A.P.

STATE COUNCIL OF HIGHER

EDUCATION B.A, B.Com & B.Sc.
PROGRAMMES

Revised CBCS w.e.f. 2020-21

SKILL DEVELOPMENT COURSES
Science Stream

ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
BY
YADDALA YESHWANTH
M.Sc BIOTECHNOLOGY
ANDHRA UNIVERSITY
 UNIT 1- ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL
RESOURCES

1.1 WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF PLANT NURSERY?

Plant Nursery is a place where planting material, such as seedlings,
saplings, cuttings, etc., are raised, propagated and multiplied under
favorable conditions for transplanting in prepared beds. The availability
of quality and true-to-type planting material is the prerequisite of
successful and remunerative ornamental crop production. Setting up of a
nursery is a long-term venture, and requires planning and expertise.

In a nursery, plants are nurtured by providing them with optimum

growing conditions to ensure germination. Nursery saves considerable
time for the raising of the next crop. Among flower crops, majority of the
annuals are propagated by seeds and require a nursery for raising the
seedlings. Herbaceous perennials need nurseries for sowing of seeds
and planting of cuttings for rooting and establishment. Woody perennials
are grown from seeds for multiplying the rootstocks from cuttings, layers
and through grafts to perpetuate the same genetic properties.

1.2 WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT NURSERY?

Importance of nursery:
 It is possible to grow and maintain a large number of plants per unit
area.
 Small and expensive hybrid seeds can be raised more effectively
due to better care and management.
 When seeds are sown in seedbeds, their germination percentage
increases and the vigour of the seedlings also improves.
 The management of seedlings can be done in a better way with
minimum care, cost and maintenance as the nursery area is small.
 Manipulation of growing conditions for plants becomes easy.
 Better and uniform crop growth can be obtained in the main field by
 selecting vigorous and healthy seedlings.
 Off-season sowing of seeds becomes possible, which ultimately
results in fetching more returns.
 The seed requirement of nursery raised crops is less as compared
to direct seed sowing of the same crop due to better management.
 Sowing seeds in a nursery allows additional time for doing
preparatory tillage in the main plot. Harvesting of the previous crop
can also be prolonged, if needed.
 Management of insect-pests, diseases and weeds is easy in a
nursery.
1.3 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT NURSERIES ON
THE BASIS OF DURATION?
On the basis of duration, plant nurseries are of two types –
Temporary nursery and Permanent nursery.

TEMPORARY NURSERY:

TEMPORARY NURSERY:

This type of nursery is developed only to fulfill seasonal requirements or a

targeted project. Such a nursery is, usually, small in size and is set up for
a short period after which it is abandoned. Temporary nurseries are mostly
used for raising seedlings of vegetables and flower crops. Such nurseries
are found near the main planting area.
Features-
 It is constructed for a short period and is small in size.
 Intensive manuring and fertilization is not necessary in such a
nursery as it is constructed at a site rich in humus.
 As it is located near a planting site, the distance between the
nursery and the actual planting site is less.
 No major transportation is required, and if any, the cost is less.
 Special supervision is not required in the maintenance of such a
nursery. However, security aspects must be taken care of.
Advantages-
 Mortality or injury due to shock of lifting and transportation of
seedlings is negligible due to less distance between the nursery and
actual planting site.
 Initial investment in a temporary nursery is less as compared to a
permanent one.

Disadvantage-
 Because of its temporary nature, basic facilities like irrigation may
not be adequate. Therefore, special arrangements need to be made
in order to keep the plants and seedlings in healthy condition.

PERMANENT NURSERY:
 PERMANENT NURSERY:

In this type of a nursery, the plants are nourished and kept for a longer
period of time till they are sold out or planted permanently in a field. The
area covered under such a nursery is larger than a temporary nursery
and it has all features that are required in a permanent nursery.
Some of the important cultural operations carried out in the permanent
nursery throughout the year are as follows:
• It requires a large area and must be well connected by road.
• Such type of a nursery requires intensive management and
supervision.
• High initial cost is involved in the establishment of such a nursery.
• Permanent nursery comprises office, store, mother blocks, nursery
beds, protected structures, irrigation source, electricity, transportation
facilities, packing yard, manure, cattle and machinery shed.
Advantages-
 Greater range of planting stocks, such as seedlings, grafted plant,
budded plants, layers, rooted cuttings, etc., are available.
 Being permanent in nature, it becomes a perpetual source for the
supply of planting material for many years.
 Being concentrated at one place, its supervision and management
is better due to the availability permanent staff.
 The initial production cost is reasonable but
 Profits go up in the long run.

Disadvantages-
  The initial investment cost is high.
 The transportation cost is more.
 Such a nursery needs intensive labour management.
 It must be backed by a large market for the sale of plants and
seedlings.
 It requires skilled human resource round the year.

1.4 DEFINE TEMPORARY NURSERY?

This type of nursery is developed only to fulfill seasonal requirements or a

targeted project. Such a nursery is, usually, small in size and is set up for
a short period after which it is abandoned. Temporary nurseries are mostly
used for raising seedlings of vegetables and flower crops. Such nurseries
are found near the main planting area.
Features-
 It is constructed for a short period and is small in size.
 Intensive manuring and fertilization is not necessary in such a
nursery as it is constructed at a site rich in humus.
 As it is located near a planting site, the distance between the
nursery and the actual planting site is less.
 No major transportation is required, and if any, the cost is less.
 Special supervision is not required in the maintenance of such a
nursery. However, security aspects must be taken care of.
Advantages-
 Mortality or injury due to shock of lifting and transportation of
seedlings is negligible due to less distance between the nursery and
actual planting site.
 Initial investment in a temporary nursery is less as compared to a
permanent one.
Disadvantage-
 Because of its temporary nature, basic facilities like irrigation may
not be adequate. Therefore, special arrangements need to be made
in order to keep the plants and seedlings in healthy condition.
1.5 DEFINE PERMANENT NURSERY?
In this type of a nursery, the plants are nourished and kept for a longer
period of time till they are sold out or planted permanently in a field. The
area covered under such a nursery is larger than a temporary nursery
and it has all features that are required in a permanent nursery.

Some of the important cultural operations carried out in the permanent

nursery throughout the year are as follows:
• It requires a large area and must be well connected by road.
• Such type of a nursery requires intensive management and
supervision.
• High initial cost is involved in the establishment of such a nursery.
• Permanent nursery comprises office, store, mother blocks, nursery
beds, protected structures, irrigation source, electricity, transportation
facilities, packing yard, manure, cattle and machinery shed.
Advantages-
 Greater range of planting stocks, such as seedlings, grafted plant,
budded plants, layers, rooted cuttings, etc., are available.
 Being permanent in nature, it becomes a perpetual source for the
supply of planting material for many years.
 Being concentrated at one place, its supervision and management
is better due to the availability permanent staff.
 The initial production cost is reasonable but
 Profits go up in the long run.

Disadvantages-
 The initial investment cost is high.
 The transportation cost is more.
 Such a nursery needs intensive labour management.
 It must be backed by a large market for the sale of plants and
seedlings.
It requires skilled human resource round the year.
1.6 DEFINE FRUIT PLANT NURSERY?
In this nursery, seedlings and cuttings of rootstocks, budded plants, grafts,
layers and cuttings of fruit trees, such as mango, lychee, ber, bael, guava,
sapota, etc., are raised and conserved. This nursery has mother blocks of
different fruit crops, which are used as scion material.

1.7 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT NURSERIES ON

THE BASIS OF PLANTS PRODUCED?
On the basis of plants produced, plant nurseries are of 4 types –
Ornamental nursery, Vegetable nursery, Fruit plant nursery and
Forest nursery.

ORNAMENTAL NURSERY:

Seedlings, rootstock and scion material of ornamental plants are raised

and conserved for further use in such a nursery. It includes mother
blocks of ornamental plants, which are used in layering, as well as,
producing scion material for budding and grafting. The raised and flat
beds of the nursery are occupied by seedlings of various annuals,
perennials and rootstocks of ornamentals.

A separate block of the nursery consists of vegetative and reproductive

phase of bulb and tuber crops. Cuttings of different climbers and
creepers are also planted here for rooting. An ornamental nursery also
houses many indoor and outdoor potted plants. The blocks of seedlings
of cut and loose flowers, seasonal, bonsai, climbers and creepers are
managed individually here.
VEGETABLE NURSERY:

Planting material like seedlings of vegetables, rooted cuttings (asparagus

and sweet potato), rhizomes (ginger), tubers (potato) and bulbs (onion and
garlic) are raised and conserved in such a nursery.

FRUIT PLANT NURSERY:

In this nursery, seedlings and cuttings of rootstocks, budded plants, grafts,
layers and cuttings of fruit trees, such as mango, lychee, ber, bael, guava,
sapota, etc., are raised and conserved. This nursery has mother blocks of
different fruit crops, which are used as scion material.
FOREST NURSERY:

Different species of trees and climbers planted in forests and used in

‘social forestry’, for example plantation along roads, gram panchayat land,
gardens, etc., are mostly propagated by seeds.
In short, social forestry refers to forests or plantations set up by
communities and tribes. Rootstock of different forest plant species and
mother plants are raised in a forest nursery. Seedlings of big trees like
margosa, gulmohar, amaltas, kanchan, tamarind, amla (gooseberry), oak,
eucalyptus, etc., are commonly found in a forest nursery.
1.8 DEFINE ORNAMENTAL NURSERY?
Seedlings, rootstock and scion material of ornamental plants are raised
and conserved for further use in such a nursery. It includes mother
blocks of ornamental plants, which are used in layering, as well as,
producing scion material for budding and grafting. The raised and flat
beds of the nursery are occupied by seedlings of various annuals,
perennials and rootstocks of ornamentals.

A separate block of the nursery consists of vegetative and reproductive

phase of bulb and tuber crops. Cuttings of different climbers and
creepers are also planted here for rooting.

An ornamental nursery also houses many indoor and outdoor potted

plants. The blocks of seedlings of cut and loose flowers, seasonal,
bonsai, climbers and creepers are managed individually here.
1.9 DEFINE FOREST NURSERY?
Different species of trees and climbers planted in forests and used in
‘social forestry’, for example plantation along roads, gram panchayat land,
gardens, etc., are mostly propagated by seeds. In short, social forestry
refers to forests or plantations set up by communities and tribes.
Rootstock of different forest plant species and mother plants are raised in a
forest nursery. Seedlings of big trees like margosa, gulmohar, amaltas,
kanchan, tamarind, amla (gooseberry), oak, eucalyptus, etc., are
commonly found in a forest nursery.
1.10 DEFINE VEGETABLE NURSERY?
Planting material like seedlings of vegetables, rooted cuttings (asparagus
and sweet potato), rhizomes (ginger), tubers (potato) and bulbs (onion and
garlic) are raised and conserved in such a nursery.

1.11 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT NURSERIES ON

THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE USED?
On the basis of structure used plant nurseries are of two types –
Open field nursery and hi-tech nursery.

OPEN FIELD NURSERY:

Such a nursery is established in open areas without any permanent
structure. Usually, raised, flat or sunken seedbeds are prepared. These are
vulnerable to natural environmental conditions.
HI-TECH NURSERY:
Such a nursery is established under protected structures. The protected
structures in which the nursery can be successfully raised are as follows.
Thatched roof: In this type of nursery, a thatched roof is constructed over
the nursery beds, which protects the seedlings from damage caused by
extreme wind, rain, heat, etc.
Shade-net: Such a nursery is raised under shade-net houses. To give
different amount of shade to plants based on their requirements, shade-
nets of different colours and mesh sizes are used as covering material.
Poly-tunnel: The nursery is covered with a plastic film or sheet to form a
tunnel. It is miniature structure, which produces greenhouse-like effect.
Besides not being expensive, it is easy to construct and dismantle. The
seedlings are protected from cold, wind, storm, rain and frost. Due to
modified conditions, there is better germination and plant growth.
Greenhouse or poly-house: It is a framed structure covered by poly-film
or shade-net so that the plants can grow under partially or completely
modified environment. Such structures are ventilated and may have
temperature and humidity controlling devices. The seedlings are raised
inside the structure on raised beds or in plug-trays, and also for hardening
of tissue cultural plants.

1.12 DEFINE GREENHOUSE IN PLANT NURSERY?

It is a framed structure covered by poly-film or shade-net so that the plants
can grow under partially or completely modified environment. Such
structures are ventilated and may have temperature and humidity
controlling devices. The seedlings are raised inside the structure on raised
beds or in plug-trays, and also for hardening of tissue cultural plants.

1.13 WHAT ARE THE REQUIRED BASIC FACILITIES FOR A NURSERY

LAYOUT?
Access and traffic flow: The nursery should be as compact as possible,
nearly square or regular in shape, to minimize the length of the boundary
fence and reduce the time loss in moving from one part of the nursery to
another. Roads provide access to the site and to growing fields. When
the site is developed, all access roads should be paved if possible; they
must be capable of taking heavy "semi" truck and tractor traffic in all kinds
of weather.

Parking areas must be evaluated and particular attention given to the

placing of a “loading ramp” to facilitate the loading of seedlings in vehicles
outside the nursery. Connecting points (entries and exits) to existing road
systems should be taken into account.

Administrative site: The administrative site could include administrative

offices although in most cases the FD office space will be used, but
certainly will need a storage area for equipment, seed, pesticides, other
chemicals, and fuels; water pump housing and seedling-processing
facilities. The type, number, and location of required buildings must also
be determined regarding production technologies used.

Other than for administrative uses, the site development will include
holding areas for irrigation water and a composting area, a protected
divided shed for compost, sand and other potting media ingredients, root
trainer cleaning and storage areas, a culled-seedling disposal area
(compost heap), an area for holding scrap material and used equipment.
In case where a clonal nursery has to be developed, an adjacent Clonal
Multiplication Area (CMA) has to be established.

The master plan: Once agreement has been reached on placement of

all structures and development begins, a master plan—a dynamic tool—
must be made to document the team decision.

Once the selection process and the nursery design has been completed,
this plan will stand as an illustrated document of site layout, indicating
growing areas, roads, buildings, outdoor storage areas, reservoirs,
streams, fences, neighbors, possible expansion areas for buildings, and
other site development.
1.14 WHAT ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR A GOOD
NURSERY?
LOCATION
A nursery must be located in a pollution-free environment — away from
brick kilns, smoke-emitting industries and rough motorized roads as dirt
and dust settle on plants, covering the foliage, which not only reduces the
photosynthetic efficiency of plants but also gives them a dull look. It must
be ensured that the nursery site gets adequate sunlight.
TOPOGRAPHY OF LAND
The topography of land at the nursery site must be even. If it is
undulating, it must be leveled. In hilly areas, it may be divided into leveled
terraces.
SOIL
The soil must preferably be loam or sandy loam with large quantity of
organic matter. The pH of the soil must be near neutral (6.5 – 7.5). It must
have adequate water retention capacity and aeration.
WATER
The quality of water used in a nursery is important for the growth of
plants. Saline and polluted water must not be used. It must be ensured
that there is adequate water supply for irrigation. Besides, the nursery
must be located near a water source so that there is no water scarcity at
any time in the course of raising plants.
DRAINAGE
The nursery site must have adequate drainage facility and be free from
water logging. Water must not stagnate at any time.
TRANSPORTATION
The nursery site must be accessible by road. It must not be far from
potential markets so that there is no damage to the seedlings during
transportation.
LABOUR
As nursery work is labour-intensive, the nursery site must have enough
number of labourers.
PROTECTION FROM ANIMALS

The nursery area must be protected by enclosures so as to prevent

damage to the plants by stray animals.

MARKET NEEDS AND SIZE

Market plays an important role in the success of nursery business. Various
type of inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, plant
growth regulators, poly bags, agricultural implements, different type of
spare parts and other miscellaneous items required in the nursery must be
available in the nearby market. The nursery must be located near the city
or an area from where people can purchase the plants. Alternatively, a
mechanism to explore domestic and international markets must also be
worked out for the success of nursery business.

1.15 DESCRIBE PLANT PROPAGATION STRUCTURES IN BRIEF?

For propagation, framed structures such as green house, poly
tunnels, culture room, hardening chamber and mist chamber are some
important structures. A greenhouse is a framed, infrastructure covered
with a transparent material in which crops can be grown under at least
partially controlled environment.
Various designs of greenhouse viz., shade net house, plastic film
green house, glass house and natural green houses may be designed
according to the need and resource availability.
SHADE NET HOUSE: A shade net nursery usually has 20 m x 10 m
dimensions. It is erected using GI pipes as a support. UV stabilized
HDPE green or black colour shade net of 50 to 75% shade intensity is
used to cover the nursery area at a height of 6.5 feet.
Wire grid is provided at the top of the structure as support for shade net.
To prevent insect entry, 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon insect proof net is
fitted on all the four sides of the nursery. Provision is also made to pull
polythene sheet over the pro-trays in the event of rainfall by way of
making low tunnel structure.
For preparing low cost polytunnel structure, 3/4" LDPE pipes and 400
gauge UV stabilized polyethylene sheet are used. Sometime bamboo
poles and polysheets may also be used.

