Ice Lab Manual

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INDEX
SR. PAGE SIG
DATE LIST OF EXPERIMENT GRADE
NO. NO. N
1 Performance test of 4-stroke
Diesel Engine

Petrol Engine
3 Performance test of multi

cylinder petrol engine using
Morse test method

petrol engine
5 Performance test of multi

cylinder diesel engine using
Willan’s line method
6 Determination of valve
timings for four stroke
petrol/diesel engine
7 Study about ignition and
governing system of Internal
Combustion engines
8 Study about supercharging

and turbo charging of
Internal Combustion engines
9 Study about various methods

for measurements and testing
of Internal Combustion
engines
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10 Study about engine emissions
and their control
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EXPERIMENT – 1
PERFORMANCE TEST OF 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
1. AIM:
To determine:
⮚ Brake horsepower.
⮚ Fuel consumption
⮚ Specific fuel consumption
⮚ Brake thermal efficiency
⮚ Heat lost by cooling water
⮚ Heat equivalent to BHP
⮚ Air consumption
⮚ Swept volume
⮚ Volumetric efficiency.
2. INTRODUCTION:
A Diesel engine is almost the same as a petrol engine but it burns a different type of fuel. Diesel is named
after its inventor Rudolf Diesel, a German who first developed this type of fuel in the early 1900’s. Diesel
engines have mainly been used in Lorries and buses because of their increased power and their reliability.
They tend to be noisy and smelly compared to a petrol engine but are more economical to run.
In a diesel engine the compression stroke only compresses air and not fuel. On the ignition stroke the air is
compressed to a very high pressure and this generates enormous heat, which then ignites the fuel that is
injected into the combustion chamber at that precise moment of maximum pressure. There is no need for a
spark plug in a diesel engine. The compressed air is hot enough to cause the fuel to explode. This is
because a diesel engine has a far higher “compression ratio” Than does a petrol engine.
3. THEORY:
The Four stroke Cycle

The ‘stroke’ is simply when the piston moves all the way either up or all the way down inside the cylinder.
As you might guess, in the four stroke engine each of the four strokes accomplishes something different.
So, let’s have a look at the strokes and see what happens.
Induction
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The first stroke is called Induction. This is when the air is drawn into the cylinder by the piston going
down and producing suction. As the piston travels down the cylinder it creates a vacuum above it and the
air is drawn into the cylinder in the empty space left by the piston . The piston starts at the top, the
camshaft turns and pushes on the tappets which causes the intake valve to open( on the left), and the piston
moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder full of air. This is also sometimes called the intake stroke.
Compression
Compression is the second of the four strokes. This is the stage when the air is compressed and forced into
the top of the cylinder ready for ignition. The camshaft has turned, pushed the tappets, which have in turn
allowed the inlet valve to return to the closed position. The piston moves back up and compressed this air.
Compressing the air makes the explosion more powerful. As the valves are both closed, the cylinder is
sealed and the compressed air can’t escape.
Ignition
As the piston reached the top of the compression stroke, the injector injects the fuel and ignites the highly
compressed air. The piston is then forced back down the cylinder by the resulting explosion, turning the
crankshaft and generating the propulsion for the engine that makes the car go along the road. The diagram
shows the piston on its way down the cylinder just after the mixture has ignited.
Exhaust
This is when the exhaust gases (after the fuel is burnt) are forced out of the engine. Once the piston hits the
bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens (on the right). The piston travels back up inside the cylinder
and this time it ‘pushes’ the exhaust gases out through the now open exhaust vent. Now the engine is ready
for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and we are back to the intake stroke.
5. DESCRIPTION;
The diesel engine test rig consists of following arrangements to conduct the experiment:
A suitable capacity multi cylinder four stroke, water cooled diesel engine is selected for experimental
purpose.
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LOADING DEVICE (EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER):
It consists of a stator on which a number of electromagnets are fitted and a rotor disc made of copper or
steel and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates, eddy currents are produced in
the stator due the magnetic flux set up by the passes of field current in the electromagnets. These eddy
currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the engine. The loading is done by power controller unit
fitted on panel.
FUEL INPUT MEASURING ARRANGEMENT:
This arrangement consists of a fuel tank of suitable capacity mounted on a stand. The fuel goes to the
engine through a burette. The burette facilitates the measurement of fuel consumption for a definite period
with the help of a stopwatch.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED BY COOLING WATER:
Suitable pipefitting is provided for circulating the cooling water into the engine. For measuring the rate of
flow of cooling water, a flow meter is provided. All the arrangement can find the heat carried away by
cooling water. The temperature of inlet and outlet water can be directly read from the Digital Temperature
Indicator.
AIR INTAKE MEARURING ARRANGEMENT:
It consists of an orifice, a diaphragm base manifold and a U tube manometer. With the help of orifice and
manometer, the volume of the air sucked can be calculated.
6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
▪ Diesel : 10 liters
▪ Water supply continuous for engine cooling and exhausts calorimeter.
▪ Space required : 1.7m * 0.7m
▪ Power supply: 220VDC, 5 amp
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on the oil dipstick. If
oil level is reduced, add clean oil to the crankcase by opening the cover of valve provided, at the top of the
engine.
2. Fill the diesel in diesel tank.
3. Fill the manometer up to half of the height of manometer with water.
4. Fill the burette with diesel by opening the valve provided at the lower side of burette. Close the
valve after filling the burette.
5. Supply the diesel to the engine by opening the valves provided in the fuel supply line.
6. Open continuous cold water supply to the engine jacket.
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7. Start the engine with starting handle and let it run for 5 minutes under no load condition.
8. When engine start running smoothly, firstly load the engine slightly with the help of Hydraulic
brake dynamometer and then gradually increase the load. Then immediately open the cooling water to the
break drum of the dynamometer.
9. Run the engine for 2 minutes so that it can stabilize.
10. Note the reading of balance and note the RPM of pulley with tachometer.
11. Close the diesel supply valve and open the valve of burette. Note down the time to consume 10 or
20 ml of diesel. It will give fuel consumption.
12. Now open the diesel supply valve, which refill the burette.
13. After refilling the burette close the burette valve and continue the diesel suppl.
14. Note down the reading of manometer to calculate the air intake by the engine.
15. Note the temperature of inlet and outlet of the water circulating through the engine jacket.
16. Measure the flow rate of water with the help water meter and stop watch.
17. Repeat the experiment for different load.
18. When the experiment is over reduce the load on engine and stop the engine.
19. Then close the fuel and cooling water supply to the engine.
8. SPECIFICATIONS:
Engine : Multi cylinder, 4 stroke, water cooled

