ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL

THEORIES HELP EXPLAIN

EARLY ADOLESCENCE which all people must pass
through
The early adolescent’s psychosocial include:
changes warrant serious 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 0-18 months
consideration and influence both 2. Autonomy vs. Shame 1.5-3 years
their present and future behavior. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6 years
Middle school educators can design 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 6/7-11/12
a learning environment for early years
dolescents based on an under- 5. Role Confusion 11/12-18
Identity vs.
standing of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial years
heories. 6. Isolation Young Adult-
Intimacy vs.
hood
BY M. LEE MANNING
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle
UNDERSTANDING Erik Erikson’s
Y Age
psychosocial theories, middle level 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Older
educators can better understand the early Adulthood
adolescent developmental period. Early adolescents (10 to 14-year-
Although Erikson first espoused these olds) function in two stages: industry vs.
theories on social development nearly inferiority (6/7-11/12 years) and identity
25 years ago, his contributions have vs. role confusion (11/12-18 years).
been routinely accepted or often over- Since the 10 to 14-year-old functions at
looked. the latter part of the industry vs. inferior-
Erikson (1963) divided human life ity stage and at the beginning of the
into eight psychosocial stages, each hav- identity vs. role confusion stage, early
ing a crisis period for social and emo- adolescents may exhibit some character-
tional development. The resolution of istics of both stages.
each crisis depends on a person’s ability
to achieve a positive or negative out-
Industry vs. Inferiority (617-11112 years)
come which, in turn, influences ego The early adolescent development
development. An unresolved crisis can period coincides with the latter years of
interfere with progress during the next the industry vs. inferiority stages (ages
developmental stage. 10-12). An understanding of the earlier
Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages years of this stage will provide a better
understanding of where the child has
been developmentally and where he or
M. LEE MANNING is in the department of edu-
she is going developmentally.
cation at Columbia College and adjunct pro-
fessor in the college of education, University Erikson (1963) contends that 6, 7,
of South Carolina, Columbia. and 8-year-olds have undertaken the
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95
96
challenge of entering school life, are
becoming capable of deductive reason-
ing, are playing and learning by accept-
ed rules, and are progressing sufficiently
to realize the need for developing a
sense of &dquo;industry&dquo; or &dquo;mastery.&dquo;
He contends that a psychosocial crisis
to be resolved during the industry vs.
inferiority stage is whether the adoles-
cent will develop a feeling of compe-
tence and achievement. No longer con-
tent to be governed by the whims and
wishes of play, the learner’s aim is to be
productive.
During the latter years of the industry
vs. inferiority stage, the 9 to 12-year-old
wins recognition by successfully com-
pleting academic, physical, and social
tasks. At the same time, he or she risks
the danger of being dissatisfied with his
or her skills, which results in a sense of
inferiority and inadequacy.
Such negative self-perceptions pro-
hibit an identification with friends and
often leads to feelings of being doomed
to mediocrity and inadequacy. By suc-
cessfully resolving this psychosocial cri-
sis, the learner develops a sense of moti-
vation and an eagerness to work
productively. Although the adolescent
gains a sense of mastery and compe-
tence by learning skills and abilities
from adults, older children may be the
source of greatest learning.
The adolescent continues to center
around the parents or siblings, yet a
developing sense of the world outside
the family also leads him or her to seek
and develop competence in other social
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situations. Peers and friends act as
socializing agents and become increas-
ingly important to early adolescents.
Erikson (1963), Elkind (1984), and
Maier (1969) consider the industry vs.
inferiority stage to be the most decisive
stage in social development since the
developing child experiences mastery or
failure in social activities and social
interaction.
Maier (1969) adds that peers serve as
another source of extra-familial identifi-
cation and as a criterion for measuring
success or failure which is crucial during
social development. In fact, peers’ opin-
ions of a friend’s degree of success or
failure may have a far greater impact
than parents’ and teachers’ opinions.
