Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 461–466

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Evaluation of International Affective Picture System (IAPS) ratings

in an athlete population and its relations to personality
Serdar Tok a,*, Mehmet Koyuncu b, Seda Dural b, Fatih Catikkas a
a
Ege University Shool of Physical Education and Sport, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
b
Ege University Faculty of Letters Psychology Department, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the selected International Affective Picture System (IAPS) pic-
Received 6 December 2009 tures for an athlete population. A secondary focus was on whether ratings of IAPS pictures were related to
Received in revised form 13 April 2010 personality traits. A total of 219 athletes participated in the study. Participants viewed 224 pictures that
Accepted 28 April 2010
were selected from (IAPS). Ratings in terms of valence and arousal were obtained.
To determine locations of the pictures on valence and arousal dimensions, a scatter plot was drawn: x-
axis of the plot was valence and y-axis was arousal. The Turkish affective space figure drawn in accor-
Keywords:
dance with the ratings that were obtained from the sample revealed that the pictures were distributed
Personality
Emotions
along each dimension.
Arousal A path model was tested to examine the relationship between responses to the picture sets for four
IAPS regions and personality traits. The results clearly indicated that the path model provided a good fit to
Sport psychology the data. Four path coefficients were found to be statistically significant.
Results indicated that IAPS ratings obtained from the Turkish athlete population are comparable with
original ratings reported by Lang, Bradley, and Cuthbert (2005). In addition, responses to IAPS pictures
was found to be modulated by personality traits.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is an environment where emotion is an important predictor of ath-

Emotions and affective processes have been extensively investi-
gated in the field of human cognition and performance. They have
been described as a reaction to a stimulus event (either actual or
imagined) involving change in viscera musculature of a person
(Hanin, 2007). According to Izard (1977), emotions are multi-fac-
eted in nature as they include behavioral, physiological, and expe-
riential components. They also have a considerable amount of
effect on human performance and are, therefore, considered indis-
pensable for research on human cognition and behavior (Jokela &
Hanin, 1999).
Hanin (2007), however, observed that an accurate and detailed
description of emotional experiences in sport psychology research
was often underestimated or simply ignored. Lazarus (2000) also
noted that movement scientists are ‘‘blissfully” unaware of the
relationship between emotion and performance. A wide range of
performance contexts precipitate extreme emotional reactions
and individuals are constantly under dynamical states of emotional
flux (Coombes, Janelle, & Duley, 2005). Performance sports context
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 05053959576; fax: +90 2323399000.
E-mail addresses: tokserdar@gmail.com (S. Tok), mehmet.koyuncu@ege.edu.tr
(M. Koyuncu), dseda@mu.edu.tr (S. Dural), fatih.catikkas@ege.edu.tr (F. Catikkas).
letic performance. Several theories, such as Reversal Theory (Apter,
2001) and Hanin’s (1997) Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning
(IZOF), have been proposed in an effort to explain emotion and per-
formance relationship in sports.
The IZOF model was developed in the naturalistic elite sports
(Jokela & Hanin, 1999) in order to account for detrimental and
beneficial effects of pre-competition anxiety (Robazza, Bortoli, &
Nougier, 1999). There is a growing consensus in applied sport
psychology that the prediction of athletic performance should be
based on multiple pleasant (positively toned) and unpleasant (neg-
atively toned) emotions rather than only pre-competition anxiety
(Cerin, Szabo, Hunt, & Williams, 2000; Hanin, 2007). The IZOF
approach comprises a performance functionality dimension in
addition to hedonic (or valence) dimension of emotions. Hanin
(2007) classified emotions into one of four global emotion catego-
ries derived from hedonic tone and performance functionality:
pleasant and functionally optimal emotions (P+), unpleasant and
functionally optimal emotions (N+), pleasant and dysfunctional
emotions (P ), unpleasant and dysfunctional (N ) emotions. Opti-
mal (P+ and N+) emotional experiences accompany successful
performances, whereas dysfunctional (N and P ) emotional
experiences are usually related to poor performances. Based on
Lacey’s (1967) findings that different subjects tend to respond by
activating different major physiological response systems, Hanin’s