H.P. : 52.8@ 5500 RPM, 1396 CC, make TATA indica
Bore and stroke : 75 * 79.5 mm
9. FORMULAE:
Brake Power, BP = 2*3.14*N* T/60*1000 Kw
T= W*g*Re N-m
Re = 0.195 m
FUEL CONSUMPTION, W f = X* Rf/ t*106 Kg /sec
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, SFC = Wf/BP kg/ BP sec
HEAT SUPPLIED BY FUEL = BP/Hf * 100%
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BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Ƞ break %), ȠBT = BP/Hf *100 %
HEAT BALANCE SHEET
Heat carried away by cooling water from Engine jacket (Hcw)
Hecw= mecw*Cp* (T2-T1) KW
mecw= Wecw/ 3600 Kg/sec
Where,
T1 = Temp. of water at inlet tot the engine, ̊C
T2 = Temp. of water at outlet from engine, ̊C
Heat carried away by exhaust gases (Heg)
Hexh = meg * Cpeg (T3- Ta) KW
Where:
Mexh = Mass of exhaust gases in kg/ sec
Cpegxh = Specific heat of exhaust gases, KJ / Kg ̊C
From the heat balance by the calorimeter
Heat given by the exhaust gases = Heat gained by cooling water
mexh * Cpexh ( T3- T4) = mccw * Cp( T6 – T5)
mexh * Cpexh = mccw * Cp ( T6- T5)/ ( T3- T4)
Mccw = Wccw/ 3600 kg/ sec
Where,
T3 = Temp. of exhaust gases inlet to calorimeter, ̊C
T4 = Temp. of exhaust gases outlet from calorimeter, ̊C
T5 = Temp. of cooling water inlet to calorimeter, ̊C
T6 = Temp of cooling water outlet from calorimeter, ̊C
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T7 = Ambient Temperature, ̊ C
Heat lost in radiation and unaccounted losses (Hun)
Hun = Hf – (BP + H ecw + Hexh) KW
AIR CONSUMPTION ( Qa) = Cd* ao*(2*g*H) m3/sec
H = h/100*ρm /ρa m
SWEPT VOLUME, Vs = 3.14*D2*L*N*Nc/4*60*N m3/sec
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Ƞ vol%, Ƞvol = (Qa/Vs)*100
AIR CONSUMPTION (Qa)
Quantity of air sucked through orifice
Qa= Cd ao (2gH) 0.5 m3/s
H = h*ρm/ρa(room)
Density of air at room temp.ρa (room) =1.293(ρa)*0273/ (273+Ta) Kg/m3
SWEPT VOLUME
= (3.14/4) D2*L*(cycle/s) *No. of cylinders
= (3.14/4) D2*L*(rpm/2*60)*4 m3/s
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY n%
= (Vol.of the air actually sucked during suction stroke (Qa)/Swept volume) * 100
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10. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
DATA:
D = Bore of engine = 75mm= 0.75m
L = stroke of engine = 795 mm = 0.0795 m
do = Diameter of orifice = 27 mm = 0.027m
ao = Cross sectional area of orifice = 5.7244 * 10
Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.64
ρa = Density of air at 0 degree C = 1.293 kg / m3
ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water = 1000 kg/ m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/ s2
Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.81 KJ/Kg ̊C
dp = Diameter of pulley = 300mm = 0.3m
dr = Diameter of rope = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Cv = Calorific value of diesel = 42630 KJ/KG
1 HP = 746 Watts
Density of diesel = 780 kg/m3
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. 1 2 3
W, kg
BP
RPM
Fuel Volume of petrol consumed, Xml
consumption Time taken for X, t sec.
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Water inlet temp. in engine jacket, T1 ̊C
Heat carried by
Water outlet temp. from engine jacket, T2 ̊C
cooling water
through engine Water flow rate circulated in engine jacket, Wcew,
LPH
Exhaust gases inlet temp., T3 ̊ C
Exhaust gases outlet temp., T4 ̊C
Heat carried by
Water inlet temp. of calorimeter, T5 ̊C
exhaust gases
from exhaust gas Water outlet temp. of calorimeter, T6̊C
calorimeter Water flow rate circulated in calorimeter, Wccw,
LPH
Manometer pressure difference, cm
CALCULATION:
S. No. 1 2 3 4
BP
Fuel consumption, Wf, kg/sec.
Specific fuel consumption, kg/KW sec.
Heat supplied by fuel, Hf, KW
Brake thermal efficiency, ȠBT %
Heat carried by cooling water, KW
Heat carried by exhaust gases, Kw
Unaccounted heat loses, kW
Air consumption, Qa, m3 /sec
Swept volume, Vs, m3/sec
Volumetric efficiency, , Ƞ vol%
NOMENCLATURE:
W = Weight in kg
N = RPM
D = Bore of engine
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L = Stroke of engine
X = Volume of fuel consumed (ml) (1 ml = 1 centi meter cube)
t = Time taken for X (sec.)
Qf = Fuel consumption, meter cube/sec
Cv = Calorific value of Diesel,
H = Total pressure head, m
h = Manometer difference, cm
ao = Cross sectional area of orifice
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
ρa = Density of air
ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water.
ρ fuel = Density of fuel.
12. PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
▪ Always check the oil level in the engine before starting and make sure that sufficient oil is present
in the engine.
▪ Change this oil as engine completes 100 hours of total running.
▪ Open cold water supply to the engine before starting.
▪ Fuel tank and fuel line should cleaned and free from foreign particles.
If a diesel tank was empty before filling the diesel, remove air trapped in fuel line by opening the vent
screw provided at the right side, top of the fuel pump.
13. TROUBLESHOOTING:
1. If the engine heats up, check the water supply to the engine jacket.
2. If still engine does not start, check the fuel and fuel supply line. If air found in Pipeline, remove it.
3. On applying load if the voltmeter and ampere meter do not display any value, check the connection and
rheostat.
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EXPERIMENT – 2
PERFORMANCE TEST OF 4-STROKE PETROL ENGINE
1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the Multi cylinder four stroke petrol engine & its characteristics.
2. AIM:
To determine:
● Brake horsepower
● Fuel consumption
● Specific fuel consumption
● Brake thermal efficiency
● Indicated horsepower
● Mechanical efficiency
● Swept volume
● Air consumption and
● Volumetric efficiency
● Heat balance sheet
3. INTRODUCTION
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The most commonly used source of power for motor vehicles, introduced by the German engineers
Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in 1885. The petrol engine is a complex piece of machinery made up of
about 150 moving parts. It is a reciprocating piston engine, in which a number of pistons move up and
down in cylinders. A mixture of petrol and air is introduced to the space above the pistons and ignited. The
gases produced force the pistons down, generating power. The engine- operating cycle is repeated every
four strokes (upward or downward movement) of the piston, this being known as the four- stroke cycle.
The motion of the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at the end of which is a heavy flywheel. From the flywheel
the power is transferred to the car’s driving wheels via the transmission system of clutch, gearbox, and
final drive.
4. THEORY:
The Four Stroke cycle
The ‘stroke’ is simply when the piston moves either all the way up or all the way down inside the cylinder.
As you might guess, in the four- stroke engine each of the four strokes accomplishes something different.
So, let’s have a look at the four strokes and see what happens:
Induction
The first stroke is called Induction. This is when the fuel and air mixture is drawn into the cylinder by the
piston going down and producing suction. As the piston travels down the cylinder it creates a vacuum
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above it and the fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder in the empty space left by the piston. The piston
starts at the to, the camshaft turns and pushes on the tappets which causes the intake valve to open (on the
left), and the piston moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder full of air and fuel. This is also
sometimes called the intake stroke.
Compression
Compression is the second of the four strokes. This is the stage when the fuel and air mixture is
compressed and forced into the cylinder ready for ignition. The camshaft has turned, pushed the tappets,
which have in turn allowed the inlet valve to return to the closed position. The piston moves back up and
compresses this fuel/air mixture. Compressing the mixture makes the explosion more powerful. As the
valves are both closed, the cylinder is sealed and the mixture can’t escape.
Ignition
As the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug ‘fires’ and ignites the highly
compressed fuel and air mixture. The piston is then forced back down the cylinder by the resulting
explosion; turning the crankshaft and generation the propulsion for the engine, which makes the car to go
along the road. The diagram shows the piston on its way down the cylinder just after the mixture has
ignited.
Exhaust
for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas. And we are back to the intake stroke.
Multiple Cylinders
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The vast majority of internal combustion engine uses more than one cylinder. This is entirely a question of
efficiency. The limitation of the Otto Cycle is that it only provides power to turn the crankshaft a quarter of
the time. The logical solution is to have four cylinders with pistons turning the crankshaft so at any time
there is always one cylinder in the power stroke and the crankshaft is turned at a fairly even rate. An even
more powerful method is to use extra cylinders at intermediate points in the cycle so that one power stroke
starts before the previous one has finished.
5. DESCRIPTON:
Four Cylinders, Four Stroke, Petrol Engine Test Rig with rope brake loading arrangement mainly consists
of:
1. A four Cylinder, Four Stroke petrol engine,

2. An Hydraulic Brake loading arrangement,
3. A Panel Board Arrangement,
4. A Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement,
5. Air intake measuring arrangement.
6. An Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by cooling water
7. An Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust gases and
A brief description and particulars on this test rig is given below:
MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE:
A medium capacity four cylinder, four stroke, water- cooled, petrol engine is selected for experimental
purposes. The specification for the Engine is as follows;
Engine : 4 cylinder, 4 stroke, inclined, water cooled