Elkind (1984) contends that whether
the child develops a sense of industry or
inferiority not only depends on the care-
taking efforts of parents but also on the
actions and beliefs of other adults and
peers. The manner in which early ado-
lescents view others’ perceptions of
them greatly influences their self-per-
ception. Erikson (1963) warns of preem-
inent danger when an adolescent begins
to feel that skin color, the background of
parents, or the fashion of clothes deter-
mine a person’s sense of self-worth.
A Closer Look: Implications for
Educational Practice
Teachers and administrators should
provide an educational environment that
recognizes and responds to the industry
vs. inferiority stage experienced by early
adolescents.
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98
Leamers must be provided opportuni-
ties tocomplete academic, physical, and
social tasks, e.g., auditioning and partic-
ipating in a school play, &dquo;trying out&dquo; for
the debate or swimming team, or throw-
ing a frisbee. Also, efforts must be made
to see that the early adolescents do not
lose self-esteem when they do not have
the &dquo;ideal&dquo; academic and physical skills.
This socially decisive stage also
determines their mastery of social situa-
tions such as participating in a social
event or working cooperatively with
peers and adults.
Feelings of inadequacy, inferiority,
and frustration may result in behavior
problems. Perhaps understanding the
industry vs. inferiority stage provides
clues to why many learners are uninter-
ested and what causes both social and
academic failure in middle school.
A teacher in a middle school
reading
sent several seventh grade boys who
caused a disturbance to the principal’s
office. After a discussion with the boys,
the principal learned that the academic
assignments were too difficult for their
achievement levels. He asked the boys
to make several posters that were needed
for a school function. The boys succeed-
ed with the posters and received consid-
erable positive reinforcement for their
efforts. The principal’s plan worked:
The boys enjoyed positive feelings
about themselves, and both their behav-
ior and reading achievement improved.
Educators must also provide a learn-
ing environment that emphasizes indus-
triousness based on self-worth and
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achievement rather than on race, appear-
ance, or social class. One sixth grade
boy with above average academic abili-
ties and skills experienced persistent
pangs of inferiority because of his par-
ents’ financial status and his outdated
and worn clothes.
In summary, whether this psychoso-
cial stage results in feelings of industry
or inferiority will have a long-lasting
impact on future academic, physical,
and social challenges. Teachers and
administrators must understand the
crises encountered during the industry
vs. inferiority stage and plan appropriate
social interaction and both academic and
physical learning experiences.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (11112 to
18 years)
The next stage through which early
adolescents must pass is the identity vs.
role confusion stage. Erikson consid-
ered this stage to be crucial for identity
formation and representative of the
beginning of the end of childhood.
Although this stage continues to approx-
imately 18 years of age, the early ado-
lescent learner functions within the
lower range, i.e., the 13 or 14-year-old.
These crucial early adolescent years
include the beginning of the search for
an identity and both a mastery of the
problems of childhood and a readiness
to confront the challenges of the adult
world (Maier, 1969). Learners during
these years have a &dquo;physiological revo-
lution within them&dquo; (Erikson, 1963) and
begin to question again many previously
resolved issues. Many parents, adminis-

trators, and teachers can recall (perhaps
to their dismay!) instances when stu-
dents questioned previously ignored or
accepted issues.
The many physical and social
changes during these years present new
psychosocial crises that require learners
to develop a new sense of &dquo;self.&dquo; As a
result, they question previously mas-
tered areas such as physical and social
accomplishments that must be regained
gradually by a constant reevaluation of
the &dquo;self&dquo; and abilities.
Primary during this psy-
concerns
chosocial stage are the young peoples’
search for a role identity and their con-
cern with what they appear to be in the
eyes of others as compared to what they
feel they are. In their search for an iden-
tity, many learners during this stage
begin to adopt idols, ideas, heroes,
cliques, and crowds and can be remark-
ably clannish and cruel in their exclu-
sion of those who are different (Erikson,
1963).
The choice of heroes and idols with
whom early adolescents identify contin-
ues to be a paramount concern for many
educators. When young people fail to
achieve a sense of personal identity,
either because of general lack of ability
to deal with the situation or difficult
social circumstances, they feel a sense
of not knowing what they are, where
they belong, or to whom (Elkind, 1984).
