MINERAL COMPOSITION OF FERMENTED AND UNFERMENTED SWEET

POTATO-PIGEON PEA WEANING FOOD

BY

ATIWAYE TAIWO JULIUS

SO4/FST/2019/2368

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES, RUFUS GIWA
POLYTECHNIC, OWO, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN FOODSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MARCH, 2022.

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project was carried out by Atiwaye Taiwo Julius, in the
department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rufus Giwa
Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State. In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of
National Diploma (ND)

Mrs. Orungbemi, O.O ………………………………......

Project Supervisor Signature & Date

Dr. (Mrs.) Agbaje, R.B ……………………………………

Head of Department Signature & Date

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 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the Glory of Almighty God and to my parent Mr. and Mrs.

Atiwaye and Mr Bradford Ames through which their moral, spiritual and financial assistance I

was able to attain my dream.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With gladness and joyous of heart, I give thanks and glory to Almighty God who made it

possible for me to witness the end of this project without any hindrance I can't do but also show

my appreciation to my HOD Dr. (Mrs.) Agbaje R.B. For being very supportive, their parental

care and love makes this project attain the greatest success.

I also say a big thanks to my supervisor Mrs. Orungbemi, O.O, who gives relentless effort

and being very supportive throughout my project activities.

Also my profound gratitude goes to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Atiwaye, who gives

relentless support in terms of advice and financial support in the completion of my programme

(National Diploma), I pray that Almighty God continue to support them in all their endeavors

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page i

Certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgements iv

Table of contents v-vi

List of Table vii

List of Figures viii

Abstract ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Aim and Objective of the Study 3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) 4

2.1.1 Distribution and Growth Habitat of Ipomoea batatas 5

2.1.2 Classification and Taxonomy of Ipomoea batatas 6

2.1.3 Growth and Usages of Ipomoea batatas 7

2.1.4 Nutritional composition of Ipomoea batatas 7

2.1.5 Products Form Ipomoea batatas 15

2.2 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L) 15

2.2.1 Origin and Geographical Distribution 16

2.2.2 Taxonomical Hierarchy 17

2.2.3 Nutritional Quality of Pigeon Pea 18

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2.2.4 Anti-Nutritional Factors of Pigeon pea 19

2.2.5 Cooking Quality of Pigeon pea 20

2.2.6 Medicinal Uses of Pigeon pea 21

2.2.7 Pigeonpea in Rural Diets 24

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methods 26

3.1 Materials 26

3.2 Methods 26

3.3 Mineral analysis of weaning food 29

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussions 31

4.1 Results 31

4.2 Discussions 32

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations 35

5.1 Conclusion 35

5.2 Recommendations 35

REFERENCES 36

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Pages

4.1: Mineral composition of fermented and unfermented 31

sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Pages

Figure 1: Preparation of Fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour 27

Figure 2: Preparation of unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour 28

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 ABSTRACT

Weaning is the process of expanding the diet to include food and drinks other than breast milk or
infant formula. Weaning is a time of nutritional vulnerability. It represents a period of dietary
transition, just when nutritional requirements for growth and brain development are high. The
study was conducted to determine the mineral composition of fermented and unfermented sweet
potato-pigeon pea weaning food (FSPWF and USPWF). Both products were processed in the
processing laboratory and the analysis was carried out in the chemistry laboratory of Food
Science and Technology. The mineral composition of the weaning food (Fermented and
unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food) was determine using standard analytical
method, the result shows the mineral value of both samples (FSPWF and USPWF) based on the
following mineral parameters; Sodium (Na) 14.100 mg/100g and 10.700 mg/100g, potassium
(K) 19.300 mg/100g and 15.500 mg/100g, calcium (Ca) 6.125 mg/100g and 4.936 mg/100g,
copper (Cu) 0.030 mg/100g and 0.015 mg/100g, iron (Fe) 0.095 mg/100g and 0.072 mg/100g,
manganese (Mn) 0.012 mg/100g and 0.010 mg/100g, phosphorus (P) 2.170 mg/100g and 2.036
mg/100g and zinc (Zn) 0.329 mg/100g and 0.286 mg/100g. From the result obtained the
fermented sample of sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food has higher mineral content,
indicating that the fermented sample is more nutritious than the unfermented sample. Hence, the
FSPWF is a good source of mineral for infant consumption.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

When a baby reaches four to six months of age, milk alone is no longer sufficient to meet

its nutritional requirements. Calories and other nutrients are needed to supplement milk until the

child is ready to eat only adult foods. This is the weaning stage. Weaning is the process of

expanding the diet to include food and drinks other than breast milk or infant formula. Weaning

is a time of nutritional vulnerability. It represents a period of dietary transition, just when

nutritional requirements for growth and brain development are high. Introduction of different

tastes and textures promotes biting and chewing skills (Guthrie, 2005). Chewing improves mouth

and tongue coordination, which is important for speech development. Failure to introduce

different textures and tastes by six to seven months can result in their rejection later (Guthrie,

2005).

In developing countries, traditional beliefs more often than not, play a pivotal role in the

choice of food type consumed. This often results in children being fed with high carbohydrate

foods containing little or no protein. According to the protein Advisory Group, guidelines for

weaning foods should be 20% of proteins, fat levels of up to 10%, moisture content 5% to 10%

and total ash content not more than 5% (FAO/WHO/UNICEF and PAG, 2007). Several studies,

however have reported that most of the weaning foods consumed by children in many parts of

developing countries are deficient in essential macronutrients and micronutrients (Millward and

Jackson, 2004; Fashakin et al., 2009). In developing countries, commercial weaning foods such

as Cerelac and Phosphatine are expensive and out of reach of low –income families. The

unavailability of nutritious food and the high cost of commercial complementary foods and

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animal protein are the main causes of Protein-Energy Malnutrition in children in the developing

countries (FAO/WHO, 2008).

Sweet potato is not only a source of energy; it also supplies important nutrients mainly,

vitamin A (beta carotene), Vitamin B6, Vitamin C and Vitamin E as well as dietary fiber and

they are low in fat and cholesterol. It serves as an important protein source for many world

populations and is an important source of starch and other carbohydrates. The carbohydrate

content stored in roots varies from 25 per cent to 30 per cent, while the rest is composed of water

(58 %-72 %). Sweet potato also contains some essential minerals and trace elements such as

iron, potassium, calcium, zinc, sodium, magnesium and manganese (Senthilkumar et al., 2020).

Meanwhile, according to Zuraida and Supriati (2008), that sweet flour has higher ash content and

fiber content with carbohydrate and calorie content equivalent to wheat flour. The complete

nutritional content of sweet potato is suitable as a natural food ingredient that can improve health

(Kolter et al., 2007).

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is a nutritionally important grain in the tropics

(Rampersad et al., 2003). It is rich in protein (19 - 26 %) and minerals (Rampersad et al., 2003).