GLASS/GREENHOUSES: Glass house is preferred when the

greenhouse is to be placed against the side of an existing building. It
makes best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirements for roof
supports. Consolidation of interior space reduces labor, lowers the cost of
automation, improves personnel management, and reduces energy
consumption.
Glass greenhouse is seldom used today because they are not adaptable
to automation. The construction cost of glass house is more than that of
plastic film greenhouses. Several styles of glass greenhouses are
designed to meet specific needs.
1.16 WRITE ABOUT THE BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS-2008)
RELATED TO NURSERY?
Different systems and standards of nursery are available for control
the quality measures. Since agricultural practices are highly localized
occupations they display a lot of variability in cultural practices and
varietal preferences across regions.
Further, with the opening up of the world market, there is a flow of
trade in the agricultural products. It is, therefore, necessary to define and
assign certain common minimum standards to facilitate trade in these
products and to win the confidence of the consumers within the country
and outside. This draft Indian Standard (Part 1) (Doc: FAD 22 (1949) C)
is first in a series of Indian Standards on Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP) to be developed.
General Quality Standards for Nursery Plants

 The shoot and root development of nursery plant should be in

proper ratio. The nursery plants should be free from weeds.
 Color of leaf, morphology of leaf should be in proper standard
in accordance to variety and species.
 The nursery plant should be free from disease and pest and have a
vigorous growth.
  The graft union should be healthy and the size of scion and
rootstock should be equal.
 After shifting and transporting, seedling should not show symptoms
like leaf drying, yellowing, stress, etc.

1.17 HOW TO PRODUCE GOOD QUALITY PROPAGULES?

Following are the steps to produce quality propagules:
 Seeds should be collected from seed orchard. If no seed orchard is
available for the species, selection of candidate plus tree has to be
done by comparison tree method and seed should be collected from
the Candidate plus Trees (CPTs) only.
 Well mature pod/fruits should be collected just prior to falling and
seeds should be extracted as early as possible without damage to the
seed. Using fresh seed for seedling raising purpose is generally
advocated. If seed has the viability period it can be stored and used. In
case of vegetative propagules fresh scion or buds should be collected
from the identified mother plant and used for grafting or budding within
12 hours.
 The seedling germination energy or grafting/budding success per
centage needs to be increased by following appropriate pre-sowing
and growth regulator treatments of seeds and vegetative
propagules respectively.
 Follow the standardized propagules management practices by placing
them in nursery beds or under shade net house.

1.18 WHAT IS SEXUAL PLANT PROPAGATION?

Sexual plant propagation means developing plant from seed. The
seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, which protects the
seed; the endosperm, which is a food reserve; and the embryo, which is
the young plant itself. When a mature seed is exposed to favourable
environment, it germinates and begins its active growth.
Seed Pre-sowing Treatments
Pre-sowing treatments are methods applied to overcome seed
dormancy to ensure rapid, uniform and timely seed germination that
facilitates seedling production. Pre- sowing treatments are applied to
seeds immediately before sowing. Most methods require only a few
minutes to 24 hours. However some pre-sowing methods require a few to
several days. Appropriate pre-sowing treatment methods depend on the
dormancy characteristics of the seed being treated.
The most common pre-sowing treatment methods are:
1. Soaking in cool water
2. Soaking in hot water
3. Boiled water treatment
4. Scarification (acid, mechanical, manual) methods
5. Fire or heating methods
6. Soaking in chemicals
7. Alternate wetting and drying

Advantages of Sexual Plant Propagation

 It is the easiest and least expensive method of plant propagation.
 Seedling trees are harder and have longer life span.

 Plants which are difficult to propagate by vegetative method

e.g. Papaya, phalsa, coconut, etc. can only be propagated by
seed.

 The rootstocks for budding and grafting are obtained by

means of sexual propagation.
 Sexually propagated plants are more resistant to pests and disease.
 Polyembryonic varieties (give rise to more than one seedling from
one seed) can be propagated by seed.
Disadvantages of Sexual Plant Propagation
 Seedlings take more time to bear fruits (late bearing).
  Quality of existing plants cannot be improved by sexual propagation.
 Plants propagated sexually are large in size, thus the cost of
manuring, pruning and spraying increases.
 Due to cross pollination and segregation, there is no assurance about
genetic purity of plant.
 Identification of sex in seedling is not possible.

1.19 WHAT IS ASEXUAL PLANT PROPAGATION?

Vegetative parts of plants such as leaves, stems, and roots
are used for propagation. These plants may be taken from single
mother plant or other plants. The vegetative methods most often
used to produce trees are cuttings, air layering, grafting and micro-
propagation. It requires the explants from the improved/selected
mother tree.

Advantages of Asexual Plant Propagation

 Plants propagated by this method are true to type and uniform in
growth, yield and quality of fruits
 Some fruits such as banana, pineapple, seedless guava and
seedless grape varieties can only be propagated through
vegetative means
 Vegetative propagated fruit tree comes into bearing earlier than
seed propagated plants and have assured genetic configurations
 Plants produced are of manageable size and have uniform fruits
making harvesting easy
 Some diseases can be avoided in susceptible varieties by grafting
them on a resistant rootstock e.g. use of Rangpur lime as
rootstock for budding Mandarin orange to avoid gummosis
disease
 Repairing of damaged portion of plant is possible by asexual
methods through bridge grafting or buttressing. These methods can
be used for healing of the wounds caused by rodents
 Inferior quality crown of the existing plants can be improved. For
example, side grafts and crown grafting in mango
  It is possible to grow multiple varieties on the same plant. One can
grow numerous varieties of roses and mangoes on different
branches of the same stock
 Number of plant per hectare is more due to its small canopy and
restricted growth
 Vegetative propagation helps in rapid multiplication with modern
techniques like tissue culture and other micro propagation
techniques
Disadvantages of Asexual Plant Propagation
 Plants propagated by this method are not hardy and fall easy
prey to adverse conditions of soil, climate, diseases, pests, etc.
 It is difficult and more expensive method of propagation in some
plants like papaya, coconut, etc.
 Plants are generally not so vigorous and long lived as seedling
plants and they require special skill for propagation
 Hybridization in these plants is not possible because there is
no variation in the progeny; these methods are not suitable for
development of a new variety.

1.20 WHAT IS MICRO- PROPAGATION?

Micro-propagation is vegetative propagation under in vitro

conditions wherein plants are propagated using miniature plant tissues
called explants grown aseptically in test tube or other container. Micro-
propagation offers a rapid means for producing planting stock on a mass
scale from a single nodal explant or seed or callus raised from explants.
Micro-propagation has the advantages of small space requirement, high
multiplication rate, freedom from seasonal influences and freedom from
microbes.
In micro-propagation, generally, nodal shoot segments or shoot
tips are exploited to form multiple shoots on appropriate nutrient medium.
The growth controls that operate in an intact plant can be broken down or
eliminated under in vitro conditions, leading to profuse production of
shoots from a single initial explant. The shoots can be separated and
rooted to give rise to entire plantlet.
. Generally, micro-propagation is approached in three ways-
enhanced axillary bud break, adventitious bud differentiation and somatic
embryogenesis. Regeneration from fascicular meristems has been
achieved from juvenile as well as mature tissues in many species.
Propagation via adventitious meristems involves the induction of unipolar
shoots on explants followed by shoot excision and induction of root
meristem.
Stimulation of axillary meristems into shoots, the most commonly
used method for mass propagation of plant species, is accomplished by
hormonal treatment of explant. The process involves four major steps
namely induction/establishment, multiplication of shoots, rooting of shoots
and hardening and acclimatization of plantlets. Establishment is the most
important and crucial step determining the success of the protocol.

Usually nodal segments containing quiescent axillary buds are

collected from young actively growing branches followed by sterilization
and culture on synthetic nutrient medium. Explants from trees of different
age groups exhibit difference in their in vitro response. Living plant
materials from the environment are naturally contaminated on their
surfaces (and sometimes interiors) with microorganisms, so surface
sterilization of explants is done using chemical solutions (sodium or
calcium hypochlorite, mercuric chloride).
In case of severe contaminations, seeds can be raised aseptically
or if possible, the mother plants can be transferred to green house at
least 2 months before explant collection. The sterilized explants are
inoculated on semi-solid agar gelled/ liquid medium containing organic
and inorganic nutrients, carbon source, growth regulators, etc. In addition
to providing nutrients the medium provides access to atmosphere for gas
exchange; dumping ground for plant metabolites; support for erect growth
and maintains osmotic potential.
Many nutrient media have been formulated by various research
groups while working on different plant systems in the past. To name a
few important ones are- Murashige and Skoog's medium, Gamborg's
medium, Nitsch and Nitsch medium, Woody Plant medium (Lloyd and
McCown's) and White's medium. High mortality may be observed upon
transfer of microshoots to ex-vitro conditions if proper hardening and
acclimatization is not done.
Tissue culture protocol of Fruits (banana, grapes, pineapple,
strawberry, sapota), Cash crops (sugarcane, potato), Spices (turmeric,
ginger, vanilla, large cardamom, small cardamom), Medicinal plants (Aloe
vera, geranium, stevia, patchouli, neem), and Ornamentals (Gerbera,
carnation, Anthurium, lily, Syngonium, Cymbidium) have been perfected
and used commercially.

1.21 WRITE ABOUT NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FOR TIMBER AND

INDUSTRIAL WOOD TREE SPECIES?

Timber and Industrial Wood Tree Species

Acacia nilotica: Freshly collected seeds are sown in polybags

(after pre-sowing treatment) at 1.5cm depth during Feb-March. Shading
is necessary to prevent surface drying. Avoid excessive watering in the
first month. Seedlings are fit for planting out in July-August of the same
year. Any way one year old seedlings are good for planting in the field.

Ailanthus excelsa: Fresh seed is sown in well worked raised nursery

beds, in drills about 20 cm apart, and lightly covered with finely pulverized
soil; depth of sowing being not more than 5 mm. Seed being minute is
mixed with ash or fine soil to ensure even sowing. Seed beds are
irrigated regularly but lightly as the seedlings are liable to damping off.
Germination commences in about 10-12 days and taken about 50 days to
complete. Young seedlings are susceptible to insect and rat damages. In
order to avoid it, porcupine proof fencing of nursery is helpful. Seedlings
raised in the containers attain 15-25 cm height in the first growing
season, while the subsequent growth is more rapid.
Albizia lebbeck: Seedlings can be raised by sowing in drills 15 cm apart
in the nursery beds in March, or in containers. Germination commences
in 4 days and is complete in 17 days. Prick out seedlings into polybags
when they attain 7.5 cm tall. Seedlings growth is fast and is susceptible to
insect attack also. Seedlings reach plantable size in July of the same
year.
Azadirachta indica: Depulped, fresh, dried seeds are sown in nursery
raised bed, in lines 15- 20 cm apart at 1 cm depth. Nursery beds are
watered sparingly; weeded, hoed and protected against frost in winter.
Germination starts in about a week and continues for 3 weeks.
Plantable size seedlings (20-30 cm tall) are produced in 2-3 months. But
the pricked out seedlings are maintained in the nursery for one year to
increase its field performance.
Bamboo spp.: Bamboo reproduces themselves naturally from seed
fallen on the ground after sporadic or gregarious flowering, also from the
rhizome buds, throwing up culms as annual shoots. Bamboo can be
propagated in the nursery by direct sowing of seeds, planting nursery
raised container or bare rooted seedlings, and by vegetative means. Most
common method of vegetative reproduction is by rhizome or offset
planting; other methods are layering, nodal cuttings and culm cuttings.
Dalbergia sissoo: Broken pod segments (dewinged pods) or clean seeds
are sown about 1.25 cm deep in nursery beds, 0.9 m to 1.2 m wide, flat, or
sunken beds during Feb- March. Sowing may be done any time between
mid-February and September, but late sowings give lesser growth. Bed
needs to be irrigated at least twice in a month.

For planting out, 3-4 months old entire plants, when about 60 cm tall are
suitable; for making stump 12-16 months old stocks are preferred. Before
digging out plants, most of the lower leaves are stripped off to reduce
transpiration.

Dendrocalamus strictus: Seed is broadcast in raised nursery beds, 10 m

x 1 m, in September - October; seed rate being approximately 1.5 kg per
bed. Germination takes 10-20 dates; seedlings when about 3 months old
and 4-5 cm tall, are pricked out in polythene bags. Seeds may also be
sown direct in polythene bags. Seedlings with 45-60 cm tall are fit for
planting out during following July.

Eucalyptus spp.: For raising container plants seed is first sown in raised
nursery beds and then pricked out into polythene bags, after germination.
About 200g seed is sown per germination bed of 10 m x 1 m size, during
September-October or after Feb-March after winter frost.
To avoid dense sowing, seed is mixed with fine sand or earth, and given
a light covering of fine sand; Chlorpyriphos @ 100g per bed is advised to
protect seeds from insect damage. Germinating beds are covered with
thatch grass to prevent drying out and minimize bird's damage, or direct
impact of water spray of a chance shower of rain.
Germination takes place within 5-15 days, and then thatch is removed.
Seedlings are pricked out into polythene bags when about 5-10 cm tall,
normally 4-6 weeks after germination. These bags are placed in sunken
beds and watered regularly to its 30-45 cm height and are fit for planting
in 6-8 months.
Eucalyptus is also propagated by two leafy cuttings which require mist
chamber and other propagation hardware. This ensures true to type
propagules and higher productivity.

Gmelina arborea: Seed is sown in drills, as soon as it ripens, in nursery

beds; shading is necessary. Germination starts in 2-3 weeks. Seedlings
are transplanted in to polybags and maintained up to 6 months for its
height growth till > 20 cm.
Tectona grandis: Commonest type in moist area is the temporary
nursery, while dry and irrigated nursery is recommended, for dry and
drought prone areas. The soil is well dug up, mixed with ashes, in a well-
drained site. Standard size of bed is 12 m x 12 m raised bed in moist
localities to avoid water logging and flat or slightly sunken bed in dry zone
is advised.
Pre sowing treated seeds are sown in broadcast or 7.7 x 7.5 cm lines,
about one cm deep, between February and May. Seedlings are pricked
out in transplant beds during the first rains and one year old seedlings are
suitable for the stump preparation. 1.0 to 2.0 cm collar diameter; 3-4
months old seedlings are suitable for planting.

1.22 WRITE ABOUT NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FOR FUEL WOOD

TREE SPECIES?

Fuel Wood Tree Species

Acacia auriculiformis: Seeds requires pre-treatment, either 24-48
hours immersion in water at room temperature or boiled water for 24 hrs.
Sowing in bed/polythene bag (20 cm x 15 cm size) during March to early
April is suggested. Seed is sprinkled with kerosene oil to protect against
ants.
Germination starts in 30-35 days. A thatch barrier on one side of bed is
needed to protect the young seedlings against hot winds. 15-30 cm tall
seedlings are ready for planting in the fields.
Acacia senegal: Seeds are sown in polythene bags filled in with a
mixture of good loamy soil and FYM in the ratio of 2:1 during June-July.
One year old entire seedlings are planted out in the following monsoon.
Seedlings should be protected against drought and frost by regular
watering.

Casuarina equisetifolia: Nursery soil should be inoculated with soil

collected from Casuarina plantation, and quinalphos sprinkled around
beds to prevent ant damage, seed is sown broadcast @ 10 g/sq. m size
bed, usually in November, and lightly covered. Beds are mulched with
straw and watered daily till germination is complete (20-30 days). Seedling
are fit for planting when 35-45 cm tall in 5-6 months.

Pongamia pinnata: Seed is dibbled in the nursery beds any time after
collection, preferably in the beginning of hot weather at a spacing of 7.5
cm x 15 cm. Mulching of sown beds is helpful. Germination commences
after about 10 days and completes in a month.

Pricking out improves growth. Seedlings attain a growth of 25-30 cm by

the end of first growing season, and of about 60 cm by the beginning of
the next rainy season, when they may be planted out entire, with ball of
earth, or in the form of stumps.

Prosopis cineraria: Pre-sowing treated (acid scarification for 12-15

minutes) seed is sown in soil filled perforated polythene bags; 2 seeds in
each, I cm deep, in June-July. Regular watering is necessary, but
excessive watering is harmful. Seedlings are regularly weeded; if two
emerge, one of the two seedlings is removed. They reach planting size
after one year.

Thorn-less and sweet pod Prosopis variety: Hand extracted seeds

from well ripened yellow colour pods of non-thorny sweet pod Prosopis
plant type has to be presowing treated by acid scarification by H 2SO4 for
15-20 minutes. Seeds will start germinating after 4 th day and germination
is upto 80-85%. The seedlings raised by the seeds collected from the
non-thorny Prosopis mother plants will also produce about 13-15% of
thorny Prosopis plant type too.
The seedlings will attain the field plantable size (more than 30 cm height)
within six months of seed sowing. In order to raise sweet pod plant type
plantation, the non-thorny seedlings only should be used for planting.

1.23 WRITE ABOUT NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FOR FODDER

SPECIES?