0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.04.020
462 S. Tok et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 461–466
IZOF model focuses largely on emotional experiences described by
athletes’ self-generated idiosyncratic labels. Actually, studies
conducted within the IZOF perspective used idiosyncratic subjec-
tive scales of emotion adjectives (Bortoli & Robazza, 2002;
Hagtveta & Hanin, 2007; Robazza, Bortoli, & Hanin, 2006) and
few studies (Bortoli & Robazza, 2002; Robazza, Bortoli, & Hanin,
2004) examined bodily responses associated with emotional
experiences.
Unfortunately, studies in sport psychology from time to time
tend to overlook objective methods whilst dealing with emotions.
For instance, less attention has been paid to examine the influence
of emotions on sports related motor or even cognitive tasks in well
controlled experimental studies. Hence, no material has been
developed to trigger a variety of emotions or no normative data
have been obtained from an athlete population for an existing
set of emotional stimuli. Yet, the vital status of emotions for the re-
search on human cognition and behavior made it imperative to de-
vise a variety of ways to measure the emotion processes and
affective influences on both cognition and behavior.
One of the effective and well-established sources providing
researchers with emotional and attentional stimuli is the Interna-
tional Affective Picture System (IAPS) developed by Lang and his
colleagues (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2005).
IAPS consists of over 700 standardized color photographs evoking
a range of affective responses. The system includes normative rat-
ings of each photograph with respect to valence (pleasure), arousal,
and dominance. These ratings are reliable (Lang et al., 2005) and
were collected by using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) which
is an affective rating-scale system using a graphical figure that
depicts the dimensions of arousal (from an excited to a relaxed fig-
ure), valence (from a smiling to a frowning figure), and dominance
(from a large to a small figure) (Lang, 1980).
Providing a standardized pool of affective and attentional stim-
uli, the IAPS has become a highly useful methodological tool used
in numerous investigations. A significant portion of these studies
employed the IAPS norms to investigate basic processes such as
learning, emotion, motivation and attention by a range of psycho-
physiological measures–skin conductance response (Mardaga,
Laloyaux, & Hansenne, 2006), event-related brain potentials (van
Lankveld & Smulders, 2008), heart rate (Lang, Greenwald, Bradley,
& Hamm, 1993), and electromyographic activity in the forehead
(corrugator) and cheek (zygomatic) muscles and fMRI (Lang et al.
1998). Much recently, however, studies on different topics such
as aging and Alzheimer’s disease (Kensinger, Brierley, Medford,
Growdon, & Corkin, 2002), trait anxiety (Yiend & Mathews, 2001)
and studies with various methodologies (Bradley, Greenwald,
Petry, & Lang, 1992; Cahill & Alkire, 2003; Kern, Libkuman, Otani,
& Holmes, 2005) have started to use IAPS.
The aim of this study was to obtain normative ratings of se-
lected IAPS items (pictures) from a population consisting of elite
college student athletes. These normative ratings may be useful
for researchers willing to study emotions under laboratory condi-
tions. To our knowledge, this is the first study that has used IAPS
ratings when analyzing the Turkish population. It is highly possible
that these ratings may also contribute to research done on emo-
tions in other related areas. We assume that the ratings of IAPS pic-
tures obtained from our sample are comparable to those reported
in the IAPS manual.
Another assumption considered in this study was that personal-
ity traits especially Neuroticism can modulate responses to IAPS
pictures. Depending on studies (Canli, Sivers, Withfield, Gotlib, &
Gabrieli, 2002; Morrone, Depue, Scherer, & White, 2000) showing
associations between Extraversion and positive emotions as well
as Neuroticism and negative emotions, it seems quite logical to
assume a similar relationship between personality traits and
responses to IAPS pictures.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Two hundred nineteen participants (59 females and 160 males,
mean age = 21.17 years) took part in the experiment. Participants
were chosen among the elite athletes who were willing to partici-
pate in the study. All participants had either normal or corrected-
to-normal vision.
2.2. Materials
A jury consisting of the three authors selected 224 pictures from
IAPS, based on the normative ratings reported in the manual. In
addition to these ratings, the jury’s opinion was objective and cul-
turally non-biased.
In order to collect the participants’ valence and arousal ratings
for the selected IAPS pictures, a computer program was designed
by using MS Visual Basic 6.0 version. The pictures were presented
on a celeron 1.7 GHz PC and 17-inch-computer screen for 5 s. After
a 5-s-presentation of each picture, valence and arousal dimensions
of the SAM appeared at the bottom of the screen. Participants rated
each picture by clicking on one of the 9-point-Likert- type-rating
formats of the SAM figures.
2.3. Personality analysis
The Five Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI) developed by
Somer, Korkmaz, and Tatar (2002) is a 220 item personality inven-
tory designed to assess the five main personality traits; namely
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness,
and Conscientiousness. Item responses are made using a five point-
format. The inventory’s manual provides evidence for reliability
and validity of the measurement device.
2.4. Procedure
Subjects were divided into groups of 10 to 25 persons. Experi-
mental sessions were conducted in a 25 ft  40 ft room with simi-
lar lighting conditions. Instructions given to the participants were
otherwise similar to those reported in the manual with the excep-
tion of being modified for a computer-based-rating-procedure. In
addition to verbal instructions, a warning slide informing the par-
ticipants about the rating procedure of each IAPS picture was pre-
sented to the participants. Prior to the experimental ratings, all
participants viewed and rated 3 practice pictures. Also, the picture
order was randomized for every single experiment. After the pic-
ture presentations The Five Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI)
was given to the subjects in order to assess their personality traits.
3. Results
3.1. Pictures
The Pearson product-moment correlation between Turkish and
American norms regarding valence and arousal dimensions for se-
lected pictures was calculated. Results showed that there was a
strong positive correlation (r = .95, P < .001) between Turkish and
American mean valence values for selected pictures. In terms of
arousal ratings, however, there was a smaller but significant corre-
lation (r = .72, P < .001) between Turkish and American mean arou-
sal ratings.
In order to determine locations of the pictures on valence and
arousal dimensions, mean valence and arousal scores of each pic-
ture were calculated. Hence, two scores (mean valence and mean
 S. Tok et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 461–466 463