The antinutrients in pigeon pea are easily removed by processing (Odeny, 2007). Pigeonpea,

though indigenous to many communities in south western Nigeria, is grossly underutilized and is

virtually unknown to many of the young people in the communities. The use of pigeonpea to

improve the protein quality of starchy staples has been reported (Adeola et al., 2012; Muoki et

al., 2012). Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is a fresh and dried beans coveted food, and their roots,

leaves and flowers are used in India as medicines (Correa et al., 2009). Pigeon pea seeds contain

about 57.3–58.7% carbohydrate, 1.2–8.1% crude fiber and 0.6–3.8% lipid. They represent a good

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source of dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sulfur and potassium

(Correa et al., 2009).

Mothers, due to economic challenges and inadequate nutrition knowledge, give

nutritionally deficient complementary foods to their children. These complementary foods are

made from starchy staple foods which, due to their heavy viscosity, have to be diluted with water

before being given to children. This practice results in reduced nutrients and energy in the

already deficient complementary food. Hence, protein-energy and micronutrient malnutrition are

often associated with traditional complementary feeding (Muoki et al., 2012). Commercial infant

formulas, which could serve as alternative, are beyond the reach of low and middle class

families, who constitute the majority of Nigerian population (Ijarotimi et al., 2012). Nutritional

improvement of staple foods has been advocated as a suitable means to reduce childhood

malnutrition in developing countries (Muoki et al., 2012).

1.1 Aim and Objective of the Study

Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the mineral composition of fermented and

unfermented sweet potato- pigeon pea weaning food.

1.1.1 Objectives are:

i. to produce fermented and unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

ii. to evaluate mineral composition of the samples

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas L.)

Ipomoea batatas is the sixth most important food crop in the world and ranked seventh in

the total world food production after wheat, maize, rice, potato, barley, and cassava (Islam,

2006). I. batatas or commonly known as sweetpotato originated from the Central America and

Mexico and has been dispersed worldwide due to its high yield potential and wide adaptability.

Carolus Linnaeus was the first to give the scientific term Convolvulus batatas to the sweetpotato

plant in 1753, referring to the plants grown in George Clifford’s garden in the Netherlands.

Ipomoea batatas is a perennial herbaceous dicotyledonous species and is categorised

under the Convolvulaceae family, which includes the morning glory (I. purpurae) plant and can

be further divided into varieties or cultivars. From the group of approximately 50 genera and

more than 100 species in this family, I. batatas is the only group that has major economic

importance as food (Woolfe, 2002). Besides I. batatas, Ipomoea aquatica (known locally as

Kangkong) is also grown for human consumption and eaten as dishes in China and Malaysia.

The increased numbers of Ipomoea batatas varieties took place due to selection by human for

domestication. I. batatas is cultivated in more than 100 countries and is an extremely important

food crop in developing countries (Wang, 2005). Besides that, the I. batatas are also well

adapted to tropical areas where high proportion of poorest people in the world lived.

I. batatas (sweetpotato), unlike Solanum tuberosum (potato) are not tuber propagated. A

tuber can be defined as short, thickened-stem of an underground branch (Kakaty et al., 2002). In

contrast, I. batatas produces primary fibrous roots, pencil roots and storage roots and they lack of

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merismatic buds. The storage roots are attached to the stem by a stalk of thinner roots that is

usually initiated at the stem node just below the soil line. Worldwide currently, there are over

6000 varieties of I. batatas and they are basically distinguished by skin colour, flesh colour, and

some, by origin (ICP, 2006). The skin colour of I. batatas storage roots typically range from

white to brown to red-orange while the flesh colour may be red-orange, orange, yellow or white

(more common). Besides that, the flesh of the storage roots can be either soft or firm.

2.1.1 Distribution and Growth Habitat of Ipomoea batatas

Scientists believed that Ipomoea batatas was domesticated more than 5000 years ago.

Recent evidence showed that Ipomoea batatas was originated from Central-America although

contradicting reports claimed that it was from South America (Natural History Museum, 2007).

Ipomoea batatas was widely established in the Americas by the time Europeans first arrived

there and was spread to the Old World through various routes. Due to its hardy nature and broad

adaptability, Ipomoea batatas successfully spread through Asia and Africa during the 17th and

18th centuries. According to FAOSTAT data, approximately eight million hectares of land were

harvested resulting in approximately 107 million tons of Ipomoea batatas roots from more than

100 countries in the year 2010 alone (FAOSTAT, 2012).

Asia is the world’s largest sweetpotato producing region with an annual production of

approximately 88 million tons and China contributes about 80% of this amount. Nearly half of

these productions were used as animal feed while the remaining was used for human

consumption. In contrast, the African region produced about 14 million tons of Ipomoea batatas

roots annually but most of this crop is cultivated for human consumption (FAOSTAT, 2012).

Previous research on Ipomoea batatas has been focusing on the yield and nutrient improvements

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in the storage roots although both the Ipomoea batatas roots and tops possess a variety of

compounds which are beneficial to human health.

2.1.2 Classification and Taxonomy of Ipomoea batatas

The long-term cultivation and selection of Ipomoea batatas produced many different

varieties with different roots skin colours, flesh colours and shapes. Variations can occur both

naturally as a result of mutations which will be termed cultivar or through hybridisation by

human (known as varieties) (Morton, 2001). Through the advances in biotechnology, Ipomoea

batatas roots have been developed for special purposes such as for their high protein, starch or β-

carotene contents. Ipomoea batatas varieties are usually distinguished by the size and colour of

their fruits. The examples of Ipomoea batatas varieties are Kotobuki (Japanese), Georgia Jet,

Fernandez, Red Jewel and Okinawa. Ipomoea batatas can be planted for either their roots and/or

forage production, in which yields often depended on the different climate, season and soil

conditions (Hartemink et al., 2000; Woolfe, 2002; Antia et al., 2006).

Ipomoea batatas is located in the plant kingdom and belongs to the “Convolvulaceae”

family, Ipomoea genus and batatas species and thus termed Ipomoea batatas. While the current

method of identification focused on the variations of storage roots to distinguish the Ipomoea

batatas varieties, it was found to be time consuming and required the formation of the roots

before the different varieties can be identified. Therefore, the leaf of the plant was subsequently

used as a new way to distinguish between the different varieties. This method is an economical

way to overcome the drawbacks of the previous identification method. Leaves are commonly

distinguished based on parameters such as length, width, shape, margin and venation. McEwen

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(2004) pointed out the variation in the Ipomoea batatas leaves in terms of shape namely cordate

shaped with heavily divided single lobed and palmate shaped with seven lobes or more.