Bore diameter : 68.5 mm
Stroke : 72 mm
Compression ratio : 8:7:1
The engine is complete with self- starter, dynamo, lube- oil filter, air cleaner, distributor, ignition coil,
exhaust silencer etc.
LOADING ARRANGEMENT:
A Rope Brake Dynamometer arrangement with a brake drum coupled to the engine shaft and provided
with a cooling water arrangement and dial gauge 2 nos (10 and 25 kg each). The load can be varied by
increasing the rope tension on the brake drum with moving the hand wheel provided on the frame.
PANEL BOARD ARRANGEMENT:
The units fitted on the Panel board are:

a) An ignition and starting switch to switch on the ignition circuit and to start the engine.
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b) A Pilot lamp indicator for ignition.
c) A high voltage knife switches assembly for cutting of each cylinder for Morse Test. With the help
of the three individual knife switches each cylinder can be cut off.
d) Throttle valve control mechanism to control the position of the throttle in relation to the speed and
load on the engine.
Consists of self- mounting type fuel tank of about 10 liters (approx) suitably mounted on a stand. The
stand fixed on the air tank, fuel goes from the reservoir to fuel filter through a 100 ml burette. The burette
facilitates the measurement of the fuel consumption for a definite period of time with the help of a
stopwatch.
AIR INTAKE MEASURING ARRANGEMENT:
Consists of an air tank fitted n orifice plate and a differential manometer to measure the rate of flow of air
sucked by the engine. The coefficient of discharge of orifice is about 0.64.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY COOLING WATER:
Suitable piping system is fitted to the engine for circulating the cooling water for the engine.
Thermocouples are provided to measure the inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water. For measuring
the rate of flow of cooling water, water meter is provided . With this entire arrangement one can find the
heat carried away by cooling water.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY EXHAUST GASES:
It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust gases. Exhaust gas
calorimeter consists of a central tube and outer jacket. Exhaust gases passes through central tube and
water is circulated in outer jacket to get the maximum temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and
outlet of calorimeter. The volume of water circulation is measured with the help of measuring cylinder and
stopwatch. Thermocouples are provided to get the inlet and outer temperature of exhaust gases and water
circulated.
▪ Petrol: 10 liters
▪ Constant head water supply continuous for engine cooling
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▪ Constant head water supply continues for exhaust calorimeter cooling.
▪ Space required: 2.5m * 1.1m
1. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on the oil dipstick. If
oil level is reduced, add clean oil (SAE-40) to the crankcase by opening the cover, provided at the top of
the engine.
2. Fill the petrol in petrol tank.
3. Fill the manometer fluid i.e. water, up to half of the height of manometer.
4. Fill the burette with petrol and supply the petrol to the engine by opening the valve provided at the
left side of burette.
5. Switch on Mains Power Supply to the panel.
6. Open cold water supply to the engine jacket and exhaust calorimeter
7. Insert the ignition key and turn it in the clockwise direction to ignition on position, which is
indicated by an indicator lamp. Turn the ignition switch key further clockwise against the spring pressure
to start the engine. As soon as the engine starts, leave the ignition key and it run for 2 minutes under no
load condition.
8. After two minutes, when engine starts and running smoothly, load the engine with the help of rope
brake drum provided (25 kg dial gauge in rotation of brake drum).
9. Run the engine 2 minutes so that it can stabilize.
10. Note down the reading of applied on dial gauge and note the RPM with the help of digital RPM
indicator provided.
11. For measuring fuel consumption close the petrol supply valve provided on left side of burette so
that fuel flows from burette. Note down the time to consume 10 or 20 ml of petrol.
12. Now open the fuel supply valve which refill the burette and continue the petrol supply from the
tank.
14. Note the temperature of inlet and outlet of the water circulating through the engine jacket from
Digital Temperature Indicator
15. Measure the flow rate of water in engine and exhaust gas calorimeter with the help of rotameters
provided.
16. Note down the temperature of inlet and outlet of exhaust gases & water circulating through the
calorimeter. Measure the flow rate of water with the help of rotameter provided.
17. Repeat the experiment for different loads.
18. Now for the Morse test cut off the required cylinder by the respective knife switch. Adjust the
speed of the engine to its previous value by reducing the load from the dynamometer without changing the
throttle position.
19. Repeat the same procedure for cutting other cylinder by the respective knife switch.
20. When the experiment is over first engage all cylinder and reduce the load on engine by removing
the weights of the dynamometer and reducing the throttle gradually
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21. Turn off the ignition key and remove it from the switch.
8. SPECIFICATION:

Maruti Suzuki Gypsy 1298 CC
Stroke : 72.0 mm
Fuel : petrol
9. FORMULAE:
Brake Power, BP = 2*3.14*N* T/60*1000 Kw
T = W*g*Re N-m
Re = 0.195 m
FUEL CONSUMPTION, W f = X* Rf/ t*106 Kg /sec
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, SFC = Wf/BP kg/ BP sec
HEAT SUPPLIED BY FUEL = BP/Hf * 100%
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Ƞ break %), ȠBT = BP/Hf *100 %
HEAT BALANCE SHEET
Heat carried away by cooling water from Engine jacket (Hcw)
Hecw= mecw*Cp* (T2-T1) KW
mecw= Wecw/ 3600 Kg/sec
Where,
T1 = Temp. of water at inlet tot the engine, ̊C
T2 = Temp. of water at outlet from engine, ̊C
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Heat carried away by exhaust gases (Heg)
Hexh = meg * Cpeg (T3- Ta) KW
Where:
Mexh = mass of exhaust gases in kg/ sec
Cpegxh = Specific heat of exhaust gases, KJ / Kg ̊C
From the heat balance by the calorimeter
Heat given by the exhaust gases = Heat gained by cooling water
mexh * Cpexh ( T3- T4) = mccw * Cp( T6 – T5)
mexh * Cpexh = mccw * Cp ( T6- T5)/ ( T3- T4)
Mccw = Wccw/ 3600 kg/ sec
Where,
T3 = Temp. of exhaust gases inlet to calorimeter, ̊C
T4 = Temp. of exhaust gases outlet from calorimeter, ̊C
T5 = Temp. of cooling water inlet to calorimeter, ̊C
T6 = Temp of cooling water outlet from calorimeter, ̊C
T7 = Ambient Temperature, ̊ C
Heat lost in radiation and unaccounted losses (Hun)
Hun = Hf – (BP + H ecw + Hexh) KW
AIR CONSUMPTION ( Qa) = Cd* ao*(2*g*H) m3/sec
H= h/100*ρm /ρa m
SWEPT VOLUME, Vs = 3.14*D2*L*N*Nc/4*60*N m3/sec
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VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Ƞ vol%, Ƞvol = (Qa/Vs)*100
Qa = Cd ao (2gH) 0.5 m3/s
H = h*ρm/ρa(room)
Density of air at room temp.ρa (room) =1.293(ρa)*0273/ (273+Ta) Kg/m3
SWEPT VOLUME
= (3.14/4) D2*L*(cycle/s) *No. of cylinders
= (3.14/4) D2*L*(rpm/2*60)*4 m3/s
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY n%
= (Vol.of the air actually sucked during suction stroke (Qa)/Swept volume) * 100
DATA:
D = Bore of engine = 75mm= 0.75m
L = stroke of engine = 795 mm = 0.0795 m
do = Diameter of orifice = 27 mm = 0.027m
ao = Cross sectional area of orifice = 5.7244 * 10
Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.64
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ρa = Density of air at 0 degree C = 1.293 kg / m3
ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water = 1000 kg/ m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/ s2
Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.81 KJ/Kg ̊C
dp = Diameter of pulley = 300mm = 0.3m
dr = Diameter of rope = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Cv = Calorific value of diesel = 42630 KJ/KG
1 HP = 746 Watts
Density of diesel = 780 kg/m3
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. 1 2 3
W, kg
BP
RPM
Fuel Volume of petrol consumed, Xml
consumption Time taken for X, t sec.
Heat carried Water inlet temp. in engine jacket, T1 ̊C
by cooling Water outlet temp. from engine jacket, T2 ̊C
water
Water flow rate circulated in engine jacket, Wcew,
through
LPH
engine
Exhaust gases inlet temp., T3 ̊ C
Heat carried Exhaust gases outlet temp., T4 ̊C
by exhaust Water inlet temp. of calorimeter, T5 ̊C
gases from Water outlet temp. of calorimeter, T6̊C
exhaust gas Water flow rate circulated in calorimeter, Wccw,
calorimeter LPH
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Manometer pressure difference, cm
CALCULATION:
S. No. 1 2 3 4
BP
Fuel consumption, Wf, kg/sec.
Specific fuel consumption, kg/KW sec.
Heat supplied by fuel, Hf, KW
Brake thermal efficiency, ȠBT %
Heat carried by cooling water, KW
Heat carried by exhaust gases, Kw
Unaccounted heat loses, kW
Air consumption, Qa, m3 /sec
Swept volume, Vs, m3/sec
Volumetric efficiency, , Ƞ vol%
NOMENCLATURE:
W = Weight in kg
N = RPM
D = Bore of engine
L = Stroke of engine
X = Volume of fuel consumed (ml) (1 ml = 1 centi meter cube)
Qf = Fuel consumption, meter cube/sec
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h = Manometer difference, cm
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water.
ρ fuel = Density of fuel.
PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
▪ Always check the oil level in the engine before starting and make sure that sufficient oil is present
in the engine.
▪ Change this oil as engine completes 100 hours of total running.
If a diesel tank was empty before filling the diesel, remove air trapped in fuel line by opening the vent
screw provided at the right side, top of the fuel pump.
TROUBLESHOOTING:
2. If still engine does not start, check the fuel and fuel supply line. If air found in Pipeline, remove it.
rheostat.
EXPERIMENT-3
PERFORMANCE TEST OF MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
USING MORSE TEST METHOD
1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the Multi cylinder four stroke petrol engine & its characteristics.
2. AIM:
To determine:
● Brake horsepower
27
● Brake thermal efficiency
● Indicated horsepower
● Mechanical efficiency
● Swept volume
● Air consumption and
● Volumetric efficiency
● Heat balance sheet
3. INTRODUCTION
The most commonly used source of power for motor vehicles, introduced by the German engineers
Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in 1885. The petrol engine is a complex piece of machinery made up of
about 150 moving parts. It is a reciprocating piston engine, in which a number of pistons move up and
down in cylinders. A mixture of petrol and air is introduced to the space above the pistons and ignited. The
gases produced force the pistons down, generating power. The engine- operating cycle is repeated every
four strokes (upward or downward movement) of the piston, this being known as the four- stroke cycle.
The motion of the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at the end of which is a heavy flywheel. From the flywheel
the power is transferred to the car’s driving wheels via the transmission system of clutch, gearbox, and
final drive.
28
4. THEORY:
The Four Stroke cycle
The ‘stroke’ is simply when the piston moves either all the way up or all the way down inside the cylinder.
As you might guess, in the four- stroke engine each of the four strokes accomplishes something different.
So, let’s have a look at the four strokes and see what happens:
Induction
The first stroke is called Induction. This is when the fuel and air mixture is drawn into the cylinder by the
piston going down and producing suction. As the piston travels down the cylinder it creates a vacuum
above it and the fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder in the empty space left by the piston. The piston
starts at the to, the camshaft turns and pushes on the tappets which causes the intake valve to open (on the
left), and the piston moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder full of air and fuel. This is also
sometimes called the intake stroke.
Compression
Compression is the second of the four strokes. This is the stage when the fuel and air mixture is
compressed and forced into the cylinder ready for ignition. The camshaft has turned, pushed the tappets,
which have in turn allowed the inlet valve to return to the closed position. The piston moves back up and
compresses this fuel/air mixture. Compressing the mixture makes the explosion more powerful. As the
valves are both closed, the cylinder is sealed and the mixture can’t escape.
Ignition
As the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug ‘fires’ and ignites the highly
compressed fuel and air mixture. The piston is then forced back down the cylinder by the resulting
explosion; turning the crankshaft and generation the propulsion for the engine, which makes the car to go
along the road. The diagram shows the piston on its way down the cylinder just after the mixture has
ignited.
Exhaust
for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas. And we are back to the intake stroke.
29
Multiple Cylinders
The vast majority of internal combustion engine uses more than one cylinder. This is entirely a question of
efficiency. The limitation of the Otto Cycle is that it only provides power to turn the crankshaft a quarter of
the time. The logical solution is to have four cylinders with pistons turning the crankshaft so at any time
there is always one cylinder in the power stroke and the crankshaft is turned at a fairly even rate. An even
more powerful method is to use extra cylinders at intermediate points in the cycle so that one power stroke
starts before the previous one has finished.
5. DESCRIPTON:
Four Cylinders, Four Stroke, Petrol Engine Test Rig with rope brake loading arrangement mainly consists
of:
A four Cylinder, Four Stroke petrol engine, An Hydraulic Brake loading arrangement, A Panel Board
Arrangement, A Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement, Air intake measuring arrangement, An Arrangement for
measuring the heat carried away by cooling water, An Arrangement for measuring the heat carried away by exhaust
gases and a brief description and particulars on this test rig is given below:
MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE:
A medium capacity four cylinder, four stroke, water- cooled, petrol engine is selected for experimental
purposes. The specification for the Engine is as follows;

Stroke : 72 mm
Compression ratio : 8:7:1
The engine is complete with self- starter, dynamo, lube- oil filter, air cleaner, distributor, ignition coil,
exhaust silencer etc.
30
LOADING ARRANGEMENT:
A Rope Brake Dynamometer arrangement with a brake drum coupled to the engine shaft and provided
with a cooling water arrangement and dial gauge 2 nos (10 and 25 kg each). The load can be varied by
increasing the rope tension on the brake drum with moving the hand wheel provided on the frame.
PANEL BOARD ARRANGEMENT:
The units fitted on the Panel board are:

e) An ignition and starting switch to switch on the ignition circuit and to start the engine.
f) A Pilot lamp indicator for ignition.
g) A high voltage knife switches assembly for cutting of each cylinder for Morse Test. With the help
of the three individual knife switches each cylinder can be cut off.
h) Throttle valve control mechanism to control the position of the throttle in relation to the speed and
load on the engine.
Consists of self- mounting type fuel tank of about 10 liters (approx) suitably mounted on a stand. The
stand fixed on the air tank, fuel goes from the reservoir to fuel filter through a 100 ml burette. The burette
facilitates the measurement of the fuel consumption for a definite period of time with the help of a
stopwatch.
AIR INTAKE MEASURING ARRANGEMENT:
Consists of an air tank fitted n orifice plate and a differential manometer to measure the rate of flow of air
sucked by the engine. The coefficient of discharge of orifice is about 0.64.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY COOLING WATER:
Suitable piping system is fitted to the engine for circulating the cooling water for the engine.
Thermocouples are provided to measure the inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water. For measuring
the rate of flow of cooling water, water meter is provided. With this entire arrangement one can find the
heat carried away by cooling water.
ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY EXHAUST GASES:
It consists of exhaust gas calorimeter to measure the heat carried away by exhaust gases. Exhaust gas
calorimeter consists of a central tube and outer jacket. Exhaust gases passes through central tube and
water is circulated in outer jacket to get the maximum temperature difference of exhaust gases at inlet and
outlet of calorimeter. The volume of water circulation is measured with the help of measuring cylinder and
31
stopwatch. Thermocouples are provided to get the inlet and outer temperature of exhaust gases and water
circulated.
▪ Petrol: 10 liters
▪ Constant head water supply continuous for engine cooling
▪ Constant head water supply continues for exhaust calorimeter cooling.
▪ Space required: 2.5m * 1.1m
1. Fill oil in the oil sump of engine. It should be in between the marks provided on the oil dipstick. If oil level
is reduced, add clean oil (SAE-40) to the crankcase by opening the cover, provided at the top of the engine.
2. Fill the petrol in petrol tank.
3. Fill the manometer fluid i.e. water, up to half of the height of manometer.
4. Fill the burette with petrol and supply the petrol to the engine by opening the valve provided at the
left side of burette.
5. Switch on Mains Power Supply to the panel.
6. Open cold water supply to the engine jacket and exhaust calorimeter
7. Insert the ignition key and turn it in the clockwise direction to ignition on position, which is
indicated by an indicator lamp. Turn the ignition switch key further clockwise against the spring pressure
to start the engine. As soon as the engine starts, leave the ignition key and it run for 2 minutes under no
load condition.
8. After two minutes, when engine starts and running smoothly, load the engine with the help of rope
brake drum provided (25 kg dial gauge in rotation of brake drum).
9. Run the engine 2 minutes so that it can stabilize.
10. Note down the reading of applied on dial gauge and note the RPM with the help of digital RPM
indicator provided.
11. For measuring fuel consumption close the petrol supply valve provided on left side of burette so
that fuel flows from burette. Note down the time to consume 10 or 20 ml of petrol.
12. Now open the fuel supply valve which refill the burette and continue the petrol supply from the
tank.
14. Note the temperature of inlet and outlet of the water circulating through the engine jacket from
Digital Temperature Indicator
15. Measure the flow rate of water in engine and exhaust gas calorimeter with the help of rotameters
provided.
32
16. Note down the temperature of inlet and outlet of exhaust gases & water circulating through the
calorimeter. Measure the flow rate of water with the help of rotameter provided.
17. Repeat the experiment for different loads.
18. Now for the Morse test cut off the required cylinder by the respective knife switch. Adjust the
speed of the engine to its previous value by reducing the load from the dynamometer without changing the
throttle position.
19. Repeat the same procedure for cutting other cylinder by the respective knife switch.
20. When the experiment is over first engage all cylinder and reduce the load on engine by removing
the weights of the dynamometer and reducing the throttle gradually
21. Turn off the ignition key and remove it from the switch.
8. SPECIFICATION:

Maruti Suzuki Gypsy 1298 CC
Stroke : 72.0 mm
Fuel : petrol
9. FORMULAE:
BP = 2* 3.14*N*T/ 60 Watt
T = W*g*Re N-m
Re = db + 2*d/ 2 m
Where:
W = dial gauge reading, W= (w1-w2)
d = Diameter of brake drum = 0.3 m
dr = Diameter of rope = 0.012 m
N = No. of RPM
Re = 0.0138 m (effective radius)
FUEL CONSUMPTION
Wf = X/t * Specific gravity of fuel/1000 Kg/hr
33
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION = Fuel consumption/ BHP Kg/ BHP hr
HEAT SUPPLIED BY FUEL (Hf) = Wf* Cv /60 Kcal/min.
HEAT EQUIVALENT TO BHP (hbp) = B.H.P. * 746 * 60/ 1000 * 4.186 Kcal/min.
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Ƞ Brake thermal% ) = Heat equivalent to BHP/ Heat supplied By
fuel,Hf
MORSE TEST:
When cutting off first cylinder

B.H.P.1 = 2 * 3.14 N (W1 – W2) /4500 * dB + dR /2 HP
I.H.P.1 = B.H.P. – B.H.P.1
Then the Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.) of the remaining three cylinders is:
I.H.P.2 = B.H.P. – B.H.P.2
I.H.P.3 = B.H.P. – B.H.P.3
The total I.H.P. of the engine is
I.H.P. = I.H.P.1+ I.H.P.2 + I.H.P.3
34
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY (Ƞ mech. %)
Ƞ mech% = B.H.P. / I.H.P
INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Ƞ indicated% )
Ƞ indicated% = I.H.P. / Wf *CV
Qa = Cd ao
H= h* ƍm / ƍa (ROOM)
Density of air at room temp. = 1.293 * 273/ (273 + Ta) Kg/m3
SWEPT VOLUME
= π/ 4× D2× L × (cycles/s) × No. of Cylinders

= π/ 4 × D2 × L× N / 2× 60 × 4 m3/s
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY η%
= Vol. of the air actually sucked during suction stroke (Qa) / swept volume × 100
10 .OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:
DATA:
V = Swept volume = 800 centimeter cube
do = Diameter of orifice = 21 mm
ao = Cross sectional area of orifice = 3.4636 × 10
35
Cd = Co efficient of discharge = 0.64
ƍa = Density of air at 0 degree C = 1.293 Kg/ m3
ƍ = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water = 1000 Kg/ m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/ s square
Cp = Specific heat of water = 0.998 Kcal/ Kg
Cv = Calorific value of petrol = 10650 Kcal/ Kg
Specific gravity of petrol = 0.69 gm/cc
1 HP= 746 watt
OBSERBVATION TABLE (MORSE TEST):
TABLE-I
Cutting off 1. 2. 3.
cylinder no.
W
RPM
TABLE-II
cylinder no.
W
RPM
TABLE-III
cylinder no.
W
RPM
TABLE-IV
36
cylinder no.
W
RPM
OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No. 1 2 3 4
W
BHP
RPM
Volume of petrol consumed
Fuel
ml
consumption
Time taken for X,t sec.
Water inlet temp in engine
jacket, T1 degree C
Heat carried Water outlet temp. from
by cooling engine jacket, T0 degree C
water Water flow rate circulated in
through engine jacket,LPM
engine Manometer pressure
diff.,cm
Ambient temp,Ta degree C
CALCULATION:
S.No. 1 2 3 4
BHP
Fuel consumption, Kg/ BHP hr.
37
Specific fuel consumption
Kg/BHP hr.
Heat in fuel supplied
Heat equivalent to BHP,

Kcal/min
Brake thermal efficiency, ηbreak

%
IHP
Mechanical efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency,
Air consumption
Swept volume
Volumetric efficiency
NOMENCLATURE:
W = Weight applied,
K = Hydraulic Brake constant,
D = Bore of engine,
L = Stoke of engine,
N = No. of RPM,
X = Volume of fuel consumed, (ml),
t = Time taken for X (sec).
Wf = mass of fuel supplied, Kg/hr.
h = Manometer difference, m
ao = Cross- sectional area of orifice,
Cd = Co- efficient of discharge,
ƍa = Density of air at 0 degree C,
ƍm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water,
db = dia of brake drum 300mm – 0.3m
dr = dia of rope = 120 mm= 0.012m
PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
38
▪ Always check the oil level in the engine before starting and make sure that sufficient oil is present in the
engine.
▪ Change this oil as engine completes 100 hours of total running. (Volume is about 5 Liters.)
▪ Fuel tank and fuel should cleaned and free from foreign particles.
▪ The Morse test should be carried out only after the engine running conditions are stabilized at the required
BHP.
▪ When a cylinder is cut off adjust the speed and load of the engine quickly because large time laps might
result in the change in the working conditions of the engine.
▪ Do not attempt to cut off two cylinders simultaneously, since it can develop severe engine vibration.
TROUBLESHOTING:
2. If engine does not start and the battery indicator not glow, check the battery if discharged, charge it.
3. If still engine does not start, check the fuel and fuel supply line. If air found in Pipeline, change it.
rheostat.
EXPERIMENT – 4
PERFORMANCE TEST OF 2-STROKE PETROL ENGINE
39
OBJECTIVE:
To study the single cylinder two stroke petrol engine & its characteristics.
AIM:
To determine
● Brake Horsepower
● Air consumption
● Heat equivalent to BHP
● Heat carried Away by Exhaust Gases
● Swept Volume
● Volumetric Efficiency
● Brake Thermal Efficiency
INTRODUCTION:
In two stroke engines, the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e., one revolution of crankshaft as against
two revolutions of the four- stroke cycle. The difference between two stroke and four stroke engines is in
the methods of filling the cylinder with the fresh charge and removing the burned gases from the cylinder.
In a four- stroke engine, these operations are performed by the engine piston during the suction and
exhaust strokes respectively. In a two- stroke engine, suction is accomplished by air compressed in
crankcase or by a blower. The induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion or by a
blower. The induction of compressed air removes the products of combustion through exhaust ports.
Therefore, no piston strokes are required for these two operations. Only two piston strokes are required to
complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge and the other expansion or power stroke.
THEORY:
40
In two stroke engines, the air or charge is sucked through spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in
the crankcase reduces due to upward motion of the piston during compression stroke. After the
compression, ignition and expansion take place in the usual way.
DESCRIPTION:
Single Cylinder, Two strokes, Petrol Engine Test Rig with Rope Brake Dynamometer mainly consists of:
1. A Single Cylinder, Two Stroke petrol engine,