Fodder Tree Species

Acacia leucophloea: Seeds soaked in cold water for 24 hrs are used to
sow in nursery. Germination starts after a week and is complete within a
month, then they are transplanted to the polybags. The seedlings are
ready for planting after six months of nursery period.

Albizia procera: Treated seeds (hot water or cold water soaking for 12
hrs) are sown in nursery beds in drills 7.5 x 7.5 cm during May. Light
watering is given for about a week. Germination commences in 3 to 4
days and completes in 3 weeks. Seedlings attain about 13-15 cm height
in July of the same year, are fit for planting out, with or without ball of
earth, during rains.
Leucaena leucocephala: Seeds require inoculation with Rhizobium
culture to ensure nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Plants may be raised in
nursery beds or containers. Preferably inoculated seeds are sown in beds
in March-April, in lines spaced 30 cm apart and seeds 5 cm apart in lines
and about 1.2 to 1.5 cm deep.

Nursery soil should be neutral to mildly alkaline. Beds are irrigated

regularly but lightly. Germination commences in 4-6 days and the
seedlings attain plantable size by July-August.

Moringa oleifera: Seed is sown in June, in sunken nursery beds, in lines

20 cm apart, seeds about 2 cm apart in lines and just, about 1 cm deep.
Addition of well rotten compost to the nursery bed is beneficial. The
required seed rate is 30-35 g/sq. m of bed. Germination starts in about 8-
10 days and takes 4 weeks to complete. The seedlings are fit for planting
out, and also for making stumps after one year.
Sesbania grandiflora: Seeds are sown in polythene bags after collection
in May and watered regularly. Germination starts on the third day of
sowing and will complete within a week to ten days. Seedlings grow very
rapidly and are fit for planting out in about one to two months.

Ziziphus spp.: Treated seed are sown broadcast, or in lines in nursery

beds, or directly into containers, in February-March, and covered with soil
to a depth of 1.5 to 2.0 cm. Seedlings are pricked out into transplanted
beds/containers at the 4-leaf stage, at a spacing of 30 x 15 cm.
Plants attains plantable size (>30 cm) in the first or second rains.
Cultivated varieties are usually propagated by ring grafting or budding on
wild root- stocks, either in-situ or in the nursery seedlings.
UNIT 2 – ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND
IMPACTS

2.1 Write about Human population growth and its impacts on

environment?
Nursery beds can be prepared in three different ways: Sunken bed, Level
bed and Raised bed.
SUNKEN BED

SUNKEN BED

 The soil of the seedbed needs to be sterilized by soil solarisation or

with chemicals to avoid contamination by pests and diseases.
 The soil of the nursery bed is thoroughly mixed with rotten farmyard
manure.
 This type of nursery bed is prepared in dry and windy areas.
 In dry areas, the bed is kept 10−15 cm below the ground level, which
helps in conserving water.
  Sunken bed facilitates the deposition of irrigation water or rainwater
for a longer time.
 In case of water scarcity, this type of bed helps to conserve the
moisture.
 Such a bed can be easily irrigated during dry season.

 A sunken bed provides protection to the seedlings during high wind

conditions as they are covered.
LEVEL BED

 The soil of the seedbed must be sterilised by soil solarisation or with

chemicals to avoid contamination by pests and diseases.
 After soil preparation, the recommended dose of manure and
fertilizers is mixed in the nursery bed.
 For efficient management, the whole area is divided into uniform size
of small beds.
 Usually, a flat bed is 1-metre wide and has length according to the
slope of the field.
 Irrigation channels are prepared between the rows of the beds
through which each bed is connected. These also act as drainage
channels in case of heavy rain or excess irrigation.
 Such a bed is prepared during non-rainy season (summer and
winter) so that there is no water logging.
 Adequate drainage provision is made and preference for sandy or
sandy loam soil is given when preparing a flat bed.
RAISED BED
 RAISED BED

 Such a nursery bed is prepared during the rainy season.

 The land is leveled and made free of weeds, stumps, stones,
pebbles, etc.
 The soil of the nursery bed is thoroughly mixed with 5−10 kg per
sqm rotten farmyard manure.
 This type of bed is prepared about 15 cm high from the ground level.
The width is kept at 1−1.5 m and length 3−5 m. This enables
adequate drainage during rains and checks water stagnation.
 A space of 3−4 cm is left between two beds in order to carry out
cultural practices smoothly.

2.2 WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING

PREPARATION OF NURSERY BEDS?
A nursery bed needs to be prepared carefully so that uniform and healthy
seedlings are obtained for planting. The following precautions must be
taken while preparing a nursery bed.
 The nursery bed is, generally, used to germinate sown seeds or
for rooting of cuttings planted in the soil. Besides nutrition,
 sufficient moisture and aeration are important factors that affect
seedling growth.
 The nursery bed must be prepared in fertile soil rich in organic
matter content, having adequate drainage and aeration. Soil
having more water retention capacity does not need frequent
irrigation.
 Excess irrigation in sunken or flat bed may lead to rotting of
seeds, seedlings and damping-off incidence. Watering of the bed
depends on the type of soil. Sandy soil needs frequent watering.
 Soil-borne infections caused by nematodes, insect-pests and
pathogens may be avoided by treating the soil in different feasible
ways.
 Generally, the width of the nursery bed must not be more than 1
metre and the length must be according to the slope of the soil,
so that when irrigated, the water reaches every corner of the bed
and the whole bed gets irrigated.

 Since the seedlings are tender and prone to heat shock, the beds
must be prepared at a site receiving partial shade. In tropical and
subtropical India, direct sunlight facing site must be avoided.

2.3 EXPLAIN CHARACTERISTICS, TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF

GROWING MEDIA USED FOR PLANT NURSERY?

GROWING MEDIUM
The material in which plants grow in pots is known as ‘potting material’,
while the substrate or medium used to grow plants is called ‘growing
medium’. The choice of the type of potting material is important as the
growth of plants largely depends on it.
Functions of growing medium
• It supplies nutrients, air and water to the roots of plants.
• It retains necessary water in the soil, while excess is drained out.
• It provides physical support to plants.
• It facilitates maximum root growth.
Characteristics of growing medium
 • The medium must have adequate aeration, drainage and water-
holding capacity.
• It must not be too heavy to lift.
• The medium must be slightly acidic to neutral, i.e., pH of 6 – 6.5
being satisfactory in most cases.
• It must be free of weeds, pests and pathogens.
• It must be easily available.
• It must not be too expensive.

Types of growing medium

The main function of growing medium is to supply nutrients, air and water
to the roots of a plant. It supports the plant physically and holds it in
upright position, allowing growth against the gravitational force. For the
above two functions, it is necessary that the medium facilitates the growth
of roots within it.

The chemical composition, as well as, physical structure of the medium

favours the growth of the plant. Different types of growing medium are
used as per the requirement of plants.
Garden soil

Light and sandy loam soil must be used as growing medium, while silty
or clayey soils are not preferred due to poor aeration and stickiness. The
soil contains both organic and inorganic matter. When the soil is used as
a medium, it may contain disease-causing pathogens, along with weed
seeds, which is a serious problem in growing crops. The soil is easily
available and comparatively a cheaper medium used in a nursery.
Sand

Large particle size makes this medium more porous, aerated and well-
drained. The water-holding capacity of this medium decreases with an
increase in the size of the particles. The usual size of sand is 0.05–2
mm.
Quartz sand is a useful growing medium but it lacks in nutrient content. It
is relatively inexpensive and heavy. Generally, it is mixed with soil and
used as a well-drained porous medium.
Compost

Compost is formed due to the decomposition of organic matter. Leaves,

grass clippings, bagasse, litter, wood waste, rice husk, sawdust and
farmyard manure are some of the common ingredients used for
preparing compost. Compost contains nutrients that plants need for
growth. Vermicompost is a supplement that is added to a growing
medium.

Sphagnum moss

Commercial sphagnum moss is a dehydrated by-product of bog

plants of genus Sphagnum. Commonly used moss grass is
comparatively light in weight, acidic in reaction, sterile in nature and
has sufficient water-holding capacity. Hence, it is commercially used
as a rooting medium in air layering.
Peat

Peat consists of residues from marsh swamp and organic nitrogen. It

helps in fast vegetative growth and is commonly used for growing
newly rooted cuttings or newly germinated seeds.
Coir peat or coco peat

Coir peat is obtained from coir’s fibre dust. It is acidic in nature and
has a pH of about 5. It has a high water retention capacity.
Vermiculite
 Vermiculite is chemically hydrated magnesium aluminum iron silicate. It is
produced by heat treatment of mica. It is porous in nature and light in
weight. It has adequate water-holding capacity.
Perlite

Perlite is a natural mineral of volcanic origin, which is light in weight. Its pH

is, usually, neutral to slightly alkaline.
Sawdust

It is the by-product of sawmills. It is easily available and cheap. It is poor

in nutrient content but can be used after adding nitrogen.

2.4 DEFINE GROWING MEDIUM IN PLANT NURSERY?

The material in which plants grow in pots is known as ‘potting material’,
while the substrate or medium used to grow plants is called ‘growing
medium’. The choice of the type of potting material is important as the
growth of plants largely depends on it.

Functions of growing medium

• It supplies nutrients, air and water to the roots of plants.
• It retains necessary water in the soil, while excess is drained out.
• It provides physical support to plants.
• It facilitates maximum root growth.

Characteristics of growing medium

• The medium must have adequate aeration, drainage and water-
holding capacity.
• It must not be too heavy to lift.
• The medium must be slightly acidic to neutral, i.e., pH of 6 – 6.5
being satisfactory in most cases.
• It must be free of weeds, pests and pathogens.
• It must be easily available.
• It must not be too expensive.

2.5 WHAT ARE THE NURSERY TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN

PLANT NURSERY?
For carrying out day-to-day routine cultural operations in the nursery,
various tools, implements and accessories are required. Some tools are
simple and are used for simple operations, whereas for carrying out
specific operations, special types of equipments are required. Tools for
land preparation and other basic works are:

Kudali: It is a simple but important tool used for digging of soil, pits or any
basic digging work prior to preparation of nursery beds. It has a metal
(iron) blade attached to a wooden handle. It is operated manually.

Garden fork: Garden fork is used for breaking of soil clods and

separation of medium size soil during preparation of nursery bed or fields.
Weeding fork: It loosens the soil and helps in weeding also. It consists of
a long handle with a blade of handle teeth. It is drawn manually with the
help of handle to collect the weeds and cops of plants etc.

Crow bar: It is an iron rod with one end pointed and other as a wedge
shaped. It is used for digging out large or hand boulders from the soil and
digging of pits. It is also used for breaking hard soil pan.

Shovel: It has iron blade of spoon shape and wooden handle and is used
for within field transport of dug out soil required for leveling of field for
preparation of nursery beds.

Pick-Axe: It is made of carbon steel. Pick axe has two edges with
provision of axial hole for attachment with handle. One edge of pick –axe
is pointed and another is broadened. Pick axe is used for digging hard,
compact and stony soils.

Spade: It is used for lifting and turning the soil. Also used for digging the
pit, preparing channel for irrigation and drainage lines.

Hoe-cum-Rake: It is of rectangular shape metal blade with fork like fore

edge. It is used for digging, hoeing, earthing, leveling and collecting
weeds.
Furrow opener: It is used for opening narrow and shallow furrow after
sowing seeds in nursery.

Hand leveler: It consists of narrow rectangular metal blade attached to

long wooden handle.

Trowel (Khurpi): It is of shovel shape but small in size with iron blade
and wooden handle. It can be made in many shapes as per local designs
and requirements. It is used for hoeing, weeding and nursery plants and
also for transplanting seedlings.

Axe: Iron blade, fastened to wooden handle. It is used for felling trees and
cutting branches.

Bill Hook (Darat): It is made of iron curved at the far end or used for
cutting hardy branches of plant and other woody shrubs in the field.

Sickle: It is used for cutting grass and leafy vegetables.

Wheel-Barrow: It is manually operated small trolly, used for carrying
nursery plants, compost, fertilizes, leaf litter, horticultural produce, stones
etc. from one place to another place.

Cultivator: It is a tractor drawn implement used for tilling the soil

efficiently. It has tynes of quality carbon comprising of different sizes
depending upon the plough depth. These days, hand driven small
cultivator is more popular. It can plough upto ½ to 1 feet depth.

Disc harrow: It is used for pulverizing the soil. It is also used for turning
crop residues, weeds and other debris in the soil. It is used for deep
ploughing and turning of soil.

GRAFTING AND BUDDING TOOLS

Knife: Knives having combined blade for grafting and budding purposes.

A grafting/budding knife has a straight 7.5cm long blade and strong long
handle. It has a spatula at the end of a handle, which is used for lifting the
bark during budding operation.
Sometimes knife has two parallel double blades, used specially for lifting
or removing the patch of a bud from the budwood. Generally these knives
have either a folding or fixed blade. The blade of knife should be made
from high carbon steel and should always be very sharp.
Secateurs: Secateurs are considered as the most important tool for a
propagator or a nurseryman. It is used for removing scions, lopping off the
rootstock, preparation of scion sticks, removal of undesirable
shoots/sprouts from the stock and training and pruning operations. The
blades of secateurs should be of high quality carbon blade for giving
smooth cuts to the stock and scions.
Grafting machines: Many machines have been developed and
commercially used for the preparation of scion sticks and bud wood for
budding and grafting operation in many developed countries. However,
these machines are not very common in India.
Pruning saw: Several types of saws are required for performing different
operations involved in propagation of horticultural plants. The commonly
used are crescent saws, tapered saws and straight saws. All of them
have long and widely set teeth to facilitate pruning or cutting of green
wood. Its blades should be narrow so that it can pass through the narrow
or closely spaced branches.
Ladders: In propagation work, ladder is required for operations like
cutting of bud wood, training of vigorous plants, performing layering
operations and top working of declining plants. In general, step ladder or
straight ladder or hook ladders are used for such operations in the field of
propagation.

Tying and wrapping materials: It is essential to hold scion and stock

firmly together to have successful graft/bud union. For this purpose a
suitable tying or wrapping material is required. Generally polyethylene
tapes/strips, waxed string and cloth, raffia fibro and rubber strips are used
for this purpose. In addition, adhesive tapes similar to surgical adhesive
tapes but lighter in weight are also used by commercial nursery men.

Grafting wax: Wax is used by propagator to seal the graft union for

preventing moisture loss and desiccation of cells at cut surface and to
prevent the decay of wood by way of checking the entry of pathogens.
Waxes are of two types i) Hot wax ii) Cold wax.
Labels: Labels are used for proper labeling of plants, before sale. Labels
may be made of paper, card board, wooden, celluloid, aluminum and
plastic etc.
Pots: Pots of different shapes and sizes are used in nursery. They may
be of clay, metal or plastic usually 10cm, 15cm or 20cm for single
specimen. Pots are of different types, tube pots, ¼ size,1/2 size,3/4 size
and full size, thali and urn. These are used for potting ornamental plants,
fruit plants, saplings etc. Iron pots/ plastic pots are used for irrigation
purpose also.
Spray-pumps: To spray protective material i.e.
insecticides/pesticides/fungicides to eliminate the infection of pathogens
or insects, spray pumps are very important tools. Pumps are of different
shapes, size and types.
 Commonly used sprays are knap-sack sprayer, rocker sprayer, foot
sprayer, hand sprayers or power sprayers. Depending upon the volume of
nursery and specific purpose different types of sprayers are put in
operation.
Chain saw: It operates using fuel (petrol/kerosene). It aid to cut wood
logs of bigger size and lopping of branches and shoots.
Chain weeder: It is operated by petrol/diesel/kerosene. It is used to slash
the weeds on large scale.
Rose can: A tubular pipe with rose i.e. fitted into the can through which
water is sprinkled over the nursery beds until the germination of seeds
and to avoid splashing of seeds from the nursery beds due to loose pipe
irrigation and flood irrigation.

Iron pan: It is made of iron and used for transporting pot mixtures, potted
plants through head load from one place to another for short distance.
Hose pipe: This is available in convenient length. Irrigation to nursery
plants is made possible to any extent.
Pruning shear: It is made of iron fitted with wooden handle. It is used to
prune unwanted branches, collection of scion, trimming of the edges and
hedges and topiary work.
Scythe: It is long knifed, fitted with wooden handle. It is used for slashing
of weeds.

CONTAINERS: Made up of polythene (bags, pots, and root trainers), clay

(pots) or iron material. Polybags are the cheap containers, while root
trainers are user friendly, easy to handle and transport.