2.1.3 Growth and Usages of Ipomoea batatas

Ipomoea batatas is considered to be a small farmer crop but grow well under many

farming conditions. The advantages of growing this crop include the following: it has a relatively

few natural enemies, it requires little or no pesticide, it can be grown in soil with little fertilizer,

it has a high tolerant to weeds and is easy to plant compared to other tropical leafy vegetables

(Islam, 2006). Furthermore, Ipomoea batatas can be grown throughout the year and therefore

provide a continuous supply to industries. Ipomoea batatas root is a rich source of carbohydrate

and therefore can help curb famine when there is a rice shortage crisis. In some countries, excess

storage roots are used to feed poultry besides human (Ruiz et al., 2000). The storage roots can be

harvested within 3 to 6 months and are well adapted to warm tropical lowlands. The Ipomoea

batatas can be propagated in two ways: by tuber and cuttings. Although naturally resistant to

pest, destructions by sweet potato weevil and viruses diseases are the most common problem

encountered in Ipomoea batatas plantation (CGIAR, 2005).

Ipomoea batatas leaves contained high amount of pro-vitamin and was found to be on par

with cassava and green leafy vegetables, hence owing them the term “pro-vitamin rich

vegetable”. Modern biotechnology has been used to produce varieties with a high level of pro-

vitamin that can have measureable effects on both human health and nutritional status (Kimura et

al., 2005). With the recent advancement in the field of biotechnology, Ipomoea batatas are

currently used in Africa to combat Vitamin A deficiency that causes blindness and death of 250

000 to 500 000 African children annually. From this total, about two third of these children

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suffered from xerophthalmia, and die within a year after losing their sight. Although Ipomoea

batatas was a staple food for a long time in Africa, their storage roots, which mostly white flesh,

contains no β-carotene which is an important precursor of Vitamin A (CGIAR, 2005).

2.1.4 Nutritional composition of Ipomoea batatas

The sweet potato is a good source of the basic nutrients and different vitamins, minerals,

polyphenols and antioxidants.

Proximate composition of Ipomoea batatas

Moisture is the major component in sweet potato, which accounts for >62% and < 75%

(Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). Other root and tubers also

reported similar moisture contents such as potato (79%), cassava (60%), WFSP (77%), and yam

(70%) (USDA, 2018). Usually, roots and tubers are consumed in fresh after boiling or minimal

processing with traditional practices. Different researchers reported the various drying

techniques for OFSP and converted into flour to the moisture content of < 11% (Rodrigues et

al.., 2016). The low moisture content is very important for OFSP flour to maintain long shelf

life. These similar trends were reported in case of staple grains also, and usually at the time of

harvesting, cereals possess moisture contents >22% to 25% and dried to 9%–13% for long-term

storage (Liu et al., 2007). The moisture content of sweet potato reported variation in different

studies; this may be related to the diversity in variety, agroclimatic conditions, agriculture

practices employed, etc.

Ash is an inorganic residue in any food substance, which directly denotes the mineral

content. The ash values were reported from the range of 1.17%–4.33% (Mohammad et al.,

2016), this broad range is obvious, and it happened due to the varietal and agrogeological

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differences. Also, processes such as peeling and blanching were followed by drying reported on

the ash contents (Endrias et al., 2016). The ash contents of sweet poatao are comparable with

other roots and tubers.

Proteins are very important nutrients for structural, functional performers of different

biomolecules in human body, and they provide the essential amino acids required for

metabolism. The protein in the range of 1.91%–5.83% was reported in OFSP (Mohammad et al.,

2016). Usually, roots and tuber are the poor source for protein, which is similar in case of the

sweet potato. The protein contents of the sweet potato are in similar to those of potato (2%),

cassava (1.4%), WFSP (1.6%), and yam (1.5). In contrast, the protein compositions of sweet

potato are very low as compared to the staple food grains, such as maize (9.4%), rice (7.1%),

wheat (12.6%), and sorghum (11.6%) (USDA, 2018). So, to combat the Protein Energy

Malnutrition (PEM), it is very important to consume the protein-rich pulses and animal foods

among communities where sweet potato is considered as second staple (Neumann et al., 2002).

Very low concentration (<1%) of the fat was reported in OFSP; usually, this trend is the

property of roots and tubers (Lyimo et al., 2010; Mohammad et al., 2016; Rodrigues et al.,

2016). The fat concentration of the sweet potato is even little better than other roots and tubers

such as potato (0.09%), cassava (0.28%), WFSP (0.05%), and yam (0.17%) (USDA, 2018).

Usually, staple crops contain less concentration of the oils and fats; this is true in case of rice

(0.66%) and wheat (1.54%). The fat concentrations directly influence the energy density of the

food, but people with limited energy to avoid certain disease can consume sweet potato (Hu et

al., 2001). However, people in underdeveloped countries in Africa are consuming OFSP more

so, and supplementation of the oilseeds and high energy foods is highly recommended to certain

vulnerable groups (need high energy) (Butte, 2000).

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 The high starch (65.41%) concentration was reported in sweet potato on fresh weight

basis (Rodrigues et al., 2016). This is similar to other staple cereal, roots, and tubers. Starch is

one of the very important energy sources for the consumers. So, sweet potato can consume as the

staple crop because of high concentration of carbohydrates (Jobling, 2004).

Crude fiber is one of the non-digestible carbohydrates, which provides the fecal

bulkiness, less intestinal transit, role in cholesterol level reduction, and trapping dangerous

substance like cancer-causing agents, and also encourages the growth of natural microbial flora

in gut (Satija and Hu, 2012; Slavin, 2013; Dhingra et al., 2012; Sánchez‐Zapata et al., 2015).

The total dietary fiber of 3.6% (maximum) was reported in OFSP, but the lower concentrations

like 0.35% were reported in different varieties of sweet potato (Endrias et al., 2016). These

variations may be related to the varietal and agroclimatic differences of the crop. The crude fiber

of sweet potato is higher than potatoes (2.2%) and cassava (1.8%); however, the comparable

concentrations of yam were reported in OFSP. In case of the staple cereals such as maize (7.3%)

and wheat (12.2%), they reported high concentration of the fiber than OFSP (USDA, 2018).

Usually, cereals contain outer bran layers, which are high source of the crude fibers. The good

concentration of crude fiber is an advantage for sweet potato consumers. Very limited studies are

reported on soluble and insoluble fibers of sweet potato, Huang et al. (1999) reported high

concentration of the insoluble dietary fiber (1.35%–2.64%) compared to soluble (0.15%–1.00%),

and this is a positive nutritional aspect of the sweet potato.

Energy density is a very important property of the staple crops, for example, 344.52–

375.05 kcal/100 g in sweet potato (Nascimento et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). The energy of

sweet potato is comparable with the cereals such as maize (365.2 kcal/100 g) and rice (365

kcal/100 g); in comparison with the other roots and tubers, the energy composition of the sweet

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potato was reported better. Due to this property, the sweet potato is one of the choices for staple

foods (Prentice and Jebb, 2003).

pH and TSS are very important parameters that influence the taste and overall sensory

acceptability of foods. The almost neutral pH (6.52) and TSS (acidity) of 1% (Rodrigues et al.,

2016) were reported in the sweet potato. It denotes the plain flavor of the OFSP, which is

suitable for all age groups as a staple food.

