SEMINAR REPORT

ON

ADVANCEMENT IN COOLING SYSTEM

OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
By

Shridhar Gani
(2KE18ME085)
Submitted to

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K. L. E. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HUBBALLI-27
2021 - 2022
 SEMINAR REPORT
ON

ADVANCEMENT IN COOLING
SYSTEMS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

By

Shridhar Gani

Under the Guidance

Of
Dr. V R Hiremath

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

K. L. E. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HUBBALLI-27
2021 - 2022
 K.L.E. Society’s
K. L. E. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HUBBALLI-27
2021 - 2022
Department of Mechanical Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar work entitled “ADVANCEMENT IN

COOLING SYSTEMS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR” has been completed
successfully by SHRIDHAR GANI (2KE18ME085) as part of VIII Semester
curriculum in Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgavi during the academic year 2021-2022.

(Dr. V.R. Hiremath) (Dr. S C Sajjan) (Dr. B. S Anami)

Seminar Guide HOD Principal

Name of the Examiners Signature with date

1.
2.
3.
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
K. L. E. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HUBBALLI-30

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express the deepest appreciation to our project guide, Dr. V R
HIREMATH department of mechanical engineering, for his constant support,
inspiration, and keen interest that played an important an important role in
completion of this project.

We are grateful to Dr S.C. SAJJAN, Head of Department of Mechanical

Engineering, for all the facilities provided in the pursuit of this project.

We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr. B. S. ANAMI, Principal of the Faculty,
for providing us with all the necessary facilities and support.

We would also like to thank Dr. SHARAD. G. JOSHI, Dean of the Faculty, for the
continuous encouragement and motivation.

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to our Seminar Co-Ordinator Mr.

Basukumar H.K and all the teaching faculty and staff members of the department of
Mechanical Engineering for constructive suggestion and constant encouragement.

Lastly, we express our gratitude to all who have been directly or indirectly involved
in this project.

Shridhar Gani
(2KE18ME085)
 Table of Contents

Topic Page No.

Abstract 1

1 Introduction 2
1.1 Components of nuclear reactor 4
1.1.1 Fuel 4
1.1.2 Moderator 4
1.1.3 Control rods 5
1.1.4 Coolant 5
1.1.5 Pressure vessel 5
1.1.6 Steam generator 5
1.1.7 Containment 5
1.2 Main types of nuclear reactor 6
1.2.1 Pressurised water reactor (PWR) 6
1.2.2 Boiling water reactor (BWR) 7
2 Nuclear power plant cooling system 8
3 Reactor cooling system and connected systems 11
3.1 Codes and standards 11
3.2 Description of cooling systems 12
3.3 Seven cooling and related systems 13
3.3.1 Primary cooling system 14
3.3.2 Reactor and service pools cooling system 14
3.3.3 Reactor water purification system 15
3.3.4 Hot water layer system 15
3.3.5 Reflector cooling and purification system 15
3.3.6 Emergency makeup water system 16
3.3.7 Secondary cooling system 16
4 Conclusion 17
Bibliography 18
 List of Figures

1.1 Image of nuclear reactor 1

1.2 Nuclear reactor overview 4
1.3 Pressurised water reactor 6
1.4 Boiling water reactor 7

2.1 Nuclear power plant with cooling system 8

ADVANCEMENT IN COOLING SYSTEM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

Abstract: -

The term nuclear reactor will be used in this text to refer to devices in which
controlled nuclear fission chain reactions can be maintained. The nuclear power plant has
emerged to be one of the best renewable energies that has been proven in many leading
countries. The production of energy through nuclear energy power plant is needed to
fulfill the demand, different types of nuclear energy power plant will produce the same
product which is energy but must comply with different costs, plans, and suitability based
on the country’s environment and climate. But, the most important aspect is on
recognizing the best nuclear power plant cooling system that suits the most on one’s
country. Different types of the cooling system give different amount of efficiency based on
the suitability of the technology with the targeted area’s environment and climate. The
reactor cooling systems remove the heat generated in the reactor core, irradiation
facilities and spent fuel through direct cooling of the core and reflector and cooling of the
reactor and service pools. The heat is transferred ultimately to the atmosphere. Thus,
knowing the most suitable nuclear power plant cooling system is a must to ensure the
efficiency of the production of electrical power at its best.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Nuclear reactors work by using the heat energy released from splitting atoms of certain
elements to generate electricity. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds
of reactor which were developed in the 1950s and improved since. The first generation of
these reactors have all been retired, and most of those operating are second-generation.
New designs are coming forward, both large and small. About 10% of the world's
electricity is produced from nuclear energy.