arousal) for each picture were obtained. A scatter plot, with x-axis Table 1
indicating valence and the y-axis arousal, was drawn in accordance Constants used in calculating weighted scores for the pictures in each region.

with these two scores. As Fig. 1 demonstrates, the scatter plot’s Regions
area was divided into four regions: negative valence-high arousal, Positive Negative Positive Negative
positive valence-high arousal, negative valence-low arousal, and valence-low valence-high valence-high valence-low
positive valence-low arousal by mid points of valence and arousal arousal arousal arousal arousal
axis. According to their locations in the four regions pictures were Constant for .75 .25 .75 .25
distributed as follows: 39.56% in the negative valence-high arousal, valence
21.33% in the positive valence-high arousal, 20.44% in the negative Constant for .25 .75 .75 .25
arousal
valence-low arousal, and 18.67% in the positive valence-low arou-
sal region.
In order to represent each picture in terms of one score instead
of two (valence and arousal), a weighted score for pictures was cal-
culated for each participant according to their features of their lo- Table 2
Correlation and reliability coefficients for picture sets in four regions (reliability
cated regions in valence and arousal dimensions. Constants used in
coefficients were presented on diagonal as italic).
calculating weighted scores for the pictures in each region were
shown in Table 1. To obtain the weighted scores of the pictures Positive Negative Positive Negative
valence-low valence-high valence-high valence-low
in the negative valence-high arousal region, for example, the va-
arousal arousal arousal arousal
lence and arousal scores of the participants were multiplied by
Positive .96
.25 and .75, respectively and then these two scores were summed.
valence-low
Item analysis was performed to determine the discrimination arousal
levels of the pictures by using these weighted scores in each re- Negative .29* .98
gion. A number of pictures were removed from the picture sets valence-high
due to their low (under .30) or negative item-total correlations: arousal
Positive .11 .11 .99
one picture from the negative valence-high arousal region, 11 from
valence-high
the positive valence-high arousal region, two from the negative va- arousal
lence-low arousal region, and two from the positive valence-low Negative .38* .60* .09 .93
arousal region. As a result, picture sets for the four regions were valence-low
arousal
obtained with discrimination levels ranging from .38 to .79 in the
negative valence-high arousal region, from .38 to .89 in the positive *
p < .01.
valence-high arousal region, from .30 to .60 in the negative
valence-low arousal region, and from .35 to .71 in the positive
valence-low arousal region. Then, reliability and correlation coeffi- traits, (Fig. 2). In the suggested path model, five personality traits
cients were calculated as shown in Table 2. (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and
openness) served as exogenous variables and the picture sets for
3.2. Personality traits four regions functioned as endogenous variables. Also, using the
information obtained from correlation coefficients between picture
A path model was specified to examine the relationship between sets, error variances of (1) positive valence-low arousal and negative
the responses to the picture sets for the 4 regions and personality valence-high arousal, (2) positive valence-low arousal and negative