Mineral composition of Ipomoea batatas

Minerals are the inorganic components, having very specific and important role in

metabolism (Soetan et al., 2010). Consumption of optimum concentration of minerals is

recommended (Soetan et al., 2010).

Calcium plays a major role in muscle function, formation and strengthening of bones,

teeth, conducting nerve impulses, blood clotting, and maintaining a normal heartbeat (Zemel,

2009). Humans in the ages of 18–50 require 1,000 mg of calcium per day as recommended daily

allowance (RDA). Individuals younger than 18 years need superior concentration (1,300 mg) of

Ca for developing bones and teeth (Wosje and Specker, 2000). The calcium content of 24.40–

45.54 mg/100 g was reported in OFSP, and this variation in the Ca concentration attributed to

varietal and agrogeological conditions (Ukom et al., 2009; Laurie et al., 2012; Endrias et al.,

2016; Sanoussi et al., 2016). The Ca content in OFSP was reported as superior to common staple

cereals, roots, and tubers. Sorghum (28 mg/100 g), maize (7 mg/100 g), rice (28 mg/100 g),

wheat (29 mg/100 g), potato (12 mg/100 g), cassava (6 mg/100 g), WFSP (30 mg/100 g), and

yam (17 mg/100 g) are reported to have superior concentration of Ca than common staples

(USDA, 2018). In all the common roots and tubers, high concentration of the Ca, high amount of

20
sweet potato has to consume, or the food rich in Ca (animal-based food) has to incorporate into

the staple diets to achieve RDA of Ca was reported in sweet potato.

Magnesium is one of the six important key macro-minerals and essential mineral in >300

metabolic functions and possesses role in strong bones, appropriate muscle tasks, optimal blood

pressure, and appropriate cardiac tempo (Saris et al., 2000). Sales and Pedrosa (2006) reported

the DNA synthesis and stability depend on magnesium. The RDA of Mg to men and women is

420 and 320 mg, respectively. The Mg concentration of 3–37 mg/100 g was reported in OFSP,

and this variation was attributed to the varietal and agroclimatic conditions (Ukom et al., 2009;

Laurie et al., 2012; Endrias et al., 2016; Sanoussi et al., 2016). Staple cereals are good source of

the Mg than sweet potato and other roots and tubers. Maize and wheat contain high concentration

of the Mg (125 mg/100 g), but rice (25 mg/100 g) and other tuber crops such as potato (23

mg/100 g), cassava (21 mg/100 g), WFSP (31 mg/100 g), and yam (21 mg/100 g) are similar to

sweet potato (USDA, 2018). The Mg‐ rich food supplementation is highly recommended in the

consumers of sweet potato to meet RDA of magnesium.

Phosphorus is a necessary mineral in human body after calcium and possesses a pivotal

role in abundant metabolic process, including energy metabolism and bone mineralization, and

DNA and RNA framework (Karp et al., 2007). The RDA of 700 mg phosphorus is for healthy

adults, and phosphorous of 15–51 mg/100 g was reported in sweet potato, which is almost equal

to the other roots and tubers such as potato (57 mg/100 g), cassava (27 mg/100 g), WFSP (47

mg/100 g), and yam (55 mg/100 g) (Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al.,

2016). In contrast, staple grains contain high concentration of the phosphorous, maize, rice, and

wheat are reported to have 210 mg/100 g, 115 mg/100 g, and 288 mg/100 g of phosphorous,

21
respectively (USDA, 2018). The consumption of whole grains is recommended achieving RDA

of phosphorous along with the sweet potato.

Potassium along with Na and Ca regulates the fluid balance, maintains normal heart

rhythm (Khaw and Barrett-Connor, 2007), and is accountable for nerve signals and muscle

functions. Potassium in the range of 138–334 mg/100 g was reported in sweet potato (Lyimo et

al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016), and these amounts are better than rice (115

mg/100 g) and maize (287 mg/100 g), but wheat (363 mg/100 g) contains similar amount of K

with sweet potato (USDA, 2018). In case of roots and tubers, cassava (271 mg/100 g) contains

lesser concentration of potassium than sweet potato, but potato (421 mg/100 g) and yam (816

mg/100 g) contain higher amount of K, and among all, yam is rich source of potassium. Children

older than 13 years and adults RDA of K are 4,700 mg, but lactating women require 5,100 mg.

The roots and tubers are good source of K, and sweet potato is moderately providing the RDA of

potassium for consumers (Constán‐Aguilar et al., 2014).

About 6% of iron in humans are present in certain proteins, which are crucial for

respiration and energy metabolism process and implicated in the amalgamation of collagen and

certain neurotransmitters (Bashiri et al., 2003). About quarter of the Fe in humans is deposited as

ferritin, located in cells, and circulated in the blood circulation system. Iron deficiency is known

as erythropoiesis, and worst Fe deficiency leads to anemia (Abbaspour et al., 2014). The RDA of

iron is 1.8 mg in adults, and merely 10%–30% of the Fe in diet is bioavailable (Lyimo et al.,

2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). Sweet potato was reported to be 0.63–15.26

mg/100 g of iron, whereas maize (2.71 mg/100 g), rice (0.8 mg/100 g), wheat (3.19 mg/100 g),

potato (0.78 mg/100 g), cassava (0.27 mg/100 g), WFSP (0.61 mg/100 g), and yam (0.54 mg/100

22
g) reported to be lesser than the sweet potato (USDA, 2018). So, sweet potato is a good source

for providing the RDA of iron.

Zn plays an important role in body where deficiency symptoms are shown in many ways

(Powell, 2000). Antinutritional factors are prime known inhibitor of zinc, which abundantly

present in cereals and grains (Janet, 2003). Zinc is required for good immune system function,

cell growth, wound healing, and insulin function (Chausmer, 1998). OFSP was reported to be

0.24–0.93 mg/100 g of zinc, but staple food grains such as maize (2.21 mg/100 g), rice (1.09

mg/100 g), and wheat (2.65 mg/100 g) have high concentration of the Zn, whereas potatoes (0.29

mg/100 g), cassava (0.34 mg/100 g), WFSP (0.3 mg/100 g), and yam (0.24 mg/100 g) contain

the zinc in the range of sweet potato (Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al.,

2016). RDA of Zn varied depends on the age, 14 years old and above need 11 mg/day, and

women in age 19 and above need 8 mg/ day (Lutter and Rivera, 2003), whereas pregnant and

lactating women need 13 and 14 mg/day, respectively. Sweet potato provides very small

quantities of the Zn, but the bioavailability is more comparative to the cereals and grains because

of no or less antinutritional factors (phytate) (Wanasundera and Ravindran, 2004).