Fig.1.1 Image of Nuclear reactor

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of
certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make
steam to generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilise the actual
neutrons produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for
propulsion.)The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for
most types of reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel
is harnessed as heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is
used to drive the turbines which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).

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ADVANCEMENT IN COOLING SYSTEM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

The world's first nuclear reactors 'operated' naturally in a uranium deposit about two
billion years ago. These were in rich uranium ore bodies and moderated by percolating
rainwater. The 17 known at Oklo in West Africa, each less than 100 kW thermal, together
consumed about six tonnes of uranium. It is assumed that these were not unique
worldwide. Today, reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling
submarines and large naval ships generate about 85% of the world's nuclear electricity.
The main design is the pressurised water reactor (PWR) which has water at over 300°C
under pressure in its primary cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a
secondary circuit. The less numerous boiling water reactors (BWR) make steam in the
primary circuit above the reactor core, at similar temperatures and pressure. Both types use
water as both coolant and moderator, to slow neutrons. Since water normally boils at
100°C, they have robust steel pressure vessels or tubes to enable the higher operating
temperature.

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1.1 Components of Nuclear Reactor

There are several components common to most types of reactor:

Fig.1.2 Nuclear reactor overview

1.1.1 Fuel
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes to
form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core. In a 1000
MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going.
Usually this is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha
particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to
carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as there may be
enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.

1.1.2 Moderator
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they
cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

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1.1.3 Control rods

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and
are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In some
PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of
power efficiently. PWR control rods are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades
from the bottom of the core.

1.1.4 Coolant

A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors
the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is
secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam. A PWR has two to four primary
coolant loops with pumps, driven either by steam or electricity

1.1.5 Pressure vessel

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may
be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the surrounding
moderator.

1.1.6 Steam generator

Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-
pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the
turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator.*
Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator.

1.1.7 Containment
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is designed to
protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in
case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel
structure.

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1.2 Main types of nuclear reactor

1.2.1 Pressurised water reactor (PWR)
This is the most common type, with about 300 operable reactors for power generation and
several hundred more employed for naval propulsion. The design of PWRs originated as
a submarine power plant. PWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The
design is distinguished by having a primary cooling circuit which flows through the core
of the reactor under very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is
generated to drive the turbine. Water in the reactor core reaches about 325°C hence it must
be kept under about 150 times atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling. Pressure is
maintained by steam in a pressuriser (see diagram). In the primary cooling circuit the
water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to steam the fission reaction would slow
down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety features of the type. The
secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit. The secondary
circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat exchangers which are thus
steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is then
condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.

Fig.1.3 Pressurized water reactor

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1.2.2 Boiling water reactor (BWR)

This type of reactor has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a single
circuit in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so
that it boils in the core at about 285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of
the water in the top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and
thus efficiency there. BWR units can operate in load-following mode more readily than
PWRs.

The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly
to the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of
a reactor is always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine
must be shielded and radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this
tends to balance the savings due to the simpler design. Most of the radioactivity in the
water is very short-lived, so the turbine hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut
down.

Fig.1.4 Boiling water reactor

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CHAPTER 2
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT COOLING SYTEM

Fig.2.1 Schematic view of nuclear power plant with cooling system

The usage of water in a thermoelectric power plant is mainly for the cooling system to
liquefy steam and carries away the waste heat in part as a Rankine steam cycle. The high
amounts of water withdrawal and consumption lead the electricity to face the
consequences of climatic change. The chosen cooling medium temperature, however,
deviate from its nominal operating conditions in practice thus affects the efficiency in
electricity production. The existing nuclear plants have about 34-40% thermal efficiency
based on site. By applying the condenser heat balance model, a cycle of energy analysis is
developed to determine the heat balance conditions, corresponding power output and
thermal efficiency for the prescribed range of cooling water temperatures.