2. A Rope Brake Dynamometer,
3. A Fuel Input Measuring Arrangement,
A brief description and particulars on this test rig is given below
SINGLE CYLINDER TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE:
A single cylinder two- stroke petrol engine is selected for experimental purposes. The specification for the
Engine is as follows:
No. of Cylinders: Single
The engine is complete with kick- start, ignition coil, exhaust silencer etc.
LOADING DEVICE:
A Rope Brake Dynamometer arrangement with a brake drum coupled to the engine shaft. The spring
balances is provided for measuring the weight applied in kg units, mounted along with the engine frame.
Consists of self- mounting type fuel tank of about five liters capacity suitable mounted on a stand. Fuel
goes from the reservoir to engine through a 25 ml burette. The burette facilitates measurement of fuel
consumption for a definite period of time with the help of a stopwatch.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
● Petrol: 5 liters
● Engine oil SAE (20w40)
● Space required: 1.2 m* 0.7m
● Tachometer/ proximity sensor
● Water supply continuous for engine cooling and exhausts calorimeter.
● Drain
● Exhaust
41
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
▪ Fill the petrol in petrol tank and add some quantity engine oil about 2% (SAE 40).
▪ Fill the burette with petrol and supply the petrol to the engine by opening the valve provided at the
burette side.
▪ Push the toggle switch to ON position.
▪ Start the engine with the help of kick.
▪ Run the engine for 2 minutes so that it can warm up before loading.
▪ After starting the engine, press the clutch and put the engine in gear motion, now the clutch may be
slowly released and at the same time accelerate the engine gradually by opening the throttle valve.
▪ When engine running smoothly firstly Apply the load on engine with the help of rope brake
dynamometer.
▪ Note down the reading of spring balance. Note the RPM with the help of hand tachometer/
proximity sensor.
▪ Close the petrol supply valve provided on left side of burette so that fuel flows from burette. Note
down the time to consume 10 ml of petrol.
▪ Now open the fuel supply valve which refill the burette and continue the petrol supply.
▪ Repeat the experiment for different load.
▪ When the experiment is over reduce the load on engine by removing the weights and reducing the
throttle gradually. Press the clutch, disengage the gear, and bring the throttle to the close position.
▪ Push the toggle switch to OFF position and stop the engine.
▪ Then close the fuel supply to the engine.
SPECIFICATION:
Engine : 1 cylinder, 2 stroke, petrol engine
HP : 7.5, 145.0 cc
Type of Fuel : Petrol
Lubricating oil : 2T Oil of JASO FC/ API TC grade or equivalent
Gear Box oil : SAE 20W40 of API SC/CC grade
FORMULAE:
BP = 2*3.14*N*T/60 Watt
T = W*g*Re N-m
Re = db +2*dr/2 m
42
Where:
W = spring balance reading
Db = Diameter of brake drum
Dr = Diameter of rope
N = No. of RPM
Re = 0.011 m
FUEL CONSUMPTION, W f = X/t * S/1000 * 3600 Kg/hr
Where,
X = Volume of fuel consumed (ml)
S = specific gravity of fuel
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION Wsf = Wf/Bp Kg/ Watt- hr
HEAT SUPPLIED (Hf) = Wf/60 * Cv Kj/ min
Where:
Wf = mass of fuel supplied Kg/ hr
Cv = Calorific value of diesel Kj/ kg
HEAT EQUIVALENT TO BP ( hbp) = BP*60/1000 Kj/min
43
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY ( Ƞ brake thermal %) = Hbp/Hf %
HEAT CARRIED AWAY BY EXHAUST GASES (H EG) Heg= meg* Cpeg (T1 – Ta) KJ/min
Where,
M eg = mass of exhaust gases in Kg/ min
Cpeg = Specific heat of exhaust gases KJ/ KG ̊ C
T1 = Temperature of exhaust gases at inlet of calorimeter ̊C
Ta = Ambient temp.
From the heat balance of the calorimeter
Heat given by the exhaust gases in calorimeter = Heat gained by water
meg* Cpeg(T1 – T2 ) = mwc * Cp (T4-T3)
meg* Cpeg = mwc Cp ( T4 – T3)/( T1- T2)
Where,
mwc = mass of cooling water circulating in calorimeter in Kg/ min
= (flow in LPS*60)/ 1000* ρw Kg/min
44
T1 = Temp. of exhaust gases at inlet of calorimeter ̊C
T2 = Temp. of exhaust gases at outlet of calorimeter ̊C
T3 = Temp. of water at Inlet of calorimeter ̊ C
T4 = Temp. of water at Outlet of calorimeter ̊ C
Qa = Cd ao (2gH) 0.5 m3 / sec
H = h* Pm/Pa
Where:
Dia of orifice = 14 mm = 0.014 m
ao = cross sectional area of orifice= 1.539*10-4
Cd = Co efficient of discharge 0.64
ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water
H = Total pressure head
h = Manometer difference
Ta = Ambient Temperature ̊ C
SWEPT VOLUME Vs
Vs = 3.14/4*D2*L*N/60*n m3/s
n = No. of Cylinders = 1 (Single cylinder)
D = Bore of engine
L = Stoke of engine
N = No. of RPM
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Ƞ% = Qa/Vs *100
45
DATA:
dB = Diameter of brake drum = 200 mm = 0.2m
dR = Diameter of rope = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Bore = 54mm = 0.054m
Stroke = 54.4 mm = 0.054 m
1HP = 746 Watts =
Cv = Calorific value of petrol = 44,474 KJ/Kg
Specific gravity of fuel = 0.69 gm/cc
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. 1 2 3 4
BHP Spring balance weight, W1 kg
Spring balance weigh, W2 kg
RPM
Fuel Volume of petrol consumed, X

consumption ml
Time taken for X, T sec.
CALCULATION:
S.NO. 1 2 3 4
BHP
Fuel consumption, Kg/hr
46
Specific fuel consumption, Kg/BPH hr
Heat supplied, KJ/min
Heat equivalent to BHP
Brake thermal efficiency n%
NOMENCLATURE:
W1 = spring balance weight in direction of rotation
W2 = spring balance weight
dB = Diameter of brake drum
dR = Diameter of rope
D = Bore of engine
L = Stoke of engine
N = No. of RPM
X = Volume of fuel consumed (ml)
T = Time taken for X (sec.)
Wf = mass of fuel supplied Kg/ hr.
Cv = Calorific value of Diesel
H = Total pressure head m
h = Manometer difference m
Cd = Co efficient of discharge
ρa = Density of air at 0 ̊ C
ρm = density of manometer fluid i.e. water
Ceg = 1.063 kj/kg
47
PRECAUTIONS AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
▪ Change the engine oil after 100 hours of total running. (Volume is about 0.5 liters.)
▪ If diesel tank was empty before filling the diesel, remove air trapped in fuel line by opening the
vent screw provided at the right side, top of the fuel pump.
▪ Increase the speed gradually.
TROUBLE SHOOTING:
1. If engine does not start and the battery indicator not glows, check the battery if discharged, charges
it.
2. If engine does not start, check the fuel and fuel supply line. If air found in Pipeline, remove it.
3. On applying load if the voltmeter and ampere meter do not display any value, check the connection
and rheostat.
48
EXPERIMENT – 5
PERFORMANCE TEST OF MULTI CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE
USING WILLAN’S LINE METHOD
AIM:- To determine Frictional Power of Four-Stroke , Single Cylinder Diesel (Constant Speed) Engine by
Willan’s Line Method.
APPARATUS USED: - Four-Stroke, Single Cylinder Diesel (Constant Speed) Engine Test Rig, Stop
Watch, and Digital Tachometer.
THEORY:-
A curve between the fuel consumption rate and the Brake Power is called the Willan’s Line. This method
is used for determining the FP of the Diesel Engine, which is assumed to be independent of the load at
constant speed. In this method, fuel consumption rate is measured for various loads at constant speed. The
load on the engine is varies with the help of dynamometer and corresponding to each setting BP is
calculated. Then a graph is drawn of fuel consumption rate against the BP, and is extended back to cut the
BP axis. The negative BP then corresponds to the FP at a particular speed. This method is also enables to
determine IP without the use of an indicator.
FORMULE USED:-
(i) Torque, T = 9.81 x W x R , N-m.