Human body acquires sodium from food and drink, and losses through sweat and urine;

kidneys play a crucial role in sodium level adjustments (Reynolds et al., 2006). Sweet potato was

reported to be 23–59 mg/100 mg, staples foods such as maize (35 mg/100 mg) contain the Na

within the range of sweet potato; however, rice (5 mg/100 mg), wheat (2 mg/100 mg), potato (6

mg/100 mg), cassava (14 mg/100 mg), and yam (9 mg/100 mg) contain less concentrations

(Lyimo et al., 2010; Nicanuru et al., 2015; Endrias et al., 2016). RDA of sodium is 1,500 mg;

less concentrations of the sodium in food source may not have any health problem, because the

23
addition of sodium in form of table salt is a common practice in human food preparation for sake

of taste.

2.1.5 Products From Ipomoea batatas

Sweet potato consumed frequently in family meal of different SSA countries by boiling,

steaming, roasting, and drying (Low et al., 2007). Traditional sweet potato products are having

significant role in income generation in small-scale businesses and entrepreneurs run by women.

In developing nations such as Uganda and other SSA countries, dehydrated and minimally

processed foodstuffs from sweet potato have recognized as the significant for domestic

utilization and for small-scale commerce in domestic markets (Sweet Potato Knowledge Portal,

2018). Sweet potato and their products are highly promoting in the different African countries

such as Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mali by local governments and NGOs with the help of

international research organizations (Abidin et al., 2015). Semi-processed products from sweet

potato have been extensively studied in some SSA countries such as Kenya were reported.

Complementary food in form of porridge by sweet potato flour was highly accepted by the

assessors (Stathers et al., 2013). Researchers are concentrated on the methods to develop

retention of the carotenes by the processing and are trying to develop the traditional foods by

incorporating sweet potato such as bread (Nzamwita et al., 2017), cookies (Kolawole et al.,

2018), juices (Muhammad et al., 2012), and porridge (Pillay et al., 2018).

2.2 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)

Cajanus cajan, commonly known as pigeonpea, is a multipurpose drought-tolerant crop

cultivated mainly for its edible seeds which are high in dietary protein. It also has household

importance and a number of medicinal uses. Apart from human consumption, it is also used as

24
forage, feed, and meal for animals, piggery, and fishery. Cajanus cajan is a natural barrier for

soil erosion and biological factory for fixing atmospheric nitrogen in soil. Globally, it is grown in

more than 80 countries but it is an important grain legume in Asia (India and Myanmar) and

Eastern and Southern Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, and Mozambique). Pigeonpea

has a unique place in Indian farming and India accounts for about 68% of the global production.

It is the second most important pulse crop next to chickpea, covering an area of 6.66 million

hectares in the world, with an average annual production of 4.85 million tons. Its average

productivity is 728.5 kg ha−1. The major pigeonpea growing area (5.06 m ha) is in India with a

production of 3.29 million tons with the productivity of 649.9 kg ha−1 (FAO, 2015). The major

states in terms of area and production are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,

Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Bihar.

Pigeonpea named by various vernacular names viz., Guandul, poroto guandul,

porotoparaguayo, sachacafé, falso café, arveja (Argentina); pigeonpea (Australia); guando

(Brazil); mu dou (Chinese); pigeonpea, congo pea, red gram (English); pois cajan, poisd’Angole,

ambrevade (French); poisd’angole (French-speaking West Africa); straucherbse (German);

Puerto Rican bean, pigeonpea (Hawaii); red gram, tur, arhar, dal (India); frijol de árbol (Mexico);

Cumandái (Paraguay); ervilha do Congo, feijão, guandu, ervilha de Angola (Portuguese); cachito

(spanish); mbaazi (Swahili); duvart (Swedish); pigeonpea, angola pea (United Kingdom);

quinchoncho (Venezuela).

2.2.1 Origin and Geographical Distribution

The name pigeonpea was first used in Barbados where pigeon were fed the seeds of

Cajanus cajan (Plukenet, 2002). Based on the wide genetic variability, Vavilov (2001) reported

25
that India is the center of origin for cultivated pigeonpea and is also been widely cultivated in

many African countries, Egypt, and a bunch of Asian countries since prehistoric times. Eastern

Africa was considered as center of origin of pigeonpea by several workers owing to its

occurrence in wild form (Zeven and Zhukovsky, 2005). Based on the occurrence of wild

relatives and diversity, van der Maesen (2000) inferred that India is the primary center of origin

and Africa is the secondary center of origin for pigeonpea. It is cultivated in wide range of

altitude (0–3000 m) (Ripperton and Hosaka, 2002; Krause, 2001) and the Latitudinal limit is 30°

North and South. However, the optimal being 15–20° for most cultivars. Now it has been

acclimatized in several tropical and subtropical countries of the world.

2.2.2 Taxonomical Hierarchy

The genus Cajanus belongs to the sub-tribe Cajaninae, tribe Phaseoleae, sub-family

Papilionoideae, and family Papilionaceae. The genus Cajanus has 11 related genera [(1)

Rhynchosia Lour., (2) Dunbaria W., (3) Dunbaria A., (4) Eriosema D., (5) Eriosema C., (6)

Reichenb, (7) Flemingia Roxb. Ex Aiton., (8) Paracalyx Roxb. Ali, (9) Adenodolichos, (10)

Baukea, and (11) Carissoa (Mallikarjuna et al., 2011)] and 32 species; (Maesen, 2000).

It is postulated that the cultivated pigeonpea originated from Cajanus cajanifolius by

selection for size and vigor of the plant, non-shattering pods, and larger seed size. However, the

cultivated Cajanus cajan differs from Cajanus cajanifolius in floral morphology, pod and seed

color, and 100 seed mass (Mallikarjuna et al., 2012). Based on the genetic cross-compatibility

the species of Cajanus cajan are distributed into primary gene pool (GP1), which includes the all

available germplasm and C. cajanifolius. It is freely crossable with the cultivated types and

produces fertile hybrids. While the 10 Cajanus species that are cross-compatible with C. cajan

26
form the secondary gene pool (GP2), the rest of the species, which do not cross with C. cajan,

are placed in the tertiary gene pool (GP3) (Remanandan, 2000).

2.2.3 Nutritional Quality of Pigeon Pea

Pal (2009) published the first information on biological value, net protein content,

essential amino acids, and digestibility of different pulses. In this study pigeonpea was rated the

best as far as its biological value was concerned; and it was recommended that for a balanced

vegetarian diet pigeonpea should be eaten with rice. References (Singh et al., 2004; Sharma et

al., 2007; Manimekalai et al., 2009) reported large variability for various chemical constituents

and nutritive value of pigeonpea. It is to be noted that besides inherent genotypic differences,

some degree of variation in protein content can also arise due to differences in environmental

conditions where the crop was grown, methods of sampling and analyses, and seed storage

conditions and its duration.