10

9 Low Valence High Valence

High Arousal High Arousal
8

6
Arousal

2
Low Valence High Valence
1 Low Arousal Low Arousal

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Valence
Fig. 1. Scatter diagram of pictures by arousal and valence dimensions.
464 S. Tok et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 461–466

Extraversion
High Valence
Low Arousal
Agreeableness

Low Valence
High Arousal
Conscientiousness
High Valence
High Arousal

Neuroticism
Low Valence
Low Arousal

Openness

Fig. 2. Suggested path model.

valence-low arousal, and (3) negative valence-high arousal and neg- The highest R2 value was obtained in the positive valence-low
ative valence-low arousal regions were correlated as well. arousal condition.
This path model was tested by using LISREL 8.8 (Jöreskog &
Sörbom, 2006). The analysis converged to an admissible solution.
Values of selected fit indexes are v2(3) = 4.41, p = .22, NC = 1.47, 4. Discussion
CFI = .99, SRMR = .02, and RMSEA = .06. The results clearly indi-
cated that this path model provided a good fit to the data. The All correlation coefficients between Turkish norms and Ameri-
maximum likelihood estimates of the model parameters have been can norms reported in the manual were significant and high en-
reported in Table 3. Four path coefficients were found to be statis- ough to suggest that pictures trigger very similar emotional
tically significant: (1) path from Neuroticism to positive valence- responses and pictures are rated in a similar manner across popu-
low arousal, (2) path from Openness to positive valence-low lations from different cultures. The Turkish affective space figure
arousal, (3) path from Extraversion to positive valence-high arou- drawn according to the ratings of the sample revealed that pictures
sal, and (4) path from Openness to negative valence-low arousal. were distributed along each dimension. It was seen that similar
ratings were obtained by the American sample when they viewed
Table 3 the same pictures. These results clearly indicated that IAPS pictures
Maximum likelihood parameter estimates for suggested path model. used in our study were largely culture free, valid, and reliable emo-
Estimates Standardized T-values R2
tional stimuli for the Turkish (athlete) sample.
solution Contrary to the general opinion and previous studies which
Positive valence-low arousal .14
found that N is positively associated with negative emotions and
Extraversion .06 .02 .27 Extraversion positively associated with positive emotions (Costa
Agreeableness .16 .05 .62 & McCrae, 1986), in this study we identified a significant and posi-
Conscientiousness .43 .14 1.62 tive path coefficient between N and positive valence-low arousal
Neuroticism .45 .21 2.49*
pictures which might have a potential to elicit positive emotions.
Openness 1.01 .31 3.40*
This result might appear controversial in the light of the above
Negative valence-high arousal .05
mentioned studies demonstrating links between N and negative
Extraversion .30 .11 1.23
Agreeableness .34 .11 1.23 emotions. In fact, the aforementioned results may be reasonable
Conscientiousness .08 .03 .29 when Eysenck’s (1967) arguments, which relate N to arousability
Neuroticism .31 .14 1.55 of a system for emotion centered on the limbic system, were taken
Openness .41 .12 1.28 into consideration. Our primary prediction was that in stressful cir-
Positive valence-high arousal .06 cumstances N should be positively correlated with autonomic and
Extraversion 1.24 .19 2.14* cortical arousal. Few studies can be shown as evidence for the
Agreeableness .02 .00 .03
Conscientiousness .81 .11 1.19
underlying biological mechanisms between N and negative emo-
Neuroticism .56 .11 1.19 tions (Canli et al., 2001; Gomez, Gomez, & Cooper, 2002). Similarly,
Openness .71 .09 .93 autonomic nervous system indicators such as electrodermal and
Negative valence-low arousal .04 electrocardiac responses have also been found to be associated
Extraversion .08 .08 .87 with N (Norris, Larsen, & Cacioppo, 2007).
Agreeableness .13 .12 1.32 Based on the association between N-stability and arousability of
Conscientiousness .08 .07 .79
the limbic system it can be concluded that high N individuals be-
Neuroticism .11 .14 1.60
Openness .23 .19 1.98* come more aroused than stable individuals as a consequence of
emotion inducing stimulation (Matthews & Gilliland, 1999). Hence,
*
p < .05.
especially under emotional and stressful circumstances, high N
 S. Tok et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 461–466
individuals may experience more negative emotions than stable
individuals. Our results are consistent with Matthews and
Gilliland’s (1999) claim that high N individuals may prefer avoid-
ance and anticipation of threat.
Significant path coefficients between N and positive valence-
low arousal IAPS pictures ratings indicated that the higher the N
scores the higher the ratings of the aforementioned pictures. These
results suggested that individuals having higher N scores would
probably prefer stimuli which triggers very low levels of arousal