Due to the ceramic coating fuels, the inertness of helium coolant and the graphite core
structures, the high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR) have large thermal design
margin. The HTGRs can achieve the safety target of the fuel temperature design criteria
with only the passive cooling system under the severe accident such as the station black-
out. Thermal conduction, thermal radiation and natural circulation of the passive safety

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system have been the impediments for the core thermal output, power density of the core
and core size to achieve the safety target that the decay heat can be dislodged with natural
cooling. Therefore, as an objective, to clarify the impediments, the core design of HTGRs
is performed. Another objective is to satisfy the safety limit, the core design of HTGR is
described. A steady and stable connection of power system is necessary for the safety of
nuclear power plant. This shows the need of an alternative, site independent and reliable
power source.

The wet cooling tower with water collecting devices (WCTWCD) is a type of nuclear
power plant that is initially produced and goes through its operation in a French nuclear
power plant in the 1980s. It is frequently designed in large scale and high cooling capacity
since it is a kind of energy-saving tower with less air pressure drop in air inlet compared
with the conventional wet cooling tower (CWCT). At present, there is no research on the
layout pattern of the fill in the WCTWCD as compared to CWCT which has been proved
to have a better cooling performance with the use of non-uniform layout fill.

Hybrid heat pipe was proposed to replace the existing control rod as passive in-core
cooling system (PINCs) for guarantee cooling capacity during station blackout (SBO).
Hybrid heat pipe was installed to remove decay heat from nuclear fuel. The hybrid heat
pipe has the special ability to remove the decay heat from nuclear fuel in core after
shutdown by transferring heat from the core inside reactor vessel to outside. The hybrid
heat pipe consists of three parts: the evaporator region that transported decay heat
generated from nuclear fuel by evaporation that included neutron absorber material so the
hybrid heat pipe can control the nuclear reaction and shut down the reactor, the adiabatic
region functioning as to deliver heat from evaporator region to the last region, condenser
region that releasing latent heat by condensation of vaporized working fluid. As a
conclusion, hybrid heat pipe can enhance the safety of advanced nuclear power plants.

The researcher pointed out that an additional model for predicting flow in the vapour path
may be necessary for more accurate solution. The increase of 1°C, 5°C, 10°C and (10-35
°C) of cooling water inlet temperature result in a decrease of thermal efficiency by
0.152%, 0.76%, 1.52% and 2.26% respectively and output power by 0.444%, 2.214%,
4.416% and 6.593%, respectively. The data indicate that the changes of condenser
conditions such as saturation of temperature and pressure correlate with cooling water inlet
temperature to result in a decrease of 6.593% in output power of the plant for the range of

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15-30 °C. It can be summarized that the cooling water extracted from the environment
might reduce the thermal efficiency and output power of the nuclear power plant.

The hybrid heat pipe can be a remarkable solution to cool the reactor when the
depressurization process seems to be impossible. Furthermore, the existence of neutron
absorber material containing inside the hybrid heat pipe can shut down the reactor and
remove decay heat in core at the same time. The researcher set forth the possibility of the
hybrid heat pipe to continue cooling the reactor and preventing evaporation of the coolant
with no uncover within a day if the hybrid heat pipe can be improved to 2.5 times of
cooling capacity. Based on the safety evaluation worked, the conceptual core design
analysis shows that the decay heat can be dislodged only with passive cooling devices. As
a conclusion, understandings the most suitable cooling system is needed to ensure no or
less casualties in the future.

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CHAPTER 3

REACTOR COOLING SYSTEM AND CONNECTED

SYSTEMS
The reactor cooling systems remove the heat generated in the reactor core, irradiation
facilities and spent fuel through direct cooling of the core and reflector and cooling of the
reactor and service pools. The heat is transferred ultimately to the atmosphere.

The objectives of this chapter are:

1. To identify the specific safety requirements and safety design bases applicable to the
reactor cooling and connected systems.

2. To provide a summary description of the design and operation of the reactor cooling and
connected systems.

3. To identify the safety features of the reactor cooling and connected systems that
contribute to nuclear and personnel safety.

4. To evaluate the design and operation of the reactor cooling and connected systems so as
to demonstrate that they meet the identified safety requirements and safety design bases.