Nutritional value of dry seeds

Pigeonpea seeds are made up of 85% cotyledons, 14% seed coat, and about 1% embryo,

and contain a variety of dietary nutrients (Faris and Singh, 2000). The cotyledons are rich in

carbohydrates (66.7%) while a major proportion (about 50%) of seed protein is located in

embryo. About one-third of seed coat is made up of fiber. The quantities of important sulfur-

containing amino acids such as methionine and cystine range around 1% and they are present in

cotyledons and embryo; while calcium is predominantly present in seed coat and embryo. Singh

(Singh and Jambunathan, 2002) found that the globulins constitute about 65% of total proteins.

In general, pigeonpea is not rated superior for sulfur-containing amino acids (Eggum and

Beames, 2003), but it is not linked with low methionine content (Singh and Eggum, 2004). In

27
comparison to other protein fractions, globulin is rather inferior in sulfur containing amino acids

while albumin has high amino acid content. In pigeonpea seed the proportion of prolamin is low

while sugars such as stachyose and verbascose are high (Nigam and Giri, 2001).

Nutritional value of immature (vegetable) seeds

In general, green pigeonpea seeds (vegetable pigeonpea) are considered superior to dry

splits in nutrition. The observations recorded at ICRISAT showed that pigeonpea dal was better

than green peas with respect to starch and protein. On the contrary, the green pigeonpea seeds

had higher crude fiber, fat, and protein digestibility. As far as trace and mineral elements was

concerned, the green pea was better in phosphorus by 28.2%, potassium by 17.2%, zinc by

48.3%, copper by 20.9%, and iron by 14.7%. The dal, however, had 19.2% more calcium and

10.8% more manganese (Faris and Singh, 2000). Singh et al. (2007) reported that the vegetable

type pigeonpea had high polysaccharides and low crude fiber content than dal, irrespective of

their seed sizes. They also reported that crude fiber contents in vegetable pigeonpea and garden

pea (Pisum sativum) were comparable. There was a vast range in size and color in immature

pods and mostly the consumer preference was for large green pods; however, these traits were

not related to any organoleptic property of seeds. In pigeonpea, seed and pod size are positively

correlated and the varieties with large pods invariability have large immature and dry seeds.

2.2.4 Anti-Nutritional Factors of Pigeon pea

Like other legumes, pigeonpea seeds also contain some anti-nutritional factors. These

include oligosaccharides (raffinose and verbascose), polyphenols (phenols and tannins),

phytolectins, and enzyme inhibitors (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and amylase). According to Kamath

(Kamath and Belavady, 2000), pigeonpea seeds also have some amounts of unavailable

28
carbohydrates which adversely affect the bioavailability of certain vital nutrients. Some of the

antinutritional factors such as phytolectins are heat sensitive and are destroyed during cooking.

Godbole et al. (2004) reported protease inhibitors in seven day old seeds; while Ambekar et al.

(2006) found that such inhibitors are either not synthesized or inactive up to 28 days of the seed

development. No other plant part except seed exhibited trypsin or chymotrypsin inhibitors

(Mutimani and Paramjyothi, 2005). The white seeded pigeonpea cultivars contain relatively less

amounts of polyphenols. Such cultivars are preferred in many countries where de-hulling

facilities are not available and whole seeds are consumed. In comparison to the white seeded

cultivars the red seeded types contain three times greater quantity of polyphenols (Singh, 2004).

Similarly, the enzyme inhibition activity was also greater in the colored seeds of pigeonpea.

Since in India almost entire pigeonpea production (3.2 m tones) are de-hulled and converted into

dal for consumption, the tannins present in the colored seed coat pose no nutritional problem.

2.2.5 Cooking Quality of Pigeon pea

Pigeonpea seeds in the form of either dry, green, or split peas are invariably consumed

after cooking. Therefore, besides various nutritional aspects the cooking time and other related

parameters assume importance. Consumers always prefer a dal that cooks fast and produces

more volume upon cooking with high consistency and flavor. Cooking time of dal is independent

of taste and flavor (Manimekalai et al., 2009). Jambunathan and Singh (2001) studied various

physicochemical characters of pigeonpea, and reported that quick cooking trait of dal was

associated with large seed size, high solid dispersal, more water absorption, and high nitrogen

solubility. Narasimha and Desikachar (2008) and Pal (2009) reported a positive association of

cooking time of pigeonpea seeds with their calcium and magnesium contents. According to

Salunkhe (2002), cooking of pigeonpea improved the bio-availability of nutrients and at the same

29
time destoryed some anti-nutritional factors. Heat treatment of pigeonpea seeds is also known to

enhance their starch digestibility. The lines, which take long time to cook, generally face the

danger of loosing important vitamins from food. Cooking pigeonpea seed after germination

enhances their starch digestibility but reduces the levels of oligosaccharides (Iyengar and

Kulkarni, 2007).

The fermentation of seeds helps in reducing inhibitory activity of digestive enzymes

(Rajalakshmi and Vanaja, 2007). Geervani (2001) reported that thiamine and riboflavine were

destroyed by heat but niacin content was unaltered during boiling, pressure cooking, and roasting

of pigeonpea seeds. She further found that the availability of lysine and methionine decreased on

roasting but the available methionine increased on boiling and pressure-cooking.

2.2.6 Medicinal Uses of Pigeon pea

Plant kingdom had been considered from a long time a reservoir of folk medicines. The

herbal medicines, also called as phyto-medicines, refer to using a plant or its part such as leaves,

flowers, fruits, bark, or seeds for medicinal purposes. Since ancient periods and long before any

recorded history China, India, and Egypt were the leaders in folk medicines. The ancient Chinese

and Egyptian papyrus writings described various medicinal uses of some plant species. The

native Africans and Americans also used different herbs in a number of healing rituals. The

herbal medicine system has a long tradition of usage outside the boundaries of synthetic

medicine system. With the advent of improved chemical analytical methods along with quality

control technologies and advances in clinical research, the value of herbal medicines increased in

treating and preventing of some human diseases. Subsequently, effective traditional medical

systems such as “Ayurveda” in India and “Traditional Chinese Medicine” in China were

30
developed with a fairly good recognition. Slowly the people in different parts of the world also

started using the common herbal plants for medicinal purposes.

In the early 19th century, when the first chemical analysis became available, the scientists

began to extract the active ingredients from selected plant species for pharmaceutical usage and

some chemists started synthesizing targeted plant compounds in their laboratories. Gradually, the

usage of herbal medicines declined in favor of synthetic drugs. However, the World Health

Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide, particularly from developing and under-

developed countries, still rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In

Germany, about 600-700 plant-based medicines are still prescribed by 70% of the Physicians.

Recently, some of the developed countries have also shown interest in the natural or organic

remedies (Steven and Ehrlich, 2009).

Herbal Properties

Pigeonpea is being used as an integral part of traditional folk medicine in India, China,

and some other developing countries (Morton, 2006). The importance of pigeonpea plant in

ethnical folk medicine is well known in the prevention and cure of certain human ailments and

its brief account is given below:

Flowers: Pigeonpea floral decoctions are traditionally used for treating ailments such as

bronchitis, coughs, and pneumonia. Pigeonpea flowers are also prepared into a “tea” for treating

upper respiratory infections and pain. The flowers, when prepared in an infusion, are used for

treating dysentery and menstrual disorders.