2.6 WRITE ABOUT THE SEEDS AND OTHER VEGETATIVE

MATERIAL USED TO RAISE PLANTS IN BRIEF?
Tropical plants can be regenerated either sexually (from seeds) or
asexually (from vegetative portions of a donor plant). These sources are
collectively called “propagules” and link the evolutionary processes of the
past with the potential for future adaptation.
 Thus, the way propagules are collected, processed, and treated can have
strong repercussions on the future health and diversity of tropical
ecosystems.
Matching propagule source with outplanting site and collecting a
genetically and, when necessary, sexually diverse group of propagules
ensure the future adaptability of the plants and success of reforestation
and restoration projects.
Tropical seeds can be classified based on dormancy and potential for
storage. Viviparous seeds germinate before dispersal from the mother
plant. Recalcitrant seeds can germinate immediately once dispersed from
the mother plant but loses viability when dried. Similarly, intermediate
seeds can germinate immediately upon dispersal, but they also retain
viability after some drying.
Orthodox seeds can be dried without losing viability because they are
“dormant.” A variety of methods exist to treat seeds to ensure
germination. Methods for planting properly treated seeds include direct
sowing of seeds, sowing germinants (sprouts), or transplanting
emergents. Whichever technique yields the most efficient use of nursery
resources depends on the species and the abundance and quality of the
seeds.
Vegetative propagation uses stems, leaves, roots, or other portions of a
single mother (donor) plant to produce genetically identical daughter
plants and is commonly employed if seeds are unavailable or difficult to
germinate or if some special characteristic of the donor plant needs to be
exploited. Vegetative propagation is usually more labor intensive than
seed propagation and therefore more expensive, especially if special
propagation structures are required.
The best portion of the mother plant to use, as well the best timing for
collection and proper propagule treatment, varies by species and requires
experience to discern. While some species readily grow from stem
cuttings, others grow better from root cuttings, divisions, or layering.
Grafting and micropropagation are options for rare and endangered
species or others that are difficult to propagate by other methods.

2.7 WRITE ABOUT THE OUTLINES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 TECHNIQUES TO PRODUCE PLANTING MATERIAL?
Vegetative propagation is a process in which plants reproduce from
stems, roots and leaves. It is a form of asexual reproduction seen in plants. In
fact, horticulturists use propagation methods such as grafting and budding to
improve the plants. It is of two types - Natural vegetative propagation and
Artificial vegetative propagation.

NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Epiphyllous Bud
The leaf encourages the growth of small buds in plants like Bryophyllum or
the piggyback rose. Such buds will start to form roots. As the shoots split
away from the initial vine, they fall to the ground and take up the root.
Cytokinins building up on the boundary of the leaves stimulate cell division
into the notches for adventure shooting.

Scaly Bulbs
The bulb is the basis of vegetative production for plants like garlic, onions,
flak, tulip and hyacinth. The stem is reduced to a disk that is often referred
to as the base plate from which roots fall to the bottom.
On the top, surface of the stem is attached to the leaf bases. In subsequent
years, the axillary buds persistently found at the node (where the blades
are attached) can become new bulbs.
So if you grow a daffodil bulb, a couple of years later, there are different
bulbs vying for fertilizer, space and access to the light. The flowering can
be decreased as many years pass by without having the gardener (in late
summers) to dig and remove the competitive bulbs. Many a time, when you
glance closely, you find that one onion is “two” bulbs.

Corms
“Bulbs” are really nothing like onions inside the gladiolus and crocus.
Corms are found in these animals. The corm is basal layer without the
foundation of the root. The roots also come to life on a convex (low) surface
at the bottom of the disk-like corm. On the virtually concave (upper)
surface, axillary and apical buds of the shooting system are found.
For the next year, each of them will turn into a new corm. At the top surface
of the original corm, this accumulation of corms again allows a clump of
corms to compete. So, in later summers, you just have to dig it and stretch
it out for the succeeding year if your crocus corms avoid flooring after a few
years.

Tubers
The Jerusalem artichoke and potato (Solanum tuberosum) have tubers.
Throughout late summer, leafless, underground branches known as
rhizomes enter the thick levels of soil near the base of the original plant. In
the fall, a bloated structure called a tuber extends to the tip points of the
rhizomes.
As this is the tip of a vine, it is not unusual that its surface is packed with
apical and many anaxilla buds. These are commonly referred to as
“heads.” Next year, each of these buds can become a new plant. In fact,
only one good tuber can start a whole range of potato plants.

Stolons
Strawberries make a branch (shoot) over ground with very small leaves.
Such near-free divisions are referred to as stolons. This produces a small
plantlet, the top of the crown (apical palm). The crown rises and raises the
stolon’s top. When the crown curves the stolon approaching the earth, the
auxin accumulates and roots begin to form. The branches reach and root
the crown into the earth when it touches the ground.
Tip Layer
Blackberry and Black Raspberry plants can propagate through curving
shoots which finally touch the soil. Auxins are built there by rubbing the
stem on the soil and by positioning the stem horizontally alongside the soil
surface. The auxins lead to the formation of the heart.
The roots that form contain multiple cytokinins. Such compounds cause
additional firing. The twist of archery shoots and rooting of tips produces a
very thick’ dry forest.’ The briar patch hence formed may be a serious
obstacle to the passage if you introduce rocking along the bottom.

Root Sprouts
The root sprouts may be produced by red raspberries and most of the
shrubs. Cytokinins are the origin of many plants. The cytokinins get
collected in the roots and cause the formation of the shoots. A new shoot
may start to grow near the base of the shrub. The fresh shoot is classified
as a “root” sprout or “sucker” which can make a big number together. The
spicebush and clethra alnifolia (sweet pepper bush) grows naturally in
Connecticut wetlands in this manner.

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants where a
new plant originates from a parent plant fragment or from a specific
breeding system derived from the base, root or leaf. The following are a
few significant methods of plant artificial vegetative spread:
CUTTING
Stem cutting: a piece of stem from the parent plant, including at least one
leaf node, is partly buried in the soil where the new roots come from. For
example, rose, sugar cane etc.
Root cutting: A root part is buried below the surface of the soil, and new
shoots are to be developed. For instance for lemon, fig, etc.
Leaf-cutting: A leaf of puddles is inserted into the moist soil and both fresh
stem and roots must be formed. At the base of the leaf, a new plant
emerges. Bryophyllum, for starters, for Begonia

LAYERING
The development process for roots on a stem or branch is called layering,
while still attached to the plant. The rooted stalk is then untied into a new
plant that grows on its own roots and is known as a layer. Layering is more
complicated than cutting, but it has the benefit that the spread portion of the
parent plant receives water and nutrients while forming roots.
Simple layering: A younger plant’s lower branch is attached to the base,
so a node will touch the ground. The node is weakened and protected by
soil that leaves the end of the branch exposed (6-12 inches). Roots are
extracted in a few weeks from the buried portion, after which the layer is
removed and transplanted somewhere else from the mother plant. For
example: Rhododendron, jasmine and so on.
Compound layering: Compound layering is identical to plain layering, but
2 or 3 wounded nodes are filled with soil rather than covering the wounded
node with soil. The protected nodes contrast with open unprotected nodes
where new shootings will take place above the level. Each section can be
cut down along the branch, which shapes many plants after roots mature.
For starters, guava, raisins, tomatoes etc.
Tip layering: It is close to a flat sheet in which a complete 3-4 inches deep
was drilled and soil is deposited in the tip of the current season. The tip first
goes down, then curves sharply and grows up.
Roots develop at the curve and a new plant develops above the base. By
late fall or early spring, the tip layer is withdrawn. For starters, black and
purple raspberries with blackberries trailing, strawberries and others.
Mound layering: The layering of mounds (stools) in strongly branched tree
fruit shrubs and rootstocks with strong structures is beneficial. In the
sleeping season, the plant is cut to 1 cm over the earth and new shoots are
formed by dormant buds.
The new shoots are positioned over a mound of soil rich in organic matter
that develops 8–10 cm thick, and the roots emerge after a few weeks at the
base of these young shoots.
During the sleeping season, the layers are removed and transplanted
elsewhere. E.g., roots of plum, magnolia, peach, feather etc.
Air layering: Large over-grown house plants such as rubber plants, which
lose most of their lower leaves and are difficult to bend to the ground for
rooting in the soil, may be propagated through air-coating.
An area on a stem (about a foot from the end) below the node is selected,
and leaves and branches on and below the stem are removed from 3 to 4″
above this point. A 1-inch bark ring shall be taken out of the tree with a
sharp knife to reveal the woody internal tissue. To prevent the formation of
a callstridge, the freshly bored ring is scrapped to eliminate the shifting
tissue.

GRAFTING
Grafting is a planting method used to combine sections of two or more
plants in a single plant. In grafting, the top portion (scion) of one plant
develops on another plant’s root system (rootstock) with close association.
eg, toughness, drought tolerance, diseases resistance, and some
characteristic of scion are the best quality fruit.
This method gives the plant a certain characteristic of the rootstock. A
good-quality, healthy stock-type, protected and true-to-stock wood is
picked, free from insects, illnesses or winter injury.
In grafting, the vascular scion transition must be aligned with the rootstock
vascular change, by which a conductive tissue is formed for the actively
growing plant and tissue growth is stimulated at the basal ends of many
vegetative sequences before rooting. For plants including strawberry, corn,
peach, prune, etc., nurseries and horticulture staff use several forms of
grafting techniques.
Slice grafting: Sliced grafting is used to attach a scion to a rootstock stem
usually applied to herbaceous materials which easily connect or combine or
is used in plants with a stem diameter of 1⁄2 inch or less.
The root material is cut off with the same type of cut at the base of the
scion, by a diagonal cut of 3⁄4 inch to 1 inch long. The scion is ideal for the
stock and is tightly bound with a rubber grafting band.
Whip and tongue grafting: This method is most widely employed in the
grafting of nursery crops or woody ornamentals, where scion and stock are
similarly wide (no more than 1⁄2 inch in diameter) so that the whip on the
root retains the scion’s tongue (and vice versa), which allows each of the
hands-free to seal the joint.
A diagonal cut is used to cut the material, where the cut is four to five
times longer than the shell width, and the same cuts are made at the base
of the scion. On that diagonal break, a tongue-like shape is created in the
stock and scion.
This scion is placed on the rootstock so that whip and tongue are
interlocked with a proper cambia alignment. A grafting strip or twine is
appropriately bundled in the attachment and tested with grafting wax or a
grafting dye.
Saddle grafting: All rootstock and scion should have the same diameter
and supply should have a width of not more than 1 inch.
The surface of the cut ranging from a half-inch to a 1 inch long has been
removed from the base material by two opposing upward strikes of the
grafting knife, leading to the inverted V-shaped cuts.
The process is inverted to equip the scion base of root and scion cuts that
are the same duration and pitch so that the stock and pitch of the scion
have a full touch when connected. The V-stick scion is put in the saddle of
the rootstock, covered in a pair, trio, or stripe grafting cover, and then
screened with grafting wax or dye.
Cleft grafting: The rootstock (diameter of 1-4 inch) is smooth and wider
than the scion (a diameter of 1/2 inch). The scion should be strong and
broad enough to have at least three buds (6 to 8 inches).
The broken or snap wedge through the stock’s middle and down from the
horizontally flat stock surface is 2 to 3 cm by way of a clefting tool.
The break in the stock is available to keep the sawmills. The end of the split
is equipped with a chisel form scion, the width of which is facing the wedge
outside, to ensure that the cambium of any scion is in contact with the
rootstock adjustment.

2.8 WHAT IS LAYERING IN PLANT NURSERY?

The development process for roots on a stem or branch is called layering,

while still attached to the plant. The rooted stalk is then untied into a new
plant that grows on its own roots and is known as a layer. Layering is more
complicated than cutting, but it has the benefit that the spread portion of the
parent plant receives water and nutrients while forming roots.

Simple layering: A younger plant’s lower branch is attached to the base,

so a node will touch the ground. The node is weakened and protected by
soil that leaves the end of the branch exposed (6-12 inches).
Roots are extracted in a few weeks from the buried portion, after which the
layer is removed and transplanted somewhere else from the mother plant.
For example: Rhododendron, jasmine and so on.
Compound layering: Compound layering is identical to plain layering, but
2 or 3 wounded nodes are filled with soil rather than covering the wounded
node with soil.
The protected nodes contrast with open unprotected nodes where new
shootings will take place above the level. Each section can be cut down
along the branch, which shapes many plants after roots mature. For
starters, guava, raisins, tomatoes etc.
Tip layering: It is close to a flat sheet in which a complete 3-4 inches deep
was drilled and soil is deposited in the tip of the current season. The tip first
goes down, then curves sharply and grows up. Roots develop at the curve
and a new plant develops above the base.
By late fall or early spring, the tip layer is withdrawn. For starters, black and
purple raspberries with blackberries trailing, strawberries and others.
Mound layering: The layering of mounds (stools) in strongly branched tree
fruit shrubs and rootstocks with strong structures is beneficial. In the
sleeping season, the plant is cut to 1 cm over the earth and new shoots are
formed by dormant buds.
The new shoots are positioned over a mound of soil rich in organic matter
that develops 8–10 cm thick, and the roots emerge after a few weeks at the
base of these young shoots.
During the sleeping season, the layers are removed and transplanted
elsewhere. E.g., roots of plum, magnolia, peach, feather etc.
Air layering: Large over-grown house plants such as rubber plants, which
lose most of their lower leaves and are difficult to bend to the ground for
rooting in the soil, may be propagated through air-coating.
An area on a stem (about a foot from the end) below the node is selected,
and leaves and branches on and below the stem are removed from 3 to 4″
above this point. A 1-inch bark ring shall be taken out of the tree with a
sharp knife to reveal the woody internal tissue. To prevent the formation of
a callstridge, the freshly bored ring is scrapped to eliminate the shifting
tissue.

2.9 WHAT IS GRAFTING ?

Grafting is a planting method used to combine sections of two or more

plants in a single plant. In grafting, the top portion (scion) of one plant
develops on another plant’s root system (rootstock) with close association.
eg, toughness, drought tolerance, diseases resistance, and some
characteristic of scion are the best quality fruit.
This method gives the plant a certain characteristic of the rootstock. A
good-quality, healthy stock-type, protected and true-to-stock wood is
picked, free from insects, illnesses or winter injury.
In grafting, the vascular scion transition must be aligned with the rootstock
vascular change, by which a conductive tissue is formed for the actively
growing plant and tissue growth is stimulated at the basal ends of many
vegetative sequences before rooting. For plants including strawberry, corn,
peach, prune, etc., nurseries and horticulture staff use several forms of
grafting techniques.

2.10 WRITE ABOUT THE SOWING METHODS OF SEEDS AND

PLANTING MATERIAL?

METHODS OF SEED SOWING

Broadcasting

In this method, seeds are broadcast on nursery beds, after which the
beds are covered with sieved farmyard manure (FYM) or decomposed
compost. However, this method has disadvantages too, such as the
seeds cannot be placed at a desired place and comparatively more
quantity of seeds is required.

Line sowing
It is an appropriate method of sowing seeds in a nursery. Sowing in lines
improves germination and quality of seedlings. In this method, each seed
gets independent space, and grows healthy and vigorously. Here, the
diseased seedlings and weeds can be easily managed.
Procedure

On a leveled bed, shallow trenches of certain depths are made with the
help of a stick width-wise at adequate spacing. This depends on the size
of the seeds. Small seeds are sown at shallow depths and low spacing
between rows and vice versa. The seeds are, generally, sown at a depth
of 3–4 times of its diameter. They are placed singly in rows.
Small seeds are mixed with sand for even distribution.The trenches are
then covered with fine soil. The beds require light irrigation from sowing
to transplanting by means of a fine rose can. Mulching of seedbeds by
polyethylene sheet, paddy straw, etc., helps in quick and uniform
germination of seeds. Mulches must be immediately removed after
germination.
Seed sowing in plug-trays (pro-trays)
High-value and hybrid seeds are preferred to be sown in plug-trays (pro-
trays) instead of open field nursery beds. Pro-trays are made of soft
plastic having shallow plugs. These plugs are filled with planting
medium. Coco peat, a by-product of the coir industry having high water-
holding capacity, is commonly used as a medium in pro-trays.

Procedure

In this technique, plugs are filled with coco peat. Depressions of 0.5 to 1
cm are made at the centre of the plugs with the help of fingertips for
sowing the seeds. One seed is sown in each plug. The seeds are placed
in the depressions and covered with coco peat.
 These pro-trays are covered with a polythene sheet and kept like that
for few days or till germination starts. After germination, the polythene
sheet is removed and water is sprinkled with a fine nozzle can. Annual
seeds are commonly sown in pro-trays filled with coco peat or other
growing media.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING SEED SOWING AND PLANTING

During seed sowing

 The seeds must be healthy and free from infection.

 Small seeds are sown after being mixed with sand for equal
distribution.
 The seeds must be sown at the right depth.
 The seeds must be sown at adequate spacing to avoid
overcrowding. It also ensures that the seedlings get sufficient
nutrients, water, sunlight and air. Besides, the soil must neither be
too dry nor too wet to avoid drying or rotting of the seeds or
seedings.
During planting
 Healthy and uniform seedlings must be selected and planted late in
the afternoon at recommended spacing, followed by watering.
 The seedlings must be treated with fungicides to avoid soil-borne
infections.
 Transplanting must not be carried out in dry, hot, sunny, windy and
humid conditions.

2.11 WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING SEED SOWING

AND PLANTING?

During seed sowing

 The seeds must be healthy and free from infection.

