknowledged that certain fibre rich foods like whole

pulses can affect glycemic control in diabetes and hyperlipidemia. Pigeon pea is the most

effective hypoglycemic medicinal plant commonly studied in relation to diabetes and their

complications and owing to its varied degree of hypoglycemic activity. In a study substitution

of red meat with legumes improved lipid profiles and glycemic control among diabetes patients

(Hosseinpour-Niazi, 2015). In another study, there was a reduction in glucose levels of rats

treated with ethanol extract of pigeon pea leaves and an increase in ALT, AST and ALP levels

when compared with those treated with Moringa oleifera extract (Aja et al., 2015b).

In a study, crude methanol extract of pigeon pea seed husks mitigated starch-induced

postprandial glycemic excursions and reduced glycemic load in rats similar to the standard

drug acarbose. The hypoglycemic effect of crackers produced from sprouted pigeon pea caused

hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats and led to a reduction of measured biochemical indices

(Uchegbu, 2016).

Cancer prevention: Alkaloids of pigeon pea have been implicated for inducing a stress

response and apoptosis in human breast cancer cell. DNA fragmentation was observed in

human breast cancer cells treated with cajanol, a novel anticancer agent from pigeon pea roots

(Luo et al., 2010). The methanol extract of the plant has been shown to demonstrate

cytotoxicity against three cancer cell lines, namely human breast adenocarcinoma cell line
MCF-7, human large cell lung carcinoma cell line COR-L23 and human amelanotic melanoma

C32 (Ashidi et al., 2010).

Anti-inflammatory: In another study, the ethanol extracts of pigeon pea and cyanidin-3-

monoglucoside suppressed the production of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL1β,

and IL-6 (Lai et al., 2012). Hence, pigeon pea leaves can be developed as an effective herbal

remedy for the treatment and prevention of inflammation or associated ailments (Patel and

Bhutani, 2014).

In a recent study, the pigeon pea extract inhibited carrageenan-induced inflammation by

85 and 95%, respectively. This was accompanied by a decrease of TNF-α and IL-6, as well as

significant decrease in IgG serum levels (Hassan et al., 2015).

Antimicrobial effect: Pigeon pea plant extract is inhibitory to some bacterial pathogens

(Braga et al., 2007). The leaf part of pigeon pea is an excellent source of natural antimicrobial

substances. Moreover, cajanuslactone is a potential anti-bacterial agent against Gram-positive

microorganisms (Kong et al., 2010). The presence of tannins, flavonoids and alkaloids in

pigeon pea extract has clinically relevant antifungal activity (Brito et al., 2012). A study

investigated the protective effect of cajaninstilbene acid against corticosterone induced injury

in PC12 cells and examined the potential mechanisms for the same (Jiang et al., 2014).

Different extracts of leaf, seed and root of the pigeon pea were proven to be a great potential

source of antibacterial compounds (Devi et al., 2016) and also aid in wound healing activity.

In a study, wound healing activity of hydrogel obtained from pigeon pea seed husk was

carried out in albino rats. Gel formulation showed significant antibacterial activity against both

gram positive and gram negative selected bacteria and the percentage wound closure and
epithelialization for the gel formulation treated group was comparable with those of standard

group treated with Band aid (Patil and Mastiholimath, 2011).

Hepatoprotective: Pigeon pea is already known for its hepatoprotective function. Pigeon pea

plant protein extracts can up-regulate and counteract the inflammatory process, minimize the

damage to the liver, delay disease progression, and reduce its complications in liver (Rizk et

al., 2014) and kidneys (Aly et al., 2016). The pigeon pea extract was potential towards

antioxidative protection against ironoverload-induced liver damage in mice and improved

hepatic antioxidants (Sarkar et al., 2013). Pigeon pea plant extract also had promising

anthelmintic effects against F. hepatica (Alvarez et al., 2015) and a poly herbal formulation

from pigeon pea could protect the liver cells from CCl4 - induced liver damages. In another

study hepatoprotective activity of pigeon pea was studied in sodium fluoride treated Swiss

albino (BALB/C) mice. Treatment with extract of pigeon pea exhibited significant anti-oxidant

and hepatoprotective activity (Kayathri et al., 2015).

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Sweet potato (Ipomoea babatas) and Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) used in the research

work was purchased from a local market in Owo, Ondo State. The samples were processed in

food processing laboratory and the chemical composition (proximate analysis) was carried out

in the chemistry laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo,

Ondo State.

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Sweet potato flour preparation

The potato skin were peeled off from the tuber, the edible portion of the sweet potatoes

were washed in clean tap water, before they were sliced into pieces and sun dried. After two

weeks of sun drying, the dried potatoes chips were milled into sweet potato flour and the sweet

potato flour were sieved to obtain fine flour and stored in plastic containers with lids in a

refrigerator from where samples were drawn for Biscuits preparation (Figure 1).

3.2.2 Pigeon pea flour preparation

Pigeon pea was sorted out from plant debris, stones and other foreign materials and

then washed to remove other particles from its surface. It was later soaked in cold water for 12
hrs, drained, and oven dried at 37oC in a hot air oven. The dried pigeon pea was then milled

into flour using a hammer mill.