Seeds: Scorched seeds, when added to coffee alleviate headache and vertigo. Fresh seeds are

believed to help incontinence of urine in males, while immature seeds are recommended for

31
treatment of kidney ailments (Duke, 2001). Pigeonpea seeds are infused to make a diuretic “tea”

for inflammation and blood disorders. In South America pigeonpea seeds are used for febrifuge,

stabilization of the menstrual period and dysentery (Duke and Vasquez, 2004); in Africa

pigeonpea seeds are used for treating hepatitis and measles (Abbiw, 2000). In Mexico, pigeonpea

seeds are used as styptic drug and laxative; while in China these are used to arrest bleeding,

relieve pain, kill worms, and as an expectorant and sedative drug (Yuan et al., 2000; Tang et al.,

2009). Some herbal researchers are of the opinion that pigeonpea diminishes swelling of internal

organs such as liver, intestines etc. Clinical studies have also shown that the seed extract of

pigeonpea helps in inhibiting sickling of red blood cells and therefore, has potential to treat the

person suffering from sickle cell anemia (Prema and Kurup, 2003).

Roots: Dried roots of pigeonpea are sometimes used as an alexeritic, anthelminthic, expectorant,

sedative, and vulnerary.

Leaves: In India pigeonpea leaves are used for curing sores, wounds, abdominal tumors, and

diabetes (Amalraj and Ignacimuthu, 1998; Grover et al., 2002). The leaves of the pigeonpea are

decocted in Argentina for treating acute bronchial problems and genital and skin irritations. The

young leaves of pigeonpea can be chewed for treating cough, diarrhea (Edbordo, 2008),

traumatism, burnt infection, bedsore, toothache, mouthwash, sore gums, child-delivery, and

dysentery (Li et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2005). It was also found that pigeonpea leaves have

notable anti-inflammatory and antibiotic effects; and also inhibit capillary permeability (Sun et

al., 2005). In China, pigeonpea is considered as an excellent “Traditional Chinese Medicine” for

therapy of ischemic necrosis of femoral head. The leaves are prepared in an infusion for

overcoming anemia, hepatitis, urinary infections, yellow fever, and ulcers. In Brazil, pigeonpea

leaves are infused for coughs, fevers, and ulcers.

32
Chemical constituents of leaves

In order to know the major chemical constituents of pigeonpea leaves, efforts were made

to isolate and identify various active chemical compounds. The research efforts revealed that

some polyphenols, especially flavonoids, play an important role in curing certain human ailments

(Liu et al., 2008). The four major flavonoids identified in the extracts of pigeonpea leaves are

quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, and isorhamnetin. These compounds are known for their important

pharmacological activities (Lin et al., 1999). Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds, which are

widely found in plant kingdom. As intrinsic components of fruits, vegetables, and beverages

many of the 4000 different flavonoids known to-date, are present in a common regular diet

(Crozier et al., 2007). Pigeonpea leaves also contain other compounds such as hordenine,

juliflorine, betulinic acid, stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol, etc. In recent years, extensive research is

being carried on various antibacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory

properties of these flavonoids (Matsuda et al., 2003).

2.2.7 Pigeonpea in Rural Diets

In pigeonpea methionine, cystine, tryptophan and threonine are the limiting essential

amino acids, whereas in rice and wheat lysine is the limiting amino acid. A food combining both

cereals and pulses provide a balanced diet because they complement the amino acid profiles of

each other. The mutual quality compensation is closest to the ideal value when the ratio by

weight of cereals to legume is roughly 70:30 (Hulse, 2007). In southern and eastern Africa this

ratio is 90:10, reflecting shortage of protein in the diet. Daniel (Daniel et al., 2000) studied

supplementation of cereal diets with various proportions of pigeonpea and reported that

supplementation of ration with pigeonpea significantly enhanced the nutritive value of diet.

33
Supplementation of rice diet with 8.5% and 16.7% pigeonpea dal markedly improved the quality

of diet. Similarly, Kurien (2001) demonstrated that a supplement of pigeonpea in maize diet

significantly improved the quality of food.

Bidinger and Nag (2001) observed that pigeonpea was by far the most preferred pulse

crop in Indian villages and its consumption patterns differed widely by age group, farm size, and

the village. The consumption rate was found linear with small farmers consuming the least

amount and the large farmers the most. National Institute of Nutrition in India recommends

cereal: pulse ratio of 3:1 for very young children, 5:1 for women, and 6:1 for men. In most of the

cases, rural diets standards could not be met. Bidinger (Bidinger and Nag, 2001) further reported

that 10% of protein and 5% of energy in the village diets came from pigeonpea. The maximum

lysine provided from the diet was 21.7%. These values are low and reflect low consumption of

legumes.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajam) used in the research

work was purchased from a local market in Owo, Ondo State. The samples were processed in

Food Processing Laboratory, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Preparation of fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

Fresh sweet potato root were washed, peeled, sliced and pigeon pea seeds were

winnowed, sorted, drained. The two cleaned samples (sliced sweet potato root and washed

pigeon pea were soaked together i.e fermented together for 72 hours. After 72 hours the

fermented samples it was washed, wet milled, sieved, sedimented for 24 hours, drained, sun

dried for 3 days and dry milled into powder, sieved and packaged in airtight container for further

analysis (Fig. 1).

3.2.2 Preparation of unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

Fresh sweet potato root were washed, peeled, sliced and pigeon pea seeds were

winnowed, sorted, washed and drained. After draining the unfermented samples (sliced sweet

potato and pigeon pea) wet milled, sieved, sedimented for 24 hours, drained, sun dried for 3 days

and dry milled into powder, sieved and packaged in airtight container for further analysis (Fig.

2).

35
 Sweet potato tuber (70%) Pigeon pea (30%)

Washing Winnowing

Peeling Peeling

Washing Washing

Slicing Soaking (72 hrs at room temp.)

Draining

Re-washing

Wet milling

Sieving

Sedimentation (24 hrs)

Draining

Caking

Sun drying (72 hrs)

Dry milling

Packaging

Fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

Figure 1: Preparation of Fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

36
 Sweet potato tuber (70%) Pigeon pea (30%)

Washing Winnowing

Peeling Peeling

Washing Washing

Slicing Draining

Wet milling

Sieving

Sedimentation (24 hrs)

Draining

Caking

Sun drying (72 hrs)

Dry milling

Packaging

Unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

Figure 2: Preparation of unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea flour

37
3.3 Mineral analysis of weaning food

3.3.1 Wet analysis

Mineral analyses were determined using AOAC (2005) methods with slight

modifications. About 0.5 g of the sample was weighed into a 250 ml beaker. Twenty five ml (25

ml) of concentrated nitric acid was added and the beaker covered with a watch glass. The sample

was digested with great care on a hot plate in a fume chamber until the solution was pale yellow.