 Small seeds are sown after being mixed with sand for equal
distribution.
 The seeds must be sown at the right depth.
 The seeds must be sown at adequate spacing to avoid
overcrowding. It also ensures that the seedlings get sufficient
nutrients, water, sunlight and air. Besides, the soil must neither be
too dry nor too wet to avoid drying or rotting of the seeds or
seedings.
During planting
 Healthy and uniform seedlings must be selected and planted late in
the afternoon at recommended spacing, followed by watering.
 The seedlings must be treated with fungicides to avoid soil-borne
infections.
 Transplanting must not be carried out in dry, hot, sunny, windy and
humid conditions.
 UNIT 3- MANAGEMENT OF NURSERY

3.1 WHAT ARE THE SEASONAL ACTIVITIES AND ROUTINE

OPERATIONS IN A NURSERY?
The successful establishment of quality seedling and propagules
depends upon the proper planning and timely execution of activities.
Even though seed storage facilities, propagation structures for external
environment control are available, doing the nursery activities as per
natural season will enhance the field planting success of the propagules.
Preparation of species level nursery activity calendar will facilitate the
seedling production. Following are important points to be remembered for
planning of nursery activity.
 Mature pod/fruit has to be collected just prior to its falling
and subsequently seed should be extracted without damage to
the seeds
 Sowing of seed/propagules should be carried out during early
morning (7 to 9 am) or evening (3 to 5 pm) hours
 Transplanting, watering, weeding and shifting operations in nursery
needs to be done at fixed interval
 Hardening of vegetative propagules and dispatch of grown up
seedlings should be in proper time
 Engaging only the skilled and trained labor in nursery activities to
assure the success
 Water storage for lean available period, mother plant
maintenance for seasonal collection of material is some
important resource management activities
 Timely availability of nursery inputs (soil, sand, FYM, bio-fertilizer,
chemicals, water, etc.) and their collection in cheap cost period
can reduce the seedling production cost
 Each plant species has its own season of establishment. Hence,
sowing, transplanting and distribution of each species should be
 scheduled accordingly.
3.2 WRITE ABOUT THE NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN DETAIL?
Since plants grown in a nursery are tender, care must be taken in
nourishing them in order to ensure their growth and development. Timely
and effective preventive measures against pests and diseases must also
be taken. The production of quality seedlings depends on how well the
following activities have been executed in the nursery.
Shading
Newly grown saplings must be protected from adverse weather
conditions. Shade can be provided by using shade-nets or polythene
sheets.
Thinning
It is important to maintain plant density in rows so as to ensure adequate
light and air to the plants. During this process, weak, diseased or damaged
plants are pulled out, allowing the growth of healthy seedlings.
Watering
Nursery beds must be watered carefully with the help of a fine rosé can.
After the establishment of plants, watering must be done as per the
requirement of individual plants.
Weeding
Weeding refers to the removal of all unwanted plants (weeds) from the
nursery. Periodic removal of weeds is beneficial for the growth and
development of seedlings as it prevents competition with the main plants
for sunlight, water, air and nutrients. It also acts as secondary host for
insect-pests and disease-carrying organisms. Thus, the nursery area
must be kept free from weeds. Hand weeding and hoeing are the most
common practices to remove weeds.
Hardening of seedlings
Seedlings must be hardened-off (acclimatised) in partial shade before
being planted in the main field so that they can survive the harsh open
climatic conditions. Generally, hardening is done before transplanting in
the open field by gradually exposing the seedlings from lower to higher
temperature. Over-hardening of the seedlings must be avoided.
Staking
Staking is a practice to support plants growing straight and saving them
from bending or lodging. This is done at a time when the plants are not
too tall. It saves the plants from being blown over due to wind and rain,
and also because of the weight of its stems when in bloom. It is useful in
potted plants, as well as, grafted and budded plants. Bamboo is the
most common plant where staking is used. Other than this, the branches
of shrubs and trees, i.e., neem, subabool, phalsa, eucalyptus, etc., can
also be used for this purpose.
De-shooting
De-shooting refers to the removal of all side shoots (offshoots, offsets or
keikis) emerging from the base of a plant. The main purpose of de-
shooting is to divert the energy of the plant towards the development of
its shoots or buds.
Disbudding
Disbudding is the removal of floral buds when a large flower on a plant is
desired, for example chrysanthemum and dahlia. The energy saved by
disbudding is diverted towards the development of the retained bud so
that the flowers become large and vigorous. Generally, it is followed in
large flower varieties. In carnations, disbudding is practised to obtain
long stalks with larger blooms.
Pinching
It refers to the removal of growing tips of vegetative buds to promote
bushy growth for more lateral formation and precocious flowering as in
case of chrysanthemum. It is the removal of 3–5 cm growing tips when
the plants are 8–10 cm tall, i.e., when they are about one–month old.
The second pinching takes place about three weeks after the first
pinching. Pinching is also a common practice in carnation and marigold.
Pruning
The planned removal of twigs, branches, shoots, limbs or roots in plants
is termed as ‘pruning’. Pruning is done to increase the usefulness of the
plants.
3.3 DEFINE WEEDING ?
Weeding refers to the removal of all unwanted plants (weeds) from the
nursery. Periodic removal of weeds is beneficial for the growth and
development of seedlings as it prevents competition with the main plants
for sunlight, water, air and nutrients. It also acts as secondary host for
insect-pests and disease-carrying organisms. Thus, the nursery area
must be kept free from weeds. Hand weeding and hoeing are the most
common practices to remove weeds.

3.4 DEFINE STAKING?

Staking is a practice to support plants growing straight and saving them
from bending or lodging. This is done at a time when the plants are not
too tall. It saves the plants from being blown over due to wind and rain,
and also because of the weight of its stems when in bloom. It is useful in
potted plants, as well as, grafted and budded plants. Bamboo is the
most common plant where staking is used. Other than this, the branches
of shrubs and trees, i.e., neem, subabool, phalsa, eucalyptus, etc., can
also be used for this purpose.
3.5 WHAT ARE THE COMMON DISEASES IN NURSERY PLANTS?
Common diseases in nursery plants

Damping-off:
It is a common and serious disease in nursery plants, which can even
cause their death. Damping-off is a pre-emergence and seedling disease
caused by fungi, such as Pythium, Phytopthora, Rhizoctonia and
Fusarium.
These fungi attack at the time of seed germination. In this disease,
girdling takes place near the base of the seedlings and the infected
seedlings collapse due to rotting in the collar region.
Damping-off is favoured by high humidity and damp soil surface, coupled
with hot and cloudy weather, vis-a-vis, dense planting. One of the best
preventive measures is to maintain a dry soil surface, which helps reduce
the sowing density and thins out the seedlings, leading to improved
aeration.
Other methods include treating the nursery bed either by soil solarisation
or soil sterilisation with formalin @ 2 per cent, drenching with Copper
oxychloride @ 2g/l or seed treatment with thiram or carbendazim @
3g/kg.
Wilt:
Plants often show discoloured and wilted appearance. Leaves become
yellow. The disease is controlled by drenching the soil with Copper
oxychloride @ 2g/l or carbendazim @ 2g/l or by applying Trichoderma
harzianum.
Leaf spot:
One can often notice small to big black or brown spots on leaves. The
disease is controlled by spraying mancozeb @ 3g/l.

3.6 WHAT ARE THE COMMON INSECT-PESTS IN NURSERY?

Insect-pests in nursery
Nursery plants are tender and vulnerable to attack by various insect-
pests. Various insect-pests, which infest the nursery plants, are given in
Table.

Insects Characteristics or symptoms Control

Aphids Small green, brown or black sap- Dimethoate 2 ml/l

sucking insects, which secrete honey Neem oil 4–5 ml/l
dew that attract ants and develop
sooty mould
Thrips Tiny black or yellow coloured sap- Dimethoate 2 ml/l
sucking insects, which infest young Neem oil 4–5 ml/l
portions of plants and flowers
 Scales Small immobile sucking insects that Dimethoate 2 ml/l
are covered by wax mainly infesting
the stems of plants
Mealy bugs Small sucking pests covered by white Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
filamentous hair @ 2.5 ml/l
5% Malathion dust @ 25
kg/ha
Mites Microscopic insects on the under Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5
surface of leaves producing webs and ml/l Wettable sulphur @
galls 5 g/l
Leaf miner Leaf mining insect that produces Triazophos 0.25 ml/l
serpentine (snake-like) white shining
lines on leaves
Termites Tiny white ants that mainly infest Chlorpyrifos 0.3%
dead parts of the plant and stay (active ingredient)
underground emulsion

3.7 WHAT ARE THE COMMON NURSERY PESTS AND WRITE

ABOUT THEIR MANAGEMENT IN DETAIL?
A major injury to nursery stock is also caused by various groups of
insects. These insect pests have been divided into three categories
viz., major nursery pests (white grubs, cutworms, termites and
crickets), minor nursery pests (defoliators, sapsuckers, grasshoppers)
and non-insect pests (nematodes and vertebrate pests).
Generally the damage caused by the insects may be controlled by
maintaining better sanitation of the nursery area, adoption of suitable
cultural practices and need based application of chemical and
biological pesticides.
White Grubs: The adult white grubs feed on leaves and larval stage of
the grub (during monsoon months feed on roots. It is a major pest in
Teak, Mango, Sal and leguminous seedling at Bihar, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. Deep
ploughing, soil solarisation, poisoning and using light traps are some
control measures against white grub attack.
Application of 200 g phorate or 50 ml of chloropyriphos mixed in 50 ml
water may be used to spray for one bed. Foliar spray of host trees
available in the nursery vicinity with 0.05% monocrotophos or 0.03%
quinalphos can also helpful in controlling the adult population.
Cutworms: It damages the young seedlings soon after germination
and is also a feeder of young leaves. Seedlings of Pine, Cedar, mango,
sapota and Casuarina species are the most preferred by cutworms.
Nursery site flooding and collection of cutworm after heavy rains are
some preventive measures to avoid cutworm damages. Dusting of
seed bed with a mixture of quicklime and ash or 1.5% quinalphos will
control the insect.
Termite: They cause damage to seedlings either by primary attack (tap
root destroy), secondary attack (follow up attack after draught,
pathogens, etc.) or complementary attack and damage the seedlings
which make it weak and subsequently it is susceptible for other
 pathogen and pest attacks.
The termite attack can be controlled by keeping the nursery cleared of
wood debris, using well decomposed FYM and application of
termiticides such as chlorpyriphos.
Crickets: The nymphs and adult stage cricket come out at night and cut
off all the seedlings, low branches and drag the piece to their tunnels for
feeding the young crickets.
Ficus, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Sisham, teak, rubber and mango
seedlings are commonly affected by crickets. Deep ploughing during
nursery site preparation, application of 200 g phorate or fenitrothinon
5% dust per bed can control the pest.

Minor and Non-insect Pests: Defoliators (beetles, weevils and

caterpillers), grasshoppers and sapsuckers (green leaf hopper, white
flies, thrips) are the minor pests.

They can be controlled by the application of 100 g dose per bed of

phorate 10%, or spray of formulation of any systemic insecticide eg.
dimethoate 30 EC. Nematodes, rat, squirrel, hare, deer, mite and birds
are some important non-insect pests.
Poison bating by rodenticide such as Zinc phosphide, proper fencing
and manual scaring are the best methods to reduce damage by them.
Other than the disease and pest damages, the natural events like frost,
chilling, drought, fire and non-availability of nutrients also cause stunted
growth/death of seedlings.

3.8 WRITE ABOUT PARTICIPATORY NURSERY TECHNOLOGY AND

ITS BENEFITS & ITS LIMITATIONS?
Participatory Nursery Technology

Quality seedling production is aimed for enhancing the overall

agricultural productivity, livelihood improvement and socioeconomic
enhancement of people. The major aim of nursery management training
is training the personnel with suitable nursery seedling production
technology in cost effective way.
 Implementation of nursery technology in participatory mode
(consortia of persons from research and development agencies, private
organizations and public) as field/kisan nurseries development has
potential to provide win-win situation to its stakeholders in watershed
programmes.
Benefits of Participatory Nursery Development
 The seedlings developed in the field nurseries will be in good
demand; because they will show interest to develop their more
desired/preferred species only
 The success of plantation will be increased due to the
improvement in quality of seedlings
 Reduction in production and transportation cost of seedlings
ensure profit to the producer
 It increases the societal awareness and improves the socio-
economic status of stakeholders due to its assured employment
and profit
 It motivates the women participants in developmental activity and
empowers them
 Provide additional employment and livelihood opportunity during lean
agricultural operation period. It assures win-win situation to its
stakeholders
Limitations
 Lack of trained personnel and skilled labors for doing nursery
activities in villages.
 Initial establishment and maintenance cost for nursery needs to be
met by the people, which they presume as a risk bearing activity.

 Risk on marketing of seedlings, pest and disease damage

incidences.
 Non availability of improved varieties in trees, seeds of promising
horticultural and vegetables at the village door steps.

3.9 EXPLAIN SOIL SOLARISATION?

Soil solarisation
It is an environment-friendly method to control soil-borne plant
pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insect-pests and weeds.
Solar energy increases the temperature of the soil, which helps control
various soil-borne pathogens. The most appropriate time for soil solarisation
is May−June when the temperature reaches 47 ºC or above. This treatment
causes physical, chemical and biological changes in the soil.

Procedure

 Dig soil at a site where seedbeds are to be prepared.

 Remove all weeds, stumps, stones, pebbles, etc.,from the soil.
 Crush the clods and bring it to fine tilth.
 Level the plot for preparing seedbeds.
 Irrigate the site thoroughly and cover it with a black polythene film of
200 gauge for 5–6 weeks during summer as wet soil conducts heat
better than dry soil and makes soil organisms vulnerable to being
killed by heat generation.
 Make the covering airtight by covering the margins with compressed
wet mud to check the loss of moisture and prevent the entry of air
from beneath the polythene sheet.
 The nursery bed may be prepared at the treated site or soil may be
used for filling pots or poly bags.
Formalin solution treatment
 Formalin solution is used to sterilise the soil. It is prepared by adding
2.5 ml commercial grade formaldehyde per litre of water and the soil
is drenched @ 45 litre of solution per m 2 to saturate the top soil
surface up to a depth of 15–20 cm.
 The drenched area is covered with a polythene sheet of 200 gauge
so that the fumes of formalin penetrate into the soil to kill the
pathogens.
 The polythene cover is removed after 48 hours.
 The soil is raked so that the fumes of formaldehyde gas escape from
it.
 If poly-house, soil is treated with formalin, the doors and side covers
of the poly-house must be opened to allow formaldehyde gas to
escape.
 The bed is kept open for 7–10 days prior to seed sowing. It must be
ensured that there are no fumes of formaldehyde gas prior to seed
 sowing.
Soil treatment by fungicide
 Fungicides like captan or thiram @ 5 g/m2 are used to
control soil-borne pathogens.
 These fungicides can also be used as soil drench by
preparing a solution of 2.5−3 per cent and drenching @ 4−5
litre/m2.
Soil treatment by insecticide
 Insecticide, such as chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/litre of water is
applied to a depth of 15−20 cm in the soil to kill insects,
including ants, white ants and their eggs, nematodes, etc.
Use of bio-agents
 Certain biological agents like trichoderma are used to
control soil-borne pathogens.
 Bio-agents @ 10–25 g/m2 are mixed in the soil, and after 2–
3 days, the seeds are sown.

3.10 WHAT ARE PLANT BIO-REGULATORS AND WRITE IT’S TYPES

IN DETAIL?

Plant bio-regulators
These are compounds that are organic in nature but other than
nutrients. These promote, inhibit or otherwise modify physiological
processes in plants even when used in small amounts.
Type of plant bio-regulators
(i) Auxins : IAA; IBA; NAA; 2, 4D; 2, 4, 5T
(ii) Gibberellins : GA
(iii) Cytokinins : Kinetin, aminopurine
(iv) Ethylene : Ethrel (Ethephon)
(v) Inhibitors : Melic hydrazide (MH), ABA, 2, 3, 5
Triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA)
(vi) Retardants : Cycocel Chlormequat Chloride
 (CCC), alar, phosphon-D,
B−Nine, etc.
Classes of plant growth regulators
Auxins
In plants, auxins are synthesised in the apical portion of stem and root.
Auxins control growth through cell enlargement and influence
developmental responses, such as apical dominance. Indole acetic
acid (IAA), Indole butyric acid (IBA), Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA),
and 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4D) are some examples of
auxins.
Cytokinins
Cytokinins help transport amino acids in plants. They promote cell
division and senescence. Examples are kinetin and benzyladenine.
Gibberellins
These control cell division and elongation in plant shoots. Gibberellic
acid (GA3) is an example.
Ethylene
Ethylene is a gaseous hydrocarbon and known as ‘ripening hormone’,
e.g., ethephon, ethrel.
Abscisic acid (ABA)
Abscisic acid is, generally, considered as a growth inhibitor because of
its effects on growth inhibition or senescence. It causes metabolic
activities in plants, such as abscission of leaf, response to
environmental stress, fruit ripening, etc.

3.11 WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PLANT BIO-

REGULATORS?