and higher levels of valence. The relationship observed between
N and low arousal positive valence pictures can be evaluated as
preference for lower level of arousal in higher N individuals.
Our results also illustrated that N might be associated with posi-
tive emotions under certain circumstances. Weiting (2009), for
example, found that the strength and direction of the Neuroticism-
positive emotion association depended on circumstances, and the
relation was not necessarily always weak and non-significant.
Weiting also suggested that high N individuals are capable of feeling
as much positive emotions as negative-Neuroticism individuals un-
der certain, but not all, circumstances. Comparing our results with
Weiting’s we concluded that it is possible to associate N with posi-
tive emotions when pleasant stimuli are presented but not when
neutral or unpleasant stimuli are presented.
Results obtained in this study are also in accordance with
Britton, Ho, Taylor, and Liberzon’s (2007) findings. They found that
Neuroticism was directly correlated with dorsomedial prefrontal
cortex activation in response to positive stimuli. Dorsomedial pre-
frontal cortex correlations may reflect increased self-association in
individuals with high Neuroticism.
The association between N and positive valence-low arousal
pictures reveals invaluable implications for sport psychology. First,
these results may contribute for better understanding of Hanin’s
IZOF model. The IZOF model uses retrospective recall to determine
the athlete’s pre-competition emotional state. In the process of ret-
rospective recall the athlete’s personality characteristics might
influence the hedonic tone of recalled emotions. Second, personal-
ity characteristics may also affect the athlete’s preference of opti-
mal level of emotional arousal. Thus, athletes having a higher
level of N may tend to prefer a lower level of arousal.
A significant path coefficient was also found between Openness
to Experience and positive valence-low arousal pictures. Because
the concept of Openness appears to be unusually difficult to grasp
(McCrae & Costa, 1997) and it is the most controversial of the five
basic factors of personality (McCrae & John, 1992), it is not easy to
interpret the relationship between positive valence-low arousal
pictures and Openness to Experience.
Openness to Experience is related to a great extent to intelli-
gence or intellectual activity. However, in 1947 Cattell excluded
items associated with intelligence in order to develop an intelli-
gence test, the remaining items were named as culture based on
Norman’s (1963) work. The most significant facets of this factor
are ‘‘cultured” and ‘‘sensitivity to esthetic”. McCrae and Costa
(1997) also argued that Openness includes cultural sophistication
and imagination as well as intelligence and intellectual activity.
These findings related to the content of Openness might explain
a positive path coefficient between Openness to Experience and
positive valence-low arousal pictures which contain art works,
lovely animals, babies, landscapes and nature.
The results of the study revealed a negative and significant path
coefficient between Extraversion and positive valence-high arousal
pictures which contain erotic couples and opposite sex nudes. This
result indicated that when Extraversion scores decreased, ratings
to positive valence-high arousal pictures decreased, too. The direc-
tion of the relationship was consistent with our expectation. Fur-
ther, introverts’ low ratings to high arousal pictures should be
perceived as quite normal when Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) and
465
Furnham’s (1981) arguments, suggesting that extraverts seem to
raise their arousal level, were considered.
However, Extraversion/Introversion-arousal association ob-
served in this study might be indicative of the athlete’s preferences
for the optimal emotional arousal level. Accordingly, it seems rea-
sonable to assume that introverted athletes may prefer lower level
of arousal and avoid stimulus and circumstances which increase
emotional arousal level.
These results, in accordance with the previous studies, clearly
indicated that personality traits especially Neuroticism and Extra-
version were related to emotional arousal. These associations
might influence the athlete’s life quality as well as their perfor-
mance. Moreover, taking the athlete’s personality characteristics
into account can lead to more accurate determination of the ath-
lete’s optimal level of arousal. In order to gain a deeper insight
about this topic, we suggest that future studies consider physiolog-
ical responses to IAPS pictures.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Assistant Prof. Dr. Nevin Yıldırım
Koyuncu and Research Assistant Züleyha Çetiner Öktem from Eng-
lish Language and Literature Department at Ege University for
commenting on an earlier version of this paper. The authors also
wish to thank Utku Isık for the valuable assistance during the data
collection stage.
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