The solution was cooled and 1 ml perchloric acid (70% HCLO4) added. The digestion was

continued until the solution was colorless or nearly so (the evaluation of dense white fumes was

regarded to be indicative of the removal of nitric acid). When the digestion was completed, the

solution was cooled slightly and 30 ml of distilled water added. The mixture was brought to boil

for about 10 min and filtered hot into a 100 ml volumetric flask using filter paper. The solution

was then made to the mark with distilled water.

3.3.2 Ash Analysis

This was determined by combusting a known weight of sample in muffle furnace of

5000C for 5h. The ash sample was cooled and re-weighed with the crucible (James, 2016). The

percentage ash was calculated using the following steps

Weight of crucible =B

Weight of crucible + ash =A

Weight of crucible + ash – Weight of crucible = Wt. of ash A-B= C

Weight of ash 100

% ash = weight of sample × 1

38
3.3.3 Determination of Ca, Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, Na, P and K

The concentrations of Ca, Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, Na, P and K of the pulp were determined

using Spectra AA 220FS Spectrophotometer (Varian Co., Mulgrave, Australia) with an acetylene

flame. One (1) ml aliquots of the digest was used to determine the Ca, Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, Na, P and

K content of the samples.

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Results

Table 4.1: Mineral composition of fermented and unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea

weaning food

Parameters FSPWF (mg/100g) USPWF (mg/100g)

Sodium (Na) 14.100 10.700

Potassium (K) 19.300 15.500

Calcium (Ca) 6.128 4.936

Cupper (Cu) 0.030 0.015

Iron (Fe) 0.095 0.072

Manganese (Mn) 0.012 0.010

Phosphorus (P) 2.170 2.036

Zinc (Zn) 0.329 0.286

Keys: FSPWF = Fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food

USPWF = Fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food

40
4.2 Discussion

The table 4.1 above shows the mineral composition for fermented sweet potato-pigeon

pea weaning food (FSPWF) and unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food (USPWF).

The table shows the result for the following mineral content of the two samples measured in

mg/100g: Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Cupper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn),

Phosphorus (P) and Zinc (Zn).

The table 4.1 above shows sodium content of fermented sweet potato-pigeon pea

weaning food to be 14.100 mg/100g while unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food

was observed to be 10.700 mg/100g. From the result it is noted that fermented sweet potato-

pigeon pea weaning food sodium content is higher compared to unfermented sweet potato-

pigeon pea weaning food, the result obtained is similar in comparison to the result obtained by

Sanoussi et al. (2016) from the blends of sweet potato fortified with cowpea with a value of

14.52 – 17.01 mg/100g. The potassium content of both samples as observed in the table 4.1

above is high, although sample FSPWF is recorded to have the higher value of 19.30 mg/100g

while sample USPWF is observed to be 15.50 mg/100g. The calcium content of fermented sweet

potato-pigeon pea weaning food was also recorded to have the higher value of 6.128 mg/100g,

unfermented sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food have a calcium content of 4.956 mg/100g.

Sodium along with potassium and calcium regulates the fluid balance, maintains normal heart

rhythm (Khaw and Barrett-Connor, 2007), and is accountable for nerve signals and muscle

functions Calcium plays a major role in muscle function, formation and strengthening of bones,

teeth, conducting nerve impulses, blood clotting, and maintaining a normal heartbeat (Zemel,

2009).

41
 From the above table 4.1 the results for cupper, iron and manganese content was

observed to be less than 1.0 mg/100g, FSPWF and USPWF was observed to be 0.030 mg/100g

and 0.015 mg/100g (Cu), 0.095 mg/100g and 0.072 mg/100g (Fe), and 0.012 mg/100g and 0.010

mg/100g (Mn). From the result it was observed that fermented sample of weaning food is higher

in all the mineral parameters, the cupper content of FSPWF is twice the content of USPWF while

the content of Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn) for FSPWF is slightly higher than USPWF. The

result obtained is lower than the result reported by Antia et al. (2006) and Faris and Singh

(2000). About 6% of iron in humans is present in certain proteins, which are crucial for

respiration and energy metabolism process and implicated in the amalgamation of collagen and

certain neurotransmitters (Bashiri et al., 2003). Copper is needed by 12 enzymes in our bodies,

which in turn are involved in a wide range of functions. For example, copper helps our bodies

produce energy and helps to form important neurotransmitters, which support the healthy

function of our brain and nervous system (Bashiri et al., 2003). Manganese helps the body form

connective tissue, bones, blood clotting factors, and sex hormones. It also plays a role in fat and

carbohydrate metabolism, calcium absorption, and blood sugar regulation. Manganese is also

necessary for normal brain and nerve function (Constán‐Aguilar et al., 2014).

The table 4.1 above also reveals the Phosphorus (P) and Zinc (Zn) content of both

samples, the table revealed that the value of P and Zn was observed to be 2.170 mg/100g and

0.329 mg/100g for FSPWF while that of USWPF was revealed to be 2.036 mg/100g (P) and

0.286 mg/100g. From the result it was noted that FSWPF has higher value in both values. The

result obtained is higher than the result obtained by Anita et al. (2006), it was observed by other

researchers that pigeon pea contain some high amount of phosphorus (28.2%) and zinc (48.3%).

Phosphorus is a necessary mineral in human body after calcium and possesses a pivotal role in

42
abundant metabolic process, including energy metabolism and bone mineralization, and DNA

and RNA framework (Karp et al., 2007). Zn plays an important role in body where deficiency

symptoms are shown in many ways (Powell, 2000), zinc is required for good immune system

function, cell growth, wound healing, and insulin function.

From the table 4.1 above it is noted that the fermented sample of sweet potato-pigeon pea

weaning food has the higher mineral contents in all the parameters compared to the unfermented

samples of sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food. Therefore, the fermented sample of weaning

food is better than the unfermented sample for infant consumption.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The present research study was on “mineral composition of fermented and unfermented

sweet potato-pigeon pea weaning food”. Mineral composition of the weaning food samples

revealed that the fermented sample of weaning food is higher in all the mineral contents

(Sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, manganese, phosphorus and zinc) than that of unfermented

sample of weaning food. Potassium, sodium, calcium and zinc was observed to have highest

values (greater than 2 mg/100g) while the copper, iron, manganese and zinc has the least mineral

content in both samples. This indicate that the blends of sweet potato and pigeon pea flour

contain can be a good source of potassium, sodium, calcium and zinc. In conclusion, the

fermented sample of weaning from sweet potato-pigeon pea is of good minerals source than

unfermented sample of weaning from sweet potato-pigeon pea.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, it is therefore recommended that food industries

especially food industries that specialize in the production of infant food should take into

consideration of using sweet potato and pigeon pea for the production of infant or

complementary food. This can help control nutrient (micronutrient) malnutrition in infant in

Nigeria at low cost.

44
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