Biological effects or physiological role

of plant bio-regulators (PBRs)

Auxins

• Apical dominance
 • Cell expansion
• Shoot and root growth
• Parthenocarpy
• Tropism
Gibberellins

• Cell growth
• Flower induction
• Fruit set and development
• Seed development and germination
• Parthenocarpy
Cytokinins

• Cell division
• Anti-ageing or anti-senescence effect
• Anti-stress effect
• Gall or nodule formation
Ethylene

• Senescence
• Fruit ripening
• Abscission
• Environmental stress
Abscisic acid

 Seed development
 Growth control
 Water stress
 Abscission
Growth retardants

• Reduce plant height

• Improve resistance to environmental stresses
• Reduce water consumption
3.11 WHAT ARE THE COMMON POSSIBLE ERRORS IN NURSERY
ACTIVITIES?
Common Possible Errors in Nursery Activities
 Containers not filled properly
 Cylindrical shape of container not maintained
 Container not in upright position
 Soil or sand used in germination beds not changed after each
production cycle
 Sowing seed too deep
 Lifting transplant seedlings individually and wrenching them
 Exposure of seedlings to air after lifting
 Bad transplanting and delayed transplant to container beds
 Leaving air space around the root of the young seedling after
transplanting
 Bad root pruning while transplanting
 Inadequate attention paid to root pruning in transplanted
containers before transporting to field
 Same knapsack sprayer used to apply weedicides and fungicides
 Hardening off process starting too late or neglected
 Dumping of seedlings in nursery without placing them as per species,
size, etc.

3.12 WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF PLANT GROWTH

REGULATORS?
Growth regulators may be applied in powder or paste form or as spray
solution. It applied at low concentrations, i.e., in parts per million (ppm) (one
milligram in one litre of water gives 1 ppm solution).
Application of PGRs in flower crops
4

S. Name of PGR Crop Concentration Effect on plants

No. (ppm)

1. Auxins
(i) IAA or NAA Dahlia 100–200 Delays flowering
 Orchids 90–100 Promotes root growth
2
(ii) IBA Bougainvillea 1000−2000 Increases shoot length
Geranium 200 Induces rooting
2. Cytokinins Orchids 500 Enhance shoot growth

3. GA3 Antirrhinum 25 Induces early flowering

(Gibberellic Chrysanthemum 100−400 Increases plant height, internodal
acid) length and flower stalk length
Dahlia 100−150 Induces flowering and weight
Gladiolus 100−200 Improves corm yield
Petunia 500 Improves germination percentage
Rose 100−400 Improves stem length and quality
Tuberose 100−500 Improves bulb yield and rooting
4. Ethrel Gladiolus 500–1000 Breaks corm dormancy

5. Ethephon Carnation 600−800 Promotes branching

6. Benzyladenine Chrysanthemum 600−1000 Breaks apical dominance

7. B-Nine Geranium 1000−2000 Increases adventitious roots

(Daminozide, Carnation 4000 Induces early flowering
Alar, Kylar) Improves flower quality
8. MH Bougainvillea 1000−2000 Encourages compact bushy growth

9. CCC (Cycocel) Marigold 3000 Causes uniform and bushy

Carnation 100 growth, more branching
Induces flowering and more
flower yield

3.13 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MAINTAIN RECORDS IN NURSERY?

Record Management
Records of all purchases (seed, chemicals, media, etc.),
observation of data (sowing, germination dates and germination per cent,
growth, etc.), labor engagement and attendance, sales, pest and disease
outbreaks, permanent and temporary stocks (including species wise
seedling stocks) and movement register are required to be maintained
upto date. Various records of expenditure and income are recorded in
different book viz., purchase book, sales book, ledger, cash book,
dispatch register, etc.
 It is advisable to maintain books of accounts for the following
reasons:
 They provide up-to-date nursery business information and guideline
for planning
 They help to analyze the performance of the nursery activity.

3.14 WRITE ABOUT ONLINE NURSERY INFORMATION AND SALES

SYSTEM?
The development of nursery management system (NMS) for stock
management has been underway under a DST funded project at CAZRI,
Jodhpur. Likewise, setting-up of a Indian “Horticulture Information
System” (HIS) through a network using Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) from District level linked to state Horticulture
department and at national level with Ministry of Agriculture as focal
agency to coordinate, organize, analyze and consolidate the data is
proposed by the National Horticulture Mission.
It is to have horticulture information service centre at district level to
collect data and linked it with State and Central organizations to collate
the data. A uniform methodology should be evolved by various agencies
in all the states regarding process for collection of data, use of same
format, so that the data will be collected in uniformity for its
completeness, updating reliability and validity at all levels. For this
purpose, NHM has proposed to establish a “National Institute of
Horticultural Management and Data base”.

3.15 EXPLAIN ECONOMICS OF NURSERY DEVELOPMENT AND

PRICING?

Presently nursery is considered as a small entrepreneur activity.

When this venture provides profit to the investors, then only it will be
considered for practicing. The following fixed and variable costs
associated with establishment of nursery and expected return by
seedling production activity will be helpful to assess the cost benefit
ratio of this activity.
Fixed cost of development of nursery in one hectare area

Variable cost of seedling production

Expected return from nursery per year

3.16 EXPLAIN POTTING, DE-POTTING AND RE-POTTING?

Potting, de-potting and re-potting

Pots

Ornamental plants are grown in a variety of pots, depending on the

choice of a person, including plastic, clay, cement, ceramic, etc. Pots are
used for growing house plants (indoor and outdoor). Clay pots are the
most popular, easily available, highly porous and cheaper than other type
of pots. Size is an important factor while selecting pots.
For specimen plant display, the pot size needs to be at least 30 cm in
diameter. The size of the plant and its growth habit are to be considered
before selecting a pot. Potting refers to transferring of plants from
seedbed or poly-bags to pots, containing the potting mixture.
Potting mixture
The potting mixture must be light in weight and have adequate water-
holding capacity. It must allow drainage and supply adequate nutrients to
plants.
The mixture needs to be free from insect-pests and soil-borne
pathogens. For ferns and bulbous plants, the mixture needs to be highly
porous in nature, comprising coarse sand, light garden soil and leaf
mould. Neem cake and bonemeal may also be used in small quantities as
nutrients.
Potting of rooted cutting and young seedlings: 1 or 2 part sand + 1
part loamy soil + 1 part peat moss or leaf mould, Potting general
container grown nursery stock: 2 part sand + 4 part loamy soil + 2 part
peat moss or leaf mould + 1 part rotten FYM

Potting
Potting is the process of planting new plants in pots containing suitable
mixture for their growth and establishment. It is a simple operation but
requires a certain degree of skill and practice. The following points must
be taken care of while potting a plant.

o The size of the pot must be suitable to set the plant.

 o Before filling the pots, crocks of 3−5 cm must be placed at
the drainage hole to avoid clogging, followed by a 5−8 cm
layer of coarse sand.
o The pot is filled with the potting mixture, leaving
o cm from the rim, for holding water.
o The pot can now be used for sowing seeds, potting of plants
or cuttings.
o For planting, a healthy and well-rooted plant is carefully dug
out from a nursery bed.
o The plant is placed with the ball of earth in the centre of the
pot.
o Fill potting mixture all around the ball of earth, and press it
firmly and uniformly. Care must be taken that the ball of earth
is not pressed too hard as it will break and damage the roots.
o Water the plant with a fine nozzle can immediately after
planting.
o Place the potted plant in a cool and shady place for
establishment.
o Staking is also provided, depending on the plant type, to
support the plant.
o Deciduous house plants are planted in February–March,
while evergreens are planted in July–August.
De-potting

De-potting is the removal of a plant from a pot for planting in soil, bed
or another pot. As roots are sensitive and prone to injuries, care needs
to be taken while de-potting the plant. It is better to de-pot the plant
along with the soil attached to its root system. This soil, if needed, can
be removed carefully after de-potting.

Procedure

The pot needs to be watered before de-potting. The pot is lifted by the
right hand palm spread over the top of the soil, holding the stem between
the second and third finger, and the thumb along the side of pot.
The pot is then turned upside down. If necessary, a gentle tap is given on
the rim of the inverted pot against a solid base or on the edge of bench to
loosen the earth ball. The whole earth ball with the intertwining roots of
the plant will come out as a single piece and kept outside carefully. Before
transferring the plant to a new pot, the lower old and finer roots along with
some old potting mixture are removed.
Re-potting

The first step in re-potting is de-potting. A de-potted plant needs to be

re-potted in a fresh pot. For better growth of house plants, re-potting and
transplanting of the established plants are done once in a year or two,
depending on the type of plants and their growth habit.

Re-potting is done when the plants have become pot-bound or overgrown,

and also the potting mixture has become devoid of essential nutrients,
resulting in poor growth of the plants. Depending on the plant type, it is
done in February−March or September−October. During re-potting, the old
potting mixture is replaced and the overgrown roots are pruned.

Procedure

 Prune the plant lightly before re-potting to remove excess shoot

growth.
 All adhering crocks along with some amount of the old mixture
must be carefully removed from the base of the earth ball.
 Decayed, dead, dried, twisted and unwanted roots are removed
with a sharp knife or secateurs.
 The plant is placed in a new pot at the same depth in soil at which it
was in the old pot. The pot is filled with fresh potting mixture, and
then watered.
3.17 WRITE ABOUT THE APPLICATION OF MANURES AND
FERTILISERS?
Application of manures and fertilisers

Types and methods of manure application

Timely application of fertilisers and manures in adequate quantity is
important for the growth of plants. The manner and method of manure
application depends on the type of the plants.
Bulky manures

Farmyard Manure (FYM) or other bulky manures must be broadcast over

the entire area and mixed well with the soil by harrowing. The application
of manures depends on the season to avoid leaching of nutrients. In
areas receiving light rainfall, the manures may be applied during
monsoon, whereas, it must be done after the monsoon in areas receiving
heavy rainfall.
Concentrated manures

Oil cakes, fish manure and blood meal are known as ‘concentrated organic
manures’. These manures must be applied well in advance as they are not
easily available and have to be broken down by soil microbes to be made
available to plants.

Fertiliser application
Time of application

Generally, organic manures are applied while preparing the land so that
they improve the structure and water-holding capacity of the soil.
Fertilisers are, normally, applied just before or soon after planting. The
frequency and amount of fertiliser application depend on the crop, soil
and season.
 Application of solid fertilisers

Broadcasting

Basal application: Depending on the crop, broadcasting of fertiliser is

carried out prior to sowing or planting just before the last ploughing is
carried out in a field.
Top dressing: When fertilisers are broadcast in a standing crop, it is
known as ‘top dressing’. In this method, usually, nitrogenous
fertilisers and micronutrients are applied in a dense sown flower crop.

Placement

Place the fertiliser in prepared soil before sowing, irrespective of the

position of the seeds. There are three types of fertiliser placement.
Plough furrow or single band placement: The application of fertilisers in
narrow bands beneath and by the side of crop row or furrow is called
‘band placement’. This is done during the process of ploughing. This
method can be adopted:
(i) in case of low fertility of soil.
(ii) when the fertiliser reacts with soil constituents,
leading to the fixation of nutrients.
(iii) in places where volatilisation loss is high.
In single band placement, fertilisers are applied on the side of the planted
row. Double band placement happens when the fertiliser is applied in two
bands, i.e., on both sides of the planted rows.
Deep placement: It is, generally, practised for the application of
nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilisers and in fields. It is commonly
recommended in dry land agriculture.
Ring placement: The quantity of fertiliser per plant is calculated and
applied at some depth around the plant circle. This method is mostly
practised in case of orchard crops.
Application of liquid fertilisers

Foliar application

This method can be used with fertiliser nutrients readily soluble in water.
It is also used when there is a soil fixation problem. In this method, it is
difficult to apply sufficient amounts of major elements. Nutrient
concentration of 1−2 per cent can be applied without causing injury to
the foliage. Foliar application, therefore, is commonly used only to apply
minor elements or to supplement the major elements.
Fertigation

This refers to the application of fertilisers through irrigation water.

Nitrogen is the principle nutrient that is commonly used. Potassium
and highly soluble forms of zinc and iron can also be readily applied in
this technique.

When an element forms a precipitate with another substance

commonly found in the irrigation water, it is not advisable to use this
method. Phosphorus and anhydrous ammonia may form a precipitate
in water with high calcium and magnesium content. So, they are not
used in fertigation. Normally, this system is used through drip irrigation.
Liquid fertilisers, containing all three major nutrients, are used.

3.18 What is plant cloning and how does it work?

People have been cloning plants in one way or another for thousands of
years. For example, when you take a cutting from a plant and grow it into a
new plant (vegetative propagation), you are cloning the original plant
because the new plant has the same genetic makeup as the donor plant.
Vegetative propagation works because the end of the cutting forms a mass
of non-specialized cells called a callus. With luck, the callus will grow,
divide and form various specialized cells (roots, etc.), eventually forming a
new plant.

Nature has been cloning organisms for billions of years. For example, when
a strawberry plant sends out a runner (a form of modified stem), a new
plant grows where the runner takes root. That new plant is a clone. Similar
cloning occurs in grass, potatoes and onions.
Another form of plant cloning called tissue culture propagation is done by
taking pieces of specialized roots, breaking them up into root cells and
growing the cells in a nutrient-rich culture. In culture, the specialized cells
become unspecialized (dedifferentiated) into calluses.

The calluses can then be stimulated with the appropriate plant hormones to
grow into new plants that are identical to the original plant from which the
root pieces were taken. This procedure has been widely used by
horticulturists to grow prized orchids and other rare flowers. It also happens
to be the most difficult and requires a decent amount of experience to get it
right.

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from

two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting,
the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of
another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and
grown on another.

3.18 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF NURSERIES IN HORTICULTURE

DEVELOPMENT?

Role of Nurseries in Horticulture Development

1. Production of Genetically Pure Nursery Stock

Genetically pure planting material is essential for healthy and
vigorous plant growth. Both stock and scion should be genetically
pure. The planting material should be satisfactory in quantity and
quality and easily available for further multiplication.

2. Export of Nursery Stock

Globalization has improved the chances of export of quality planting
material to other countries. Special techniques and care is required
for exporting the nursery material. Similarly, great care is necessary
while importing nursery material from outside.
 3. Employment Generation
There is a huge demand of skilled professionals for grafting,
budding, potting, repotting and other nursery operations. Nursery
provides employment opportunities for technical, skilled, semi-
skilled, and unskilled labor. Nursery can itself be a very remunerative
enterprise in the changing national scenario.
4. Role of Nurseries in Dry Land Horticulture
Like India, there are many countries in this world, which face
droughts every other year. Growing drought tolerant fruit crops
provide assured income to farmers. Horticultural plantations play an
essential part in afforestation and thereby help to reduce the global
warming.

3.19 WHAT ARE TYPES OF NURSERIES ACCORDING TO THE TYPE

OF SALE?
Types of Nurseries According to the Type of Sale

1. Retail Nurseries: Retail nurseries raise plants for sale to the

general public. These places are small, locally owned nurseries that
sell seasonal, annuals, ornamental trees, other landscaping plants
and garden decoration to the general public or companies
that specialize in a particular type of plant, such as tropical plants,
citrus trees, bulbs or roses.

2. Wholesale Nurseries: Wholesale nurseries usually grow plants in

bulk for the purpose of selling to large clients. These clients may
include florists, garden centers or departmental stores. A wholesale
nursery may fill a niche for particular types of plants, such as
vegetables or houseplants, or they may grow a general selection of
plants to sell such as fruits, vegetables and landscaping plants.

3. Private Nurseries: A private nursery grows plants exclusively for a

single client. The private nursery may be owned by the client or it
may be under contract for use by the client. Clients for private
 nurseries include large estates, corporations and institutions. These
nurseries are concerned with raising documented historical plants for
the historic preservation of the estates.

4. Mail Order: Privately owned, retail and wholesale businesses may

all be involved in mail order businesses. As shipping technology
improved, it became possible to ship dormant ornamental trees and
bedding plants via mail. The internet has largely shifted mail order
from catalog to online shopping. Bedding plants may be shipped via
postal carrier, but are primarily handled through third-party shipping
agents.

3.20 WRITE ABOUT MOTHER PLANT SELECTION AND

MAINTENANCE IN PLANT NURSERY?
Mother Plant Selection and Maintenance
Mother plant is the most important factor of plant nursery. Mother
plants provide bud sticks and scions for budding and grafting
operations.

Criteria for Selection of Mother Plants

1. Mother plants should be vigorous, healthy and high yielding. It
should have a regular bearing habit.
2. It should be free from pests, diseases and viruses.
3. The mother plants must necessarily be genetically pure and superior
in quality. They must be obtained from Registered Farms,
Agriculture Universities or Government Nurseries.
4. The purchase receipt of mother plant should be preserved to prove
the origin and authenticity of the mother plants.
5. Mother plants should be selected corresponding to the regional
demand of the nursery plants.
6. Ornamental mother plants are planted under protected conditions
either under shade net or semi-shade conditions.
Planting of Mother Plants
Proper selection is very necessary for mother plants. By
considering its quantitative and qualitative characters, mother plants
are selected and planted in nursery. They are planted according to the
recommended planting distance. Care should be taken that the mother
plants attain optimum vegetative growth. Mother plant plantation must
be well classified according to the types and varieties. Ornamental
mother plants are planted under poly house or shed nets.