5. To identify possible faults those are subject to detailed safety analysis.

3.1 Codes and Standards

All cooling systems are designed according to:

a) ASME Rules for the Construction of Pressure Vessels, equivalent to:

(i) Australian Standard AS 1210: Pressure Vessels.

b) ASME Process Piping Code, equivalent to:

(i) Australian Standard AS 4041: Pressure Piping.

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3.2 Description of Cooling Systems

The cooling systems are designed for the nominal power of 20 MW at which the reactor
will operate, in addition to the heat generated in irradiation facilities, with the safety
margins described, corresponding to the reactor thermal-hydraulic design. Safety margins
ensure that all systems will have the required heat transfer capacity in all postulated
conditions.

a) Heat extracted from the core by the Primary Cooling System (PCS)

b) Heat extracted from the Reflector Vessel by the Reflector Cooling and Purification
System (RCPS).

c) Heat extracted from the irradiation facilities by the Reactor and Service Pools Cooling
System (RSPCS).

d) Heat extracted from the Service Pool with a full load of spent fuel.

The cooling systems are capable, with adequate safety margins, of maintaining the fuel and
core temperatures within their operational limits during reactor operation and within their
safety limits following all design basis fault sequences.

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3.3 Seven cooling and related systems

Seven cooling and related systems are provided, as follows:

Primary Cooling System (PCS)

Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System (RSPCS)

Reactor Water Purification System (RWPS)

Hot Water Layer System (HWLS) and Hot Water Layer Purification System (HWLPS)

Reflector Cooling and Purification System (RCPS)

Emergency Make-up Water System (EMWS)

Secondary Cooling System (SCS)

In all cases the cooling media is water, whose quality complies with strict purity
requirements described with each system. Except for the Reflector Cooling and
Purification System that employs both demineralised heavy water and demineralised light
water, and the Secondary Cooling System that employs normal treated water, all other
systems run with demineralised light water.

The ultimate heat sink for all heat sources is the atmosphere.

During normal reactor operation the heat is transferred to the atmosphere by the cooling
towers via the Secondary Cooling System. The thermal load in the Power state includes
core fission heat and irradiation targets fission heat. This is removed mainly by the
Primary Cooling System and the Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System respectively.

During the Physics Test and Refuelling states, the heat load includes the core and the
irradiation targets decay heat. This is removed by natural circulation in the sections of the
Primary Cooling System and Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System that are inside the
Reactor Pool. Either forced or natural circulation is possible in the Shutdown state.

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3.3.1 Primary Cooling System

The function of the Primary Cooling System is to remove heat from the core in all
operational and accident situations maintaining the core in a safe condition. Heat is
extracted by the flow of cooling water through the core either by forced circulation when
the Reactor is in the Power state, or by natural circulation when the Reactor is in the
Physics Test, Shutdown or Refuelling states. The heat extracted from the core is
transferred to the Secondary Cooling System, directly through the heat exchangers of the
Primary Cooling System, or indirectly through the Reactor and Service Pools Cooling
System. Under abnormal conditions, or if the RSPCS is not available, the heat is
transferred to the water of the reactor and service pools.

The portion of the Primary Cooling System, inside the Reactor Pool, which participates in
the core cooling during normal operation and performs the function of core cooling by
natural circulation, is defined as a Safety Category 1 Engineered Safety Feature. The
portion of the Primary Cooling System outside of the Reactor Pool is not required for core
cooling by natural circulation and is classified as a Safety Category 2 system.

3.3.2 Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System

The Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System removes heat from the irradiation rigs in
the Reactor Pool and from the spent fuel in the Service Pool during all reactor states. The
system removes heat from the irradiation rigs by forced circulation during the reactor
Power state and by natural circulation during the Physics Test, Shutdown or Refuelling
states.

The Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System also indirectly remove the core heat from
the Reactor Pool during the Physics Test, Shutdown, and Refuelling states. Heat from the
Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System is transferred to the Secondary Cooling
System.

The portion of the Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System inside the Reactor Pool that
performs the function of rigs cooling by natural circulation is defined as a Safety Category
1 Engineered Safety Feature. The portion of the system that does not participate in rig
cooling by natural circulation is classified as a Safety Category 2 system.

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3.3.3 Reactor Water Purification System

The Reactor Water Purification System performs the function of keeping the Primary
Cooling System and the Reactor and Service Pools Cooling System water within the
required purity limits by removing corrosion, fission and radioactive impurity traces. The
system uses filters and ion exchange purification resins to perform its functions.