Another characteristic of the identity
vs. role confusion stage is the early ado-
lescent’s emphasis on the ideal. This
ideological outlook focuses on rituals
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99
and creeds to define evil and uncanny
behavior (Erikson, 1963). In a search for
the ideal, the youth looks to the culture’s
values, religion, and ideology for some-
thing or somebody to trust (Maier,
1969).
Elkind (1984) wrote that these
youngsters conceive of ideal families,
religions, and societies in which they
detect and compare differences with the
imperfect families, religions, and soci-
eties of their own experience.
Another related crisis is when the
person deals realistically with her or his
&dquo;self and life&dquo; and the &dquo;ideal life&dquo; that
she or he would like to be or experience.
Sometimes the difference between reali-
ty and the ideal can be difficult for
young people to accept. As early adoles-
cents mature toward the latter years of
the stage, the crisis resolves as they
become capable of constructing theories
and philosophies designed to bring all
the various and conflicting aspects of
life and society into a working and
peaceful whole (Elkind, 1984).
A Closer Look: Implications for
Educational Practice
An understanding of the identity vs.
role confusion stage should provide
middle school teachers and administra-
tors with several avenues for improving
educational practices.
First, educators must remember that
early adolescents function in the lower
ranges of this stage and do not have the
developmental characteristics of 16, 17,
and 18-year-olds. These learners should
be treated neither like children nor
100
adults.Matching teacher and administra-
tor expectations with individual devel-
opmental characteristics will be all-
important.
Second, educators must remember
that the early adolescent’s ideological
mind thinking toward an ideal life and
values may result in disappointment and
a need to be more realistic.
Third, cliques and clans, albeit both-
ersome at times, must be accepted as a
part of the early adolescent’s life. A
clique in one sixth grade class gave both
the teacher and the principal consider-
able problems. Although the clique
officially consisted of six students, one
of the members, for one reason or anoth-
er, was usually an outcast and not
allowed to participate in clique activi-
ties. Both the teacher and the principal
invested considerable time convincing
the youngsters that feeling rejected by
one’s peers could be a most unpleasant
experience.
Providing early adolescents with
opportunities for independence and
responsibility serves as a fourth implica-
tion for educators. A seventh grade
teacher provided learners with weekly
assignments that included clear require-
ments, lists of books and materials, and
special projects. Although the teacher
remained available for assistance, such
freedom provided learners an opportuni-
ty to learn independently and to demon-
strate responsibility.
Fifth, the early adolescent’s evolving
identity may create academic and social
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problems that educators need to under-
stand. Whether the young person iden-
tifies himself or herself as a son, daugh-
ter, learner, delinquent, failure, or
success will greatly determine his or her
behavior and achievement. Educators
must recognize changing identities and
be prepared to assist learners with realis-
tic expectations.
In summary, the identity vs. role con-
fusion stage will significantly determine
the future of the developing person.
Whether the young person becomes an
adult with a strong personal identity or
one who is confused about demonstrat-
ing roles will greatly depend on the
significant adults in his or her life.
References
Coles, Robert. Erik H. Erikson: The Growth
of His Work. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown
and Co., 1970.
Elkind, David. "Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages
of Man." In Human Development 84/85,
edited by H.E. Fitzgerald and M.G. Wal-
veren. Guilford, Conn.: The Dushkin
Publishing Group, 1984.
Erikson, Erik. "Clinical Studies in Childhood
Play." In Child Behavior and Develop-
ment, edited by R.C. Barker et al. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1943.
—. Childhood and Society, (rev. ed.)
New York: W.W. Norton, 1963.
—.
Identity: Youth and Crisis. New
York: W.W. Norton, 1968a.
"Life Cycle," International Ency-
—.
clopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 9.
New York: Macmillan, 1968b.
—. The
Life Cycle Completed. New
York: W.W. Norton, 1982.
Maier, Henry W. Three Theories of Child
Development, (rev. ed.) New York: Harp-
er & Row, 1969.