Some Important Mother Plants and their cultivars for Maharashtra

and South India
1. Mango: Keshar, Alphonso, Sindhu, Ratna
2. Sapota: Kalipatti, Cricket ball
3. Guava: Sardar (L-49)
4. Pomegranate: Ganesh, G-137, Bhagawa
5. Ber: Umran, Kadaka, Sannur, Punjab Chouhara,
Mehrun.
6. Cashew nut: Vengurla – 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
7. Coconut: Banavali, T X D, Pratap
8. Grapes: Sonaka, Sharad Seedless, Thompson Seedless
9. Fig: Poona fig, Dinkar
10. Aonla: Banarasi, Krishna.
11. Sweet orange: Nucellar.
12. Mandarin Orange: Nagpuri

Maintenance of Mother Plant

Mother plants are very important constituent of a nursery. The
success of any nursery depends greatly on the health and vigor of its
mother plants. It is therefore necessary to obtain genetically sound
mother plants to produce healthy and vigorous offsprings.
 Not only is the selection of mother plants necessary but proper care
and maintenance of these plants is also essential to obtain vigorous
and healthy growth. This can be achieved by taking appropriate care.
Mother plants are irrigated regularly.
Manures and Fertilizers are given at proper stages. Diseases and
pests are controlled by spraying fungicides and insecticides. After care
and all operations are carried out so as to get healthy and vigorous bud
sticks. First dose of manures and fertilizers is given in June – July.
Second dose is given in September – October. Reproductive growth is
strictly avoided.
Only vegetative growth is permitted and maximum bud sticks are
produced. Mother plants are kept healthy by regular testing of the plant
material for viruses and other organisms. Register record about
parents, pedigree and bearing habit is kept in office.

3.21 WHAT ARE THE LEGAL AUTHORIZATIONS FOR STARTING

NURSERY BUSINESS?
Legal Authorizations for Starting Nursery Business
A commercial nursery business requires a business license which is a
rather lengthy process. In many cases zoning ordinances dictate
possible uses for land. Normally, a nursery business would be
considered an "agricultural use", but in some cases it may also be
interpreted as “commercial", "agribusiness", or some other
classification. Permits regarding establishment of green houses must
be taken before erection of a green house, storage building or
warehouse for storing materials and equipment required in a nursery. A
nursery business may require a property hazard insurance, workmen's
compensation if you have paid employees and general liability
insurance if you expect visitors to your nursery. Nurseries in some
areas may have to fulfill the government agricultural inspection
requirements as per the body governing the area. Permissions are also
required from the local authorities for availing electricity, water and
other facilities.
3.22 WHAT ARE THE FINANCIAL RESOURCES FOR NURSERY?

Financial Resources for Nursery

Bank Loans
Terms and conditions differ from bank to bank, state to state and
again the procedure for release of first installment is delayed. This may
put the nursery unit in loss or trouble.

Financial Resources from Government

National Horticulture Mission (NHM) started in 2005 in India with an
objective to establish ideal nurseries for production of genetically pure
plant materials. Nurseries in the public sectors (on government
establishments) are entitled to get 100 per cent subsidies on
expenditure. The nurseries in the private sector get a subsidy of 50 per
cent on their expenditures.
There are two types of nurseries based on their sizes. Big nurseries
are those with size of 1 hectare area. Such nurseries are entitled to
receive financial assistance up to 30 Lakh as subsidy. The small
nurseries with size of 1 Acre are entitled for a subsidy up to 18 Lakhs.
The subsidies are given as per the bank loans sanctioned.

Financial Resources from Nationalized Banks

There are different schemes under National Horticulture Mission
for establishment of horticulture nurseries:
1. Development of Orchard with Tools and Implements
2. Establishment of New Orchards
3. Sources of Irrigation Facilities
4. Controlled Farming
5. Integrated Pest Management/ Integrated Disease Management
6. Organic Farming
7. Human Resource Development
8. Practicals on Technology
9. Honey Bee Keeping
 10. Post Harvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables.
11. Self Employment Program.

Financial Resources from Private Sector

There are various private financing institutes funding the
establishment of horticultural nurseries. Private Credit Co-operative
Societies also extend loan facilities to nurseries.

3.23 WHAT ARE THE PHYSICAL RESOURCES FOR NURSERY?

Physical Resources for Nursery
Nursery like any other enterprise requires certain resources. The
criteria for selection of products also depend on these resources.
These resources thus play a very important role in determining the type
of nursery enterprise. These physical resources are enlisted below,

1. Land
Land is the basic and fundamental physical resource for plant
nursery. The area available must be considered before planning the
nursery and the products. Soil sample testing should be done to avoid
problematic and unmanageable soils. Soil should be well drained,
porous and light to medium in texture. Soil pH should be 6.5 – 7.5.
Heavy, black cotton soil, sandy, ill drained and soils having high pH
more than 8 are strictly avoided. Low lying land should not be selected.
The soils should be free from salts and other harmful elements. The
selected site should be close to railway station or bus station. Wind
breaks and shelter belts should be raised prior to planting nursery
plants.

2. Irrigation Facilities
Required land with sufficient and assured supply of irrigation is the
most important basic resource. Quality of irrigation water should be at
prescribed level. Harmful factors can be tested by water testing in
laboratory. The pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of irrigation water
should be tested.
3. Labour
Labour is another important resource. Degree of mechanization
must be considered before estimating the labor requirement. Skilled as
well as unskilled man power is necessary for grafting, budding,
weeding, irrigation, spraying, dusting, training, pruning, etc. Technically
sound gardeners are also necessary. Labour should be available at
reasonable rates.

4. Electricity
The availability of power or electricity is also very important and is
in accordance with the man power available. Load shedding should be
minimum possible. Regular supply of electricity is very essential.
Electricity is required for water pumps, spraying, dusting and many
other operations.
5. Road and Transport
Once the nursery stock is ready for sale, there should be good
roads and transport facilities. These facilities are also required for
timely importing of stock and other material for the nursery.

6. Mother Plants
Mother plants are the most important factor for successful nursery.
Separate planting of mother plants is necessary. Different varieties of
mother plants are planted in different plots. Pests and diseases are
controlled regularly by spraying pesticides and fungicides. Mother
plants should be authentic and selected from Government nurseries or
from Agricultural Universities. Mother plants should be selected very
carefully as the sale of the nursery stock depends on the mother plants
used for the propagation.

7. Propagation Structures:
Propagation structures are very essential for production of grafts or
seedlings. They are useful for multiplication of grafts and seedlings.
Hardening of plants is done with the help of propagation structures.
 8. Hedges and Compound
Thorny plants like Chilar (thorny creeper), golden duranta (thorny
shrub), and agave are used as hedges in nurseries. Barbed wire
fencing is also used. Hedges protect the nursery plants from wild and
stray animals, theft, etc. They fix the borders of the nursery and are
ornamental and decorative.

9. Space for Hardening of Nursery Plants

Small shade net houses are required for hardening of nursery
plants. Young, pampered seedlings that were grown either indoors or
in a greenhouse will need a period to adjust and acclimatize to outdoor
conditions, prior to planting. This transition period is called "hardening
off". Hardening off gradually exposes the tender plants to wind, sun and
rain and toughens them up by thickening the cuticle on the leaves so
that the leaves lose less water. This helps prevent transplant shock in
which the seedlings have a stunted growth or they die from sudden
changes in temperature. Hardenings off time depend on the type of
plants grown and the temperature fluctuations.
10. Store and Office
Garden tools, implements, raw materials, insecticides, fungicides,
manures, fertilizers, boards, polythene bags etc are stored in store
house. An ideal nursery has at least one well managed office for
keeping all registers, notebooks, information books and for instructing
the team. The record of mother plants, progeny, Stock of plants, etc is
preserved in office.

3.24 WHAT ARE THE PHYSICAL RESOURCES FOR NURSERY?

Selection and Preparation of Library Plants:
Plants are carefully selected according to their importance by
specialist and faculties, students and professionals. The selection
process is slightly different in each content area like Horticulture,
Forestry, Botany etc. Identification of scholars and experts with relevant
expertise and the definition of selection criteria are necessary.
Identification of information sources for recommended plant material
 eg. Institutional collection, libraries, private collection and repository
institutions should be done at the beginning.
Plant library is related with diverse group of people; hence
advertisement of plant library is a key factor to reach to the target
group. Without advertisement there can not be a professional
achievement in the plant library business. It can be done by using
different type of media. The electronic media can be used effectively to
reach the customers. Nevertheless, leading newspapers, magazines,
books etc. can also be used for publicity of the plant library project.

Methods of Collection:
Live Plants

This is a continuous process in which live plants are collected and

maintained in the plant library. The plant of the utmost importance like
the rare species, value added plants, and commercial plants are
maintained in live collection.

Herbarium
A mini herbarium (dried plant library) is a collection of plant
specimens with their nomenclature, habitat, name of the collector, utility
and availability etc.

Flashcards
Flashcards are prepared with taping of pressed specimens or
pictures from magazines on to index cards and labeling the cards with
plant names .this can be the useful way to learn how to identify the
plants.

Photographs
Photographing plants is another means to collect information and
pictorial view of the plant for identification and preservation. The plants
which are not available but have commercial importance can be
 collected by way of photographs either by institute itself or from another
source. This can be the best way for the specimens which are at multi-
location.

Photocopies
Photocopies of plants provide required details about the plant to get
acquainted, collected information and reference. It is an easiest way to
gather information for identification and guidance for use. The
published sources of the plant are used for making the photocopies.

Bibliography
Preparation of bibliographies, list of priority material and collection
of specimens for library are good source to have information on huge
number of plants. This is an easy way of documentation.

Digitization
Computerized database of plants with photographs which enables
ready to serve soft information convertible to visual source and greatest
convenience for mobility of the material. It can be paperless source of
which can be an international source of plant information without
boundaries and universal applicability. This can be huge database from
many countries and institutes.

Planting
Planting live plantlets provide an excellent opportunity to learn about
plants over a period of time. Well drained light soils with good moisture
retention are good for planting library plants. Planting should be done
when soil is warm. To make soil more suitable and workable apply light
water to the soil three hours prior to planting. Avoid over watering. To
avoid stress planting should be done in late afternoon. Water stagnation
results in root rot or susceptible to fungal diseases. Set plants in the
ground at the same depth as they were in container.
3.25 WRITE ABOUT PLANT NURSERY EXHIBITION?

Nursery Plant Exhibition

Exhibiting plants in shows and fairs can be fun. Costumers will
enjoy nursery plant when nurseryman displays them at exhibition stall
or at community events. Nurseryman can learn by exhibiting. Others
can learn by sharing knowledge and experiences with them and
observing the exhibiting skills.

While Exhibiting the Nursery Plants

Color: The color should be vivid and bright, whether it is a dark
shade or a pastel. Fading colors on petals or on leaf due to over
maturity is undesirable. Foliage color should be typical of the plant type,
whether dark green or variegated.
Condition: The condition of a plant or flower is based on the
appearance of the specimen. For the condition criteria, mechanical
injury, bruising, immaturity, age and weather damage should be
considered undesirable.
Cultural Perfection: Cultural perfection is a criterion use to
evaluate the cultural techniques used in growing a flower or plant.
Proper fertilization, watering, pest control, disbudding, dividing, removal
of spent blooms and quality of potting soil are cultural techniques that
are evident in the appearance of flowers or plants.
Form: The shape is the true or characteristic form of a plant. Poor
form may result from mechanical injury, insect and disease damage, or
poor cultural practices.
Grooming: Clean plants to remove dirt and residues, as well as
dead foliage or flowers. Grooming should not alter the typical features
on the plants.
Size: The size of a plant should be as large as the variety allows
under proper growing conditions. The stem and foliage should be
proportional to the bloom size. Large blooms are not desirable if they
are poor in condition or form.
Stem and Foliage: The stem supporting the blooms should be
strong and in proportion to the plant. The leaves should be in good
condition and in proportional size to the bloom and stem.
Substance: The material of which the plant is made should be
strong, firm, crisp, and fresh. Over maturity often brings about a lack of
substance, wilting, or thinning at the petal edges.
Symmetry: Beauty in a plant escalates due to a balanced
proportion of parts on a plant.

Plant Exhibition: A nursery plant exhibition is organized to

promote skill and knowledge of traditional methods of plant raising. At
the same time it intends to improve knowledge of indigenous
nurserymen and campaign amongst the private and government sector
nursery for promoting tree plantation using tall trees, green foliage, and
exotic plants to grasses.
Plants for exhibitions come in many varieties. Green-leaf plants for
exhibitions and large trees, such as Ficus, Palm or Olive Trees are
perfect for large areas and can be made the focal point of any
exhibition space with dramatic lighting or simply planting them in
containers. They look elegant and graceful and can be an eye catcher
for exhibition attendees. Ferns and other smaller plants can be filled
around them.
Flowering containers, potted plants or arrangements of cut flowers
are also available. Blooming plants will soften any space and make the
area bright and cheerful. More exotic plants such as Hibiscus,
Bromeliads or Azaleas can be used to create a custom look designed
to draw attention to whatever product you may be exhibiting. Plants will
draw attention and make exhibiting space much more inviting, resulting
in more leads and possible higher sales.

Flower Shows: The primary objective of flower show is to create

interest among the general public to grow quality flowers and maintain
beautiful gardens in and around their houses. The display of quality
exhibits inculcates the spirit of healthy competition among the
participants. Flower shows give an opportunity to the people to know
the wide range of plants that can be grown in the locality.
 The other advantage is that a visitor gets a chance to see all the
best materials at a time in one place. A flower show should be a place
for discussing the various garden problems, availability of nursery
plants and to find out ways for solving each other‟s difficulties. Each
participant should share his knowledge and experience with others. But
unfortunately, due to professional jealousy people sometimes do not
want to share their secret to success.

It is also an occasion to demonstrate how a perfect exhibit can be

grown. Besides all these, the aesthetic value of a show cannot be
overlooked flower vases, bamboo stakes, show passes, benches and
tables for exhibit should be made available to the participants.
Arrangements should be made to open refreshment stalls. Nurserymen,
seedsmen, companies selling agricultural implements, chemicals, etc.
should be allowed to open their stalls on rental basis.

Different educative charts on horticulture nursery should be

displayed and demonstration on some horticultural nursery operations
such as budding, grafting, pruning, etc. should also be arranged. A film
Show on flowers, nursery and gardens, preferably in color, could be
arranged in the evening accompanied by a supporting talk. Many flower
show committees also make arrangements for bringing in exotic exhibits
from abroad.

Tips to Exhibitor: The first and foremost thing is to get a schedule

of the flower show well in advance and to convince oneself of the
requirements. For example, roses are grouped into several classes for
show purposes, such as Hybrid Tea, Floribunda, etc. and one has to
exhibit the right type of rose in the appropriate class. Similarly, it may
be specified that the annuals are to be displayed in groups of 6, 12, or
18 pots in as many different varieties.
After going through the schedule it has to be decided in which
groups the entries are to be made. Once the decision is made the
plants are raised accordingly and seeds of flowering annuals procured.
 It is to be remembered that only best quality seeds can earn a prize
and so the seeds are to be purchased from reputable nurseries or
seedsmen at least a fortnight ahead of the sowing date. The sowing is
to be staggered at intervals of 4-7 days so as to avoid disappointment
as a result of casualty when planted in one lot.
One more reason for staggering the sowing dates is to ensure that
at least one group of plants is in perfect condition during the show time,
as it may so happen that one group from a particular sowing date may
fail to open the flowers on the scheduled date due to climatic or other
reasons.
The plants for exhibition needs extra feeding with liquid manure but
not over feeding, from the date flower buds start to appear. To obtain
large flowers all auxiliary buds in flowers such as Carnation, Marigold,
Dahlia, etc. should be disbudded as soon as they appear leaving only
the apical bud to bloom the seasonal flowers or any other plant should
be grown in the appropriate sized pot and not in an under or over sized
pot.
To make the plants bushy pinching should start at an early date for
flowers such as Brachycome, Carnation, Marigold, Zinnia etc., and the
operation repeated frequently, especially for Brachycome, Candytuft,
Petunia, Schizanthus, French Marigold, etc. Only one annual should be
grown in a pot. In some shows it is often seen that 3-4 seedling are
grown in one pot to obtain a compact effect. This is absolutely not
needed if the proper size of pot is selected and proper cultural
procedure is followed. Some annuals such as Zinnia develop flower
buds at a very early stage of growth which should be removed
constantly until the plants attain sufficient vegetative growth.