Sweet potato tuber

Washing

Peeling

Washing

Slicing

Drying

Milling

Sieving

Sweet Potato Flour

Packaging
Figure 1: Sweet Potato Flour Preparation

Pigeon pea

Sorting

Washing

Soaking (12 hours)

Draining

Oven drying (37oC)

Milling

Sieving

Packaging

Pigeon pea flour

Figure 2: Preparation of Pigeon pea Flour

3.3 Proximate Analysis

The proximate analysis of the food samples was carried out according to AOAC (2000)

for Moisture, Protein, Fat, Ash, Crude Fibre and Carbohydrates.

3.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content

This was determined by the drying methods using vacuum oven with petri-dish at

105oC for 3 hrs, the dry samples were allowed to cool in a desiccator for 30 mins prior to re-

weighing. The sample was put back in the oven and re-weighed at one hour interval until a

constant weight was obtained.

W 2−W 3 100
% Moisture = ×
W 2−W 1 1

Where W1 = weight of petri dish.

W2 = weight of petri dish + sample

W3 = weight of petri dish + sample after drying.

3.3.2 Determination of Fat Content

This was determined using soxhlet apparatus in which two gram of the samples were

weighed into a fat free and pre-weighed filter paper. The filter paper containing the sample was

placed in the thimble of the soxhlet apparatus. Normal hexane of boiling point range on 60-

68oC was used as soxhlet for the extraction. A 500 ml round bottom flask was filled to ¾ with

the solvent. The flask was fitted to the soxhlet apparatus with a reflux condense and placed in
an electric heating mantle. Extraction began as the solvent refluxed several times and

continued for over 4-5 hours until the condenser was detached, the filter paper containing the

defatted sample was removed and dried to a constant weight in an oven at 50 oC the difference

in weight before and after extraction was recorded in order to obtain the value of the fat

extracted and the percentage fat content was calculated as follows

weig h t of fat extracted 100

% fat content = ×
weig ht of sample 1

3.3.3 Determination of Ash Content

A crucible was ignited at 550oC for 2 hours; it was removed and put inside desiccator to

cool for about an hour. After cooling it was weighed and the weight was recorded as the (W 1).

Sample (2g) was weighed into the crucible, the weight of the crucible and the sample was

taken as (W2), the crucible with sample was ignited in the muffle furnace at 550 oC for 2 hours

to ensure complete ashing, cooled in a desiccator and weighed as (W3).

W 3−W 1
% ash = × 100
W 2−W 1

W1 = weight of empty crucible

W2 = weight of crucible + sample

W3 = weight of crucible + ash sample

3.3.4 Determination of Crude Protein

The crude protein in the sample was determined by the routine semi-micro kjeldahl

methods. This consist of three stages or analysis namely digestion, distillation and titration.
Digestion

Sample (1g) was measured carefully into the kjeldahl digestion flask and was ensured

that the sample got to the bottom of the H2SO4 was added. This was set in the appropriate hole

of digestion block heater in fume cupboard. The digestion was left on to heat for an hour after

which a clear colorless solution was obtained in the flask. The digest was cooled and carefully

transferred into 100ml volumetric flask thoroughly rinsing the digestion tube with distilled

water.

Distillation

A portion (10ml) of the digestion was pipetted into the body of the apparatus through

the small funnel apparatus 10ml of 40% NaOH was added through same opening with 10ml

pipette. The mixture was steam distilled for 2 minutes into a 50ml conical flask containing 5ml

of 2% boric acid and 3 drops of mixed indicator, placed at the receiving tip to the condenser.

The basic acid plus indicator solution changes from red to green showing that all the ammonia

liberated have been trapped.

Titration

The light green colour solution obtained was then titrated against 0.01m HCL contained

in a 50cm2 burette. At the end point, the green color changes to wine colour which indicates

that all the nitrogen trapped as ammonium borate (NH4BO3) has been removed as ammonium

chloride (NH4CL). The value of protein was calculated from the equation below
 Titre value× Molarity of acid × 0.014 Vol . of digest ×100
%Nitrogen = × ×
Sample weig h t Vol . of digest used V2

% Protein = % Nitrogen × 6.25

3.3.5 Determination of Crude Fibre

1.25% of H2SO4 and 1.25% of NaOH were prepared into different boiling flasks and

makeup to 200ml each. 4g of the defatted sample (W1) was weighed into the acid inside flask

and fitted into condenser for constant volume. It was heated rapidly for one minute and gently

for thirty minutes. Filter through poplin cloth by suction using Buchner funnel, rinsed well it

hot distilled water, separate materials back into flask containing NaOH with spatula. Boil as

with H2SO4 filter with poplin cloth using Buchner funnel, rinse four times with hot distilled

water, ones with 10% HCL, four times with hot distilled water again twice with methylated

spirit or ethanol and lastly with petroleum ether three times. Selvage the residue into the

crucible and oven dried at 105oC, cool in a desiccator and weighed (W2). The residue with the

content is placed in muffle furnace at about 300 oC for about 30 minutes. It was removed into

desiccators to cool to room temperature and weighed (W3).

W 2−W 3
% Crude Fibre = ×100
W1

3.3.6 Determination of Carbohydrates

This is the summation of the of the result obtained from moisture, fats, crude fibre, ash

and protein content determination, all subtracted from 100

% CHO content = 100 – (protein + Ash + Moisture + Crude fiber + Fat)

3.4 Sensory Evaluation

The sensory attributes, including aroma, texture, taste, appearance and general

acceptability were evaluated by a semi-trained 10 members panel using 9 points hedonic scale

with 1 representing the least scores (dislike extremely) and 9 the highest score (like extremely).

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data gathered to determine differences.

While the least significant difference among the means.

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