The Reactor Water Purification System includes Safety Category 2 and Safety Category 3
components.

3.3.4 Hot Water Layer System

The Hot Water Layer System provides:

a) Additional personnel protection against radiation emitted by impurities from pool water

b) A means for continuous skimming of water surface

A non-active stable water layer at a higher temperature than the pool water reduces mixing
and hence reduces potential contamination of the layer by impurities dissolved in the pool
water. The Hot Water Layer System establishes this non-active, stable hot water layer by
purification and heating a layer of water at the top of the Reactor Pool.

The Hot Water Layer System includes Safety Category 2 and Safety Category 3
components.

3.3.5 Reflector Cooling and Purification System

The Reflector Cooling and Purification System serves to cool and maintain the purity of
the heavy water contained in the Reflector Vessel surrounding the reactor core.

The Reflector Cooling and Purification System include the Reflector Primary Cooling
Circuit, the Reflector Purification System, the Additional Cooling Circuit and the
Reflector Intermediate Cooling Circuit. In addition, the system interfaces with the
Deuterium Recombination System.

Reflector heavy water is cooled by the Reflector Primary Cooling Circuit. The system
transfers heat to the Reflector Intermediate Cooling Circuit, which in turn transfers heat to
the Secondary Cooling System. The reflector heavy water is purified by the Reflector
Purification System.

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The Reflector Intermediate Cooling Circuit has been designed to provide an additional
barrier between titrated heavy water and the water of the Secondary Cooling System in
order to minimise the possibility of the release of tritium to the atmosphere.

To prevent heavy water degradation, the Reflector Cooling System operates with a helium
cover gas in equilibrium with the heavy water.

The Reflector Cooling and Purification System include Safety Category 2 and Safety
Category 3 components.

3.3.6 Emergency Make-up Water System

The Emergency Make-up Water System is a passive system provided to ensure that the
core is covered with water in the event of a beyond design basis loss of coolant accident
(LOCA). The Emergency Make-up Water System injects water by gravity into the two
lines of the Primary Cooling System, thus keeping the reactor core flooded. The water
injection starts by the automatic opening of two valves when Reactor Pool water level
reaches the upper Chimney level. The Emergency Make-up Water System has the capacity
to maintain the Chimney full of water for up to twenty-four hours, compensating for
coolant losses due to evaporation caused by residual core decay heat.

The Emergency Make-up Water System is classified as a Safety Category 2 system.

3.2.7 Secondary Cooling System

During normal operation in the Power state, the Secondary Cooling System (SCS)
transfers heat to the atmosphere. The SCS also cools the Cold Neutron Source helium
compressors and Cold Box and the water from the Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning System and is designed to have spare capacity for future uses. Heat rejection
to the atmosphere is done through a set of cooling towers. The SCS is provided with a
water treatment system. The SCS includes provisions for continuous radioactive
monitoring.

The SCS includes Safety Category 2 and Safety Category 3 components.

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CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
The cooling system plays a pivotal role. Cooling is needed to condense the after-turbine
steam in the internal circuit and recycle it. As the steam condenses back to water, the
surplus heat must be discharged to the air or a body of water. Any steam-cycle system
must discharge about two-thirds of the energy produced by the heat source due to the
physics of turning heat into mechanical energy, in this case the turning of a turbine
generator.

Just how much heat must be discharged for any given electricity output is determined by a
plant’s thermal efficiency, which is the proportion of internal heat that becomes electrical
output. Higher thermal efficiency means not only a reduced cooling requirement but also
more electricity from a given amount of fuel. Thermal efficiency depends on the
temperature difference between the internal heat source and the external environment, and
can be increased by expanding the temperature differential at either end.

With a higher temperature heat source, a greater percentage of heat is converted to

electricity, leaving less surplus heat to be discharged for a given electricity output.
Similarly, a lower temperature of cooling water yields higher efficiency.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Luqman Jeffry, Article “Nuclear Power Plant Cooling System”,
Journal “Academic Journal of Science”, University of Tenaga National (2017)

2) INVAP, Research paper “Reactor cooling system and connected systems”,

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (2014)

3) James J. Duderstadt and Louis J. Hamilton, Reference book “Nuclear Reactor

Analysis”, Department of Nuclear Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Michigan

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