Some extra pots are to be raised than required as per schedule as

few plants may die or fail to bloom on the appropriate date. If annuals
are first grown in ground and then transplanted in pots, the operation
should be under taken at least one month before the date of show to
enable the plants to spread their roots end overcome the transplanting
shock.
 One should not try to hoodwink the judges by lifting ground-grown
plants in pots a few days ahead of the show. Before displaying, the pots
are to be cleaned properly or lightly painted with terracotta red (geru).
No plants; either annuals or foliage, should be displayed in a crowded
fashion. The Judges will like to see the plants individually and will also
see the foliage.
The foliage and other perennial plants such as Bougainvillea and
Hibiscus are also grown in a similar fashion. They should be fed with
liquid manure prepared from oil cake once in a fortnight or 20 days. The
leaves should be washed regularly by spraying.
Precautions: A few extra plants are to be taken to the show than
required as plants may get damaged while in transit. The branches
should be staked properly during transportation to prevent damage.
Some sort of staking is permitted in shows for certain category of plants
but this, should not be obtrusive. During transit delicate flowers may be
covered with tissue paper as a precaution against being bruised. Often
plants get stolen from shows and one should do well to keep a vigil on
his exhibits. Identification mark should be put on the pots, but this
should not show prominently.

3.26 WRITE ABOUT WAYS TO MARKETING OF NURSERY PLANTS?

Marketing of Nursery Plants

Marketing is planning and organizing the systems in such a way
that will make consumers believe that they are buying something
special, meets their needs and also supplying the right amount of
product when the customers want to buy it. Customer perceptions are
not just about price and quality, but may also include status, enjoyment,
attractiveness, convenience, health. Producers should decide which
factors are special for their product and emphasis these in their
promotion.
Direct Marketing
This is sales by the nurseryman direct to the consumer. Different
studies show that many consumers prefer direct contact with the
nurseryman/seller compared to an impersonal service, although the
latter are in some cases more efficient. One of the main advantages of
direct sales to consumers is the opportunity to reduce marketing costs
and to add value to the product so as to increase the profit margin.
Nurseryman need to be aware of existing marketing tools in order to
maximize sales.

Retail Outlet
In most cities municipal ordinances regulate places and areas
where nursery plant retail outlets operate. In selecting a location the
three main factors to consider are: good visibility, accessibility and
proximity to buyers. Street or road crossings, the proximity of shopping
centers or any other area which has the potential for high volume of
customer traffic are good locations for produce sales outlets. Some
municipalities give permission to place exhibits on sidewalks to attract
customers provided they do not interfere with normal pedestrian traffic.

Street Selling
Although this method of marketing is frequently seen in developing
countries like India, selling and peddling is generally not allowed by
most municipalities. There are many reasons for this. There are public
health security considerations, as this activity generates foul odour as
well as insect and rodent proliferation. The second reason is that it
constitutes unfair competition for established outlets.
These are periodically inspected and are liable to taxes on their
operations. Ambulatory selling is undertaken in vehicles either drawn by
motor, animal power or humans and plants is peddled from home to
home. Street selling has the same characteristics and limitations as
ambulatory selling. As scales are unavailable, plants is generally sold
by units.
Nursery Markets
A nursery market is a form of direct marketing that is located in or
within proximity of a community where growers sell directly to numerous
customers. Cash sales and the possibility of selling under or oversize
units that cannot be marketed through other marketing channels are the
main benefits of this system for nurseryman.
For consumers it provides the opportunity to buy new plants and to
interact with nurseryman in an informal environment. A nursery market
becomes successful when here is cooperation and interaction among
three key groups:
1. The sponsoring, organizing or promoting group may be a
municipality a group of neighbors, the local Chamber of Commerce,
a nurseryman organization or any other association or organized
group.
2. Vendors are not only true nurserymen. They should also include
backyard producers. This provides a means for them to increase
their income.
3. It is estimated that one vendor can be supported by 800 potential
buyers. So, a community of 8 000 residents could sustain a farmers
market with 10 vendors.
The main advantages of selling at nursery markets include:
minimum investment required for operating, there is no need for
packaging materials, large volume of produce or a wide variety of
products made available to the customers at one location.

Regional Markets
Regional markets exist in many developing countries where buyers
and sellers meet to trade. From an organizational point of view they are
very similar to nursery markets. One of the main differences is that
operations; are more concerned with wholesaling, although some
retailing is undertaken.
 A sponsoring organization also exists. Responsibilities include
undertaking administrative duties of the market, one or more days per
week for operating, stall rental on a daily basis, etc. This system
provides many small-scale nurserymen with the opportunity to sell their
plants at a fair price.

Nursery Stall Sales

Nursery outlets attract many customers. This form of direct
marketing has the advantage of adding value. Location of the nursery
outlet is extremely important because it has to be seen from a certain
distance. It should be located on relatively busy roads. The main
access routes to cities are probably the best places for these types of
markets.

3.27 EXPLAIN HOW TO EXPORT OF NURSERY PLANTS?

Export of Nursery Plants

Some exports require an export License before you can ship your
plants. Some foreign countries have standards that you should be
aware. There are some countries where one cannot sell plants. Use
this section as a primer to familiarize yourself with the licenses,
standards, and legal considerations that may apply to your plants.
Export Licenses
Learn when you need an Export License and from whom in order to
ship your plants from India. Export licenses are issued for individual
transactions determined by the product, the country, the end-use and
the end-user.
Foreign Standards and Certification Information
Many foreign countries have their own standards and import
certification requirements on things like: product standards, certification
requirements, electricity regulations, packaging and recycling laws and
quality expectations.
 If you want to sell your plants in foreign markets you should be
aware of these Foreign Standards and Certification Requirements.
When exporting, it is essential to be aware of the various regulations
and Legal Considerations that pertain to your nursery plants.

3.28 WHAT ARE THE MINIMUM QUALITY STANDARDS FOR

GROWING OF PLANTS INSIDE GREENHOUSES?

Minimum Quality Standards for growing of plants inside

greenhouses/polyhouses
1. Effective sanitation practices for insect and disease prevention must
be adhered to.
2. No field-produced banana plants can be grown in the protected
environment along with tissue cultured plants.
3. Varieties must be separated by physical barriers such as proper
tagging, which will prevent varietal mixture.
4. Before dispatch to the farmers, the tissue-cultured plants growing in
the nursery should be tested for the absence of the Banana Bunchy
Top Virus, Cucumber Mosaic Virus, Banana Bract Mosaic Virus,
Banana Streak Virus and clonal uniformity.
5. If testing performed by an accredited laboratory reveals the presence
of banned viruses, fungus or bacteria the tissue-cultured plants
should not be dispatched from the premises of the production lab
and the entire material should be destroyed.

3.29 EXPLAIN ABOUT PRODUCTION AND HARDENING IN PLANT

PRODUCTION?

Production and Hardening in Plant Production

The hardening or acclimatization, process begins while the plantlets
are still in vitro
i.e. growing in the culture vessels. Acclimatization is the physiological
adaptation of a plant or animal to changes in climate or environment
such as light, temperature or altitude.
 The tissue culture plants need acclimatization or hardening before
they are transferred in the field. The acclimatization is necessary
because there is vast variation in the environment of plants in vitro
conditions and environment in the field. In culture vessels the in vitro
plants are exposed to high humidity, hetrotrophic mode of nutrition, high
ethylene concentration and constant temperature throughout the year.
These conditions lead to the development of plants having low
epicuticular wax, low stomatal density and stomatal malfunction, which
make these plants more vulnerable to mortality in field conditions. To
prevent this mortality, it is must to harden or acclimatize these tissue
cultured plants.
Approaches for Hardening of Plants: To have success in hardening
of tissue culture plants, the following approaches are adopted: plantlets
to be hardened should have a balanced proportion of roots and shoots.
Appropriate rooting media should be selected for establishment of
plants ex vitro. They should be provided a balanced nutrition for
survival of rooted plantlets. The rooting and acclimatization should be
simultaneous. The gelling agents from roots should be cleaned before
the plants are transferred into the rooting media. Moisture content or
humidity around transferred plantlets should be maintained for a better
result.
Advanced Approaches: The conventional approaches are not
sufficient to acclimatize the wide range of plant species, an alternative
in vitro and ex vitro approaches can be adopted. Plantlets are pre
hardened in culture vessels before being transferred into the soil. The
plants can be hardened by bringing about alterations of sugar
concentration in the culture medium. Some other means are like
controlling the concentration of gelling agents, use of antitranspirants,
control of gas exchange around the plantlets, use of growth retardants,
and autotropic mode of nutrition of in vitro plantlets are also taken care
of.
Hardening Unit: The hardening unit is provided with controlled
light, temperature, relative humidity and periodic water spray system to
harden (acclimatize) the nursery plantlets before transplanting. The
 nursery plantlets deflasked in the laboratory are kept in this hardening
unit for 3 to 6 months for hardening before they are released into the
field for cultivation.
Hardening or Acclimatization: The successful acclimatization of
micropropagated plants and their subsequent transfer to the field is a
crucial step for commercial exploitation of in vitro technology. However,
the acclimatization of micropropagated roses was reported to be a
difficult procedure because of rapid desiccation of plantlets or their
susceptibility to diseases due to high humidity. The newly developed
method of hardening, consist of cellulose plugs for support and
protecting the roots during transfer to soil, and ventilated culture vessel
to improve the resistance of the plantlets to desiccation. The plantlets
thus grown showed better survival when transferred to ex vitro
conditions.
In case of banana plantlets which are being acclimatized from
cultured vessels to greenhouse, the plantlets have shoots and roots but
are not yet capable of supporting themselves in the soil, prior to
acclimatization,. The rooted shoots are about 6–8 cm tall and receive
nutrients from an artificial medium that contains major nutrients. To help
acclimatize the plantlets, the caps or tops of the culture vessels are
removed for a period of at least several days. The recommendation is
that a minimum of 10 days be allowed for in vitro acclimatization.

Stages in Hardening
Primary Hardening: The micro cuttings were subjected to primary
hardening in closed mini polytunnels with 95-100% Relative Humidity
(RH) for 4-5week (stage II) and partially opened polytunnels with 65 %
RH for 4-5 week (stage III).
Secondary Hardening: It is done under shade net with 45 % RH
for 1 month (stage IV). The response of micro cuttings in various
rooting media is recorded as budding, rooting and percentage survival.
 Assessment of Hardening: The physiological status of plants during
hardening was assessed at the following stages:
Stage I- Microshoots in the culture vessels (100 % RH).
Stage II- Microshoots on closed mini polytunnels (95-
100 % RH) Stage III –Plantlets in partially opened
polytunnels (65 % RH) Stage IV – Plants under
shade net (45 % RH)

Standard Protocol for Hardening of Nursery Plants

1. Prepare and sterilise substrate components (coconut fiber or
coconut fiber-coal-pine bark). Place wet and sterilized substrate in
germination tray cells.
2. From vitro plants kept in NEO medium for fourth months, select
specimens with developed root systems. Then wash agar residues
stuck to the roots.
3. Disinfect plants using Dithane M-45 (3 gm per 1 Liter of water).
Transplant the vitro plant in each cell of the germination tray,
burying part of the roots in the substrate and leaving the rest
exposed. Provide water and place in the shade. Cover each tray
with a plastic lid, preventing these from touching the leaves.
4. Apply daily misting with distilled and sterilized water. Water every
eight days with half concentration MS solution for a month. Apply
Benlate (0.70 g per Liter of water) in case of fungal infestation.
5. After three weeks, remove plastic lid for 4 hours a day for eight
days; then remove the cover completely.
6. Transfer trays to a shady place for eight days and later to a site
with 50 % direct sunlight.
7. From weeks 6 to 18 provide irrigation to the plants with tap water
using an atomizer or sprayer.
8. Transplant each whole block of substrate to individual containers,
filling them up with coconut fiber or a mixture of organic substrates
plus icopor (polystyrene foam) and/or coal, to promote aeration and
drainage.
9. Transfer plants to a shady, well-ventilated place, where relative
humidity borders on 80 %.
3.30 WRITE ABOUT TRANSPLANTING AND HANDLING
SEEDLINGS?

Transplanting and Handling Seedlings

If plants have not been seeded in individual containers, they must
be transplanted to give them proper growing space. The ideal time to
transplant young seedlings is when they are small and there is little
danger from setback. This is usually about the time the first true leaves
appear above or between the cotyledon leaves. Do not let plants get
hard and stunted or too tall and leggy.
Seedling growing mixes and containers prepared by methods
similar to those mentioned for germinating seed. However, the medium
should contain more plant nutrients than a germination mix. Some
commercial soilless mixes have fertilizer already added. When
fertilizing, use a soluble house plant fertilizer at the dilution
recommended by the manufacturer about every two weeks after the
seedlings are established.
To transplant, carefully dig the small plants up with a knife or
wooden plant label. Let the group of seedlings fall apart and pick out
individual plants. Avoid tearing roots in the process. Handle small
seedlings by the leaves, not the delicate stems. Punch a hole in the
medium into which the seedling will be planted. Make the hole the
same depth that the seedling was growing in the seed flat. After
planting, firm the soil and water gently. Keep newly transplanted
seedlings away from direct heat in the shade for a few days or place
them under fluorescent lights. Continue watering and fertilizing as was
done in the seed flats.
 MODEL QUESTION PAPER-1

Max. Marks: 50 Time: 1½ hrs (90 Minutes)

SECTION- A (4x5M=20 Marks)

Answer any four questions. Each answer carries 5 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF PLANT NURSERY? 1.1

2. WHAT ARE THE SEASONAL ACTIVITIES AND ROUTINE OPERATIONS IN
A NURSERY? 3.1
3. DEFINE GROWING MEDIUM IN PLANT NURSERY? 2.4
4. WHAT ARE THE COMMON DISEASES IN NURSERY PLANTS? 3.5
5. DEFINE PERMANENT NURSERY AND ITS ADVATAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES? 1.5
6. WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING SEED SOWING AND
PLANTING? 2.11
7. WHAT ARE THE COMMON INSECT-PESTS IN NURSERY? 3.6
8. WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING PREPARATION OF
NURSERY BEDS? 2.2

SECTION B (3x10M = 30 Marks)

Answer any three questions. Each answer carries 10 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. WHAT ARE THE REQUIRED BASIC FACILITIES FOR A NURSERY

LAYOUT? 1.13
2. WHAT ARE THE NURSERY TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN PLANT
NURSERY? 2.5
3. WRITE ABOUT THE NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN DETAIL? 3.2
4. WRITE ABOUT THE SOWING METHODS OF SEEDS AND PLANTING
MATERIAL? 2.10
5. EXPLAIN CHARACTERISTICS, TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF GROWING
MEDIA USED FOR PLANT NURSERY? 2.3

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 MODEL QUESTION PAPER-2

Max. Marks: 50 Time: 1½ hrs (90 Minutes)

SECTION- A (4x5M=20 Marks)

Answer any four questions. Each answer carries 5 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. DESCRIBE PLANT PROPAGATION STRUCTURES IN BRIEF? 1.15

2. DEFINE WEEDING? 3.3
3. WRITE ABOUT THE SEEDS AND OTHER VEGETATIVE MATERIAL USED
TO RAISE PLANTS IN BRIEF? 2.6
4. WHAT IS GRAFTING? 2.9
5. WHAT ARE THE COMMON POSSIBLE ERRORS IN NURSERY ACTIVITIES?
3.7
6. WRITE ABOUT THE BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS-2008) RELATED
TO NURSERY? 1.16
7. WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING PREPARATION OF
NURSERY BEDS? 2.2
8. DEFINE PERMANENT NURSERY AND ITS ADVATAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES? 1.5

SECTION B (3x10M = 30 Marks)

Answer any three questions. Each answer carries 10 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. EXPLAIN ECONOMICS OF NURSERY DEVELOPMENT AND PRICING? 3.10

2. WHAT ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR A GOOD
NURSERY? 1.14
3. EXPLAIN CHARACTERISTICS, TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF GROWING
MEDIA USED FOR PLANT NURSERY? 2.3
4. WRITE ABOUT THE NURSERY MANAGEMENT IN DETAIL? 3.2
5. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT NURSERIES ON THE BASIS
OF STRUCTURE USED? 1.11

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 MODEL QUESTION PAPER-3

Max. Marks: 50 Time: 1½ hrs (90 Minutes)

SECTION- A (4x5M=20 Marks)

Answer any four questions. Each answer carries 5 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. WHAT ARE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING PREPARATION OF

NURSERY BEDS? 2.2
2. DEFINE STAKING? 3.4
3. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MAINTAIN RECORDS IN NURSERY?3.8
4. DEFINE GREENHOUSE IN PLANT NURSERY? 1.12
5. WHAT ARE THE COMMON DISEASES IN NURSERY PLANTS? 3.5
6. DEFINE ORNAMENTAL NURSERY? 1.8
7. WHAT IS LAYERING IN PLANT NURSERY? 2.8
8. WHAT IS GRAFTING? 2.9

SECTION B (3x10M = 30 Marks)

Answer any three questions. Each answer carries 10 marks

(At least 1 question should be given from each Unit)

1. WHAT ARE THE BASIC COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR A GOOD

NURSERY? 1.14
2. EXPLAIN ECONOMICS OF NURSERY DEVELOPMENT AND PRICING? 3.10
3. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT NURSERIES ON THE BASIS
OF STRUCTURE USED? 1.11
4. HOW MANY TYPES OF NURSERY BEDS CAN BE PREPARED? 2.1
5. WRITE ABOUT THE OUTLINES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
TECHNIQUES TO PRODUCE PLANTING MATERIAL? 2.7

*****