Effective
Where;
49
R Effective = (D + d)/2 or (D + tBelt)/2 m, and
W (Load) = ( S1 - S2 ) Kg,
(ii) Brake Power, B P = ( 2πN T ) / 60, 000, KW
Where;
N = rpm, T = Torque N-m,
(iii)Fuel Consumption, m f = ( 50 ml x 10 -6 x ρ Fuel ) / ( t ) Kg/Sec.
Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3

So, 1 ml = 10-6 m3
(iv)Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC = ( m f x 3600 ) / B P Kg/ KW . hr
(v) Friction Power, F P = From BSFC vs BP Curve. KW
(vi)Indicated Power, IP = BP + FP KW
PROCEDURE:-
1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water.
2. Set the dynamometer to zero load.
3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition.
4. Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Note down the fuel consumption
rate.
5. Change the dynamometer load so that the engine speed Change, to maintain the engine speed
constant fuel consumption increases.
6. Note down the fuel consumption rate at this load setting.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for various loads.
8. Disengage the dynamometer and stop the engine.
9. Do the necessary calculation.
50
OBSERVATION :-
Engine Speed, N = 1500 rpm

No. of Cylinders, n = Single
Calorific Value of Fuel, C.V. = 38,000 KJ/
Kg
Density of fuel (Diesel), ρfuel = 810 to 910 Kg/
m3
Brake Drum Diameter, D = 181.5 x 10-3 m
Rope Diameter, d = m
Belt thickness, tBelt = 5.5 x 10-3 m
Sl. Engine Speed, N Dynamometer Spring Balance Time taken for 50

No. (rpm) Readings, (Kg)
S1 (Kg) S2 (Kg) ml fuel, t (Sec.)
1. 1500
2. 1500
3. 1500
4. 1500
CALCULATION :-
51
RESULT TABLE:-
Sl. Engine Brake Power, Fuel Brake Specific Fuel
N Speed, BP (KW) Consumption, Consumption, BSFC (Kg/
o. mf (Kg/Sec) KW . hr)
N (rpm)
1. 1500
2. 1500
3. 1500
4. 1500
RESULT:- Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard
performance Curves and FP is calculated By Willian’s line Method.
EXPERIMENT – 6
DETERMINATION OF VALVE TIMINGS FOR FOUR STROKE
PETROL/DIESEL ENGINE.
AIM: - To study and draw the valve timings diagram Four-Stroke, Single-Cylinder Diesel
Engine.
APPARATUS USED :- Four-Stroke, Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig, Sprit Level, Marking
Pencil, and Device for measuring crank angle.
THEORY:-
In four- stroke S. I. Engine the opening and closing of the valves and the ignition of the air fuel mixture do
not take place exactly at the dead center positions. The valve open slightly earlier and close after their
respective dead center positions. The ignition also occurs prior, to the mixture is fully compressed, and the
piston reaches the top dead center position. Similarly in a C. I. Engine both the valves do not open and
close exactly at dead center positions, rather operate at some degree on either side in terms of the crank
angles from the dead center positions. The injection of the fuel is also timed to occur earlier.
PROCEDURE:-
1) Fix a plate on the body of the Engine touching the flywheel.
52
2) Mark the positions of the both the dead centers on the flywheel with the reference to the fixed plate. TDC
and BDC in case of vertical Engines, IDC and ODC in case of horizontal Engines.
3) Mark on the flywheel when the inlet and exhaust valves open and close as the flywheel is rotated slowly.
4) Measure the valves (Tappet) Clearance.
5) Mark the spark ignition timing in case of petrol Engine and fuel injection timing in case of Diesel Engine.
6) Measure the angles of the various events and plot the valve timing diagram.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-
Engine Tappet Clearance Valve Timings

Types
Inlet Exhaust Inlet Valve Exhaust Valve Injection
Valve
Valve Open Close Open Close Timing
(mm) O O O O
( mm) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (O)
Four-Stro
ke,
Single-
Cylinder
(Vertical)
Diesel
Engine.
53
CALCULATIONS:-
RESULT:-Based on final calculation valve timing diagram is drawn and compare with the
standard valve timing diagram.
EXPERIMENT – 7
STUDY ABOUT IGNITION AND GOVERNING SYSTEM OF
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
Basically Convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types: (a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and
(b) Magneto Ignition System Both these conventional, ignition systems work on mutual
electromagnetic induction principle. Battery or Coil Ignition System: -used in 4-wheelers, but
now-a-days it is more commonly used in 2-wheelers also (i.e. Button start, 2-wheelers like
Pulsar, Kinetic Honda; Honda-Activa, Scooty, Fiero, etc.) - The ignition system is divided into
2-circuits:
(i) Primary Circuit: -consists of 6 or 12 V battery, ammeter, ignition switch, primary winding -it
has 200-300 turns of 20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire, contact breaker, capacitor.
54
(ii) Secondary Circuit: -consists of secondary winding or coil which have 21000 turns of 40 (S
WG) gauge wire. -bottom end of which is connected to bottom end of primary and top end of
secondary winding or coil is connected to center of distributor rotor. -distributor rotors rotate
and make contacts with contact points and are connected to spark plugs which are fitted in
cylinder heads. C=condenser, P=primary coil, S=secondary coil, R1=ballast resistance,
SW1=ignition switch, SW2=contact breaker Fig. 22. Circuit diagram for a conventional spark
ignition system Working: -When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as
the contact breaker closes, a low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is
also to be noted that the contact beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4
cylinders) in one revolution. When the contact breaker opens the contact, the magnetic field
begins to collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current will be induced in the
secondary winding. And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns of secondary, voltage goes unto
28000-30000 volts. This high voltage current is brought to centre of the distributor rotor.
Distributor rotor rotates and supplies this high voltage current to proper stark plug depending
upon the engine firing order. When the high voltage current jumps the spark plug gap, it
produces the spark and the charge is ignited-combustion starts-products of combustion expand
and produce power. -The Function of the capacitor is to reduce arcing at the contact breaker
(CB) points. Also when the CB opens the magnetic field in the primary winding begins to
collapse. When the magnetic field is collapsing capacitor gets fully charged and then its tarts
discharging and helps in building up of voltage in secondary winding. -Contact breaker cam
and distributor rotor are mounted on the same shaft. -In 2-stroke cycle engines these are
motored at the same engine speed. And in 4-stroke cycle engines they are motored at half the
engine speed.
A good spark is available at low speed also. - Occupies more space. - Recharging is a
must in case battery gets discharged. Magneto Ignition System: - magneto will produce and
supply the required current to the primary winding or coil - rotating magneto with fixed coil or
rotating coil with fixed magneto for producing and supplying current to primary, remaining
arrangement is same as that of a battery ignition system -no battery required –
During starting the quality of spark is poor due to slow speed -very much compact Fig.
23. High tension magneto ignition system Disadvantage of conventional ignition systems
Following are the drawbacks of conventional ignition systems: (a)Because of arcing, pitting of
contact breaker point (b)Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometers of running, the timing
becomes inaccurate, which results into poor starting (Starting trouble). (c)At very high engine
speed, performance is poor because of inertia effects of the moving parts in the system.
(d)Sometimes it is not possible to produce spark properly in fouled spark plugs. Due to above
problem electronic ignition system is used. Following are the advantages of electronic ignition
system: (a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance. (b) Contact breaker points are
55
absent-so no arcing. (c) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be used for about 60000
km without any problem. (d) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about 90-95% of air
fuel mixture is burnt compared with 70-75% with conventional ignition system. (e) More
power output. (f) More fuel efficiency.
Firing order: The order or sequence in which the firing takes place, in different
cylinders of a multicylinder engine is called Firing Order. In case of SI engines the distributor
connects the spark plugs of different cylinders according to Engine Firing Order. Advantages
(a) A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations (b) Maintains engine balancing. (c) Secures
an even flow of power. Firing order differs from engine-to-engine.∙ Probable firing orders for
different engines are :∙ − 3 cylinder = 1-3-2 − 4 cylinder engine (inline) = 1-3-4-2 1-2-4-3 − 4
cylinder horizontal opposed engine = 1-4-3-2 (Volkswagen engine) − 6-cylinder in line engine
= 1-5-3-6-2-4 (Cranks in 3 pairs) 1-4-2-6-3-5 1-3-2-6-4-5 1-2-4-6-5-3 − 8 cylinder in line
engine 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 1-4-7-3-8-5-2-6 8 cylinder V type 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2 Cylinder 1 is taken from front of inline and front right side in
V engines. Ignition timing: It is very important, since the charge is to be ignited just before
(few degrees before TDC) the end of compression, since when the charge is ignited, it will take
some time to come to the required rate of burning. Ignition Advance:
(iii) The purpose of spark advance mechanism is to assure that under every condition of engine
operation, ignition takes place at the most favorable instant in time i.e. most favorable from a
standpoint of engine power, fuel economy and minimum exhaust dilution. By means of these
mechanisms the advance angle is accurately set so that ignition occurs before TDC point of the
piston. The engine speed and the engine load are the control quantities required for the
automatic adjustment of the ignition timing. Most of the engines are fitted with mechanisms
which are integral with the distributor and automatically regulate the optimum spark advance to
account for change of speed and load. The two mechanisms used are: (a)Centrifugal advance
mechanism, and (b)Vacuum advance mechanism Factors affecting energy requirement of
ignition system (a) Effect of series resistance: -Energy dissipated during discharge and hence
circuit energy stored in capacitance is more -longer discharge time (b) Effect of electrode
material: -ignition energy for electrode gaps larger than the quenching distance varies with
materials for the electrode and increases with any change to material having higher boiling
point (c) Effect of spray inductance: -presence of small stray inductance cause oscillatory
discharge -larger resistance, minimum inductance longer the discharge time (d) Effect of
electrode configuration: -reduction in the capacitance reduces the discharge time and increase
in the gas resistance which reduces the diameter of the spark channel -increase the electrode
gap means supply of ignition energy over interval of time decreases and spark channel also
reduces
56
(iv) Stages of SI engine combustion In SI engine homogeneous mixture of vaporised fuel, air and
residual gases is ignited by a single intense and high temperature spark between the spark plug
electrode (electrodes exceeds 10,000 ᵒC) and generate pre-flame which spreads to envelope of
mixture for combustion. Stages of combustion in SI engine I-Ignition lag or preparation phase
(AB): -growth and development of a semi propagating nucleus of flame -chemical process
depending upon the nature of the fuel, upon both temperature and pressure, the proportion of
the exhaust gas, and also upon the temperature coefficient of the fuel, that is, the relationship of
oxidation or burning -point A shows the passage of spark and point B is the first rise of
pressure -ignition lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle -Ignition lag is very small
and lies between 0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds -ignition lag of 0.002 seconds corresponds to 35
deg crank rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM -Angle of advance increase with
the speed II-propagation of flame (BC): -Period from the point B where the line of combustion
departs from the compression line to point C, the maximum rise of pressure in P-θ diagram
-flame propagates at the constant velocity -Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low -rate of heat
release depends upon the turbulence intensity and reaction rate III-After burning (CD): -After
point C, the heat release is due to the fuel injection in reduced flame front after the starts of
expansion stroke -no pressure rise during this period *Effect of engine variables on Ignition lag
Fuel: High self-ignition temperature of fuel longer the ignition lag. Mixture ratio: mixture
richer than the stoichiometric ratio provide shorter ignition lag Initial temperature and pressure:
increasing the intake temperature and pressure, increasing the compression ratio, chemical
reaction rate and retarding the spark all reduce the ignition lag Electrode gap: lower the
compression ratio and higher the electrode gap is desirable -voltage required at the spark plug
electrode to produce spark is found to increase with decrease in fuel-air ratio and with increase
in compression ratio and engine load Turbulence: directly proportional to engine speed -engine
speed does not affect much ignition lag measured in milliseconds -but ignition lag increases
linearly with engine speed when measured in degree crank angle -spark advance is desirable in
higher engine speed *Effect of engine variables on flame propagation Rate of flame
propagation affects the combustion process in SI engines. Higher combustion efficiency and
fuel economy can be achieved by higher flame propagation velocities. Unfortunately flame
velocities for most of fuel range between 10 to 30 m/second.
Governing System in IC Engines:

Governor is the mechanism or device used to maintain constant speed irrespective of changes
of load on the engine. And the method of maintaining constant speed is called as Governing.
There are three distinct methods adopted for varying the power of the engine in sympathy with
the action of governor, these methods will again differ in the mechanical means adopted in
regulating the power. In all the cases the ordinary centrifugal governor is used for controlling
the mechanical devices.
57
Methods of Governing:
The following is the usual classification adopted for the various methods of governing:
(a) Hit and Miss Governing:
In this type of governing, the action of the governor causes the fuel inlet valve to remain closed
during a cycle so that no fuel is admitted. The engine will thus perform an idle cycle. Or in
other words, when the engine speed increases beyond certain limit, the combustion is missed
for a few cycles by preventing the charge to enter into the cylinder. So the engine runs idle for
few cycles.
It results into the following two disadvantages:
1. Efficiency decreases because of idle cycles along with actual working cycles.
2. Since the combustion is missed during same cycles, it produces very uneven turning
movement for the crank shaft.
The hit and miss method of governing is in common use in small gas engines, and is actually
quantitative governing.
In small, light oil engines the hit and miss mechanism operates on the exhaust valve and
prevents it opening when the speed is too high; the burnt gases are thus retained in the cylinder
and are alternately compressed and expanded until the speed is reduced.
(b) Quantitative Governing:
This method varies the power of the engine by regulating the quantity of mixture (fuel and air)
which enters the cylinder. This is sometimes done by throttling the mixture before it enters the
cylinder, the movement of the throttle valve being regulated by the lift of the centrifugal
governor. Another method of quantitative governing, used in gas engines, is by varying the lift
of the inlet valve, and thus reducing the quantity of mixture entering the cylinder.
So, as discussed above, generally centrifugal types of governors are used.
Cylindrical part is the air horn and the narrowest cross-section of which is the venturi. Throttle
valve is provided to regulate the amount of charge (air + fuel mixture) entering the engine
cylinder. Throttle valve is connected to the Governor as shown.
Now when the loads on the engine increase, the speed of the engine decreases and because of
reduced speed, fly weights move inwards (shown by dotted arrows) and the sleeve moves
downwards. Then its opens the throttle valve more and hence more charge enters the engine
cylinder to develop more power and to bring engine speed constant.
And when the load on the engine decreases—speeds increases—fly weights move outwards
(shown by arrow) — closes the throttle valve accordingly—reduces the supply of charge.
Hence the engine develops required less power and maintains constant speed.
(c) Qualitative Governing:
In this method of governing the strength of the mixture is altered by the action of the
centrifugal governor, thus varying the quality of the mixture. This is done by regulating the
58
amount of fuel entering the cylinder, air supply remaining constant. This method of governing
is used in all heavy oil-engines using pure air compression.
The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is varied by the action of the governor. It may vary the
stroke of the oil pump or it may by pass part of the fuel back to the oil tank or it may delay the
closing of the suction valve of the fuel pump. All of these methods will cause a variation in the
point of cut off.
Important Types of Centrifugal Governors Used with the Engines:

Following are the important centrifugal governors:
(i) Watt Governor (Simple Conical Governor):
It is named after Watt, when the load decreases-speed increases fly weights move outwards as
shown by arrows and lift the sleeve. On the other hand when the load increase speed decreases,
weight move inwards (shown by dotted arrows) and sleeve moves downwards. (Fig. 32.2)
(ii) Porter Governor:
If the central load is provided on the sleeve then watts governor is called its Porter Governor.
(iii) Proell Governor:
In this governor fly weights are provided on the extension of lower links as shown and it
contains central load.
(iv) Hartnell Governor:
It mainly consists of 2-bell crank levers and compression spring as shown. To the one end of
bell crank levers, fly weight is provided and other end rollers. The levers are pivoted at O.
When the speed increases fly weight move outwards and the lever which is provided at O lifts
the rollers and sleeve against the compression of spring.
(v) Spring Controlled Governor of Gravity Type:

Figure 32.6 shows spring controlled gravity governor. It mainly consists of 2-bell crank levers.
They are provided with rollers at one end and fly weights at the other. Rollers will be resting
over the cap which forms top end of shaft. Under the cap spring is provided as shown.
When the load decreases, speed increases and fly weight move outwards and the other press
cap which in turn compresses the spring.
59
EXPERIMENT – 8
STUDY ABOUT SUPERCHARGING AND TURBO
CHARGING OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to
an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen,
letting it burn more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power
What is a Supercharger
Before learning about supercharger let us first understand the factors on which power output of
an engine depends.
The power output of a naturally aspirated engine depends on following things.
1. Amount of air inducted into the system
60
2. Extent of utilization of inducted air
3. Speed of the engine
4. Quality of fuel used
5. Thermal efficiency of the engine
From the above factors which govern power output of an engine we can find that quality of fuel
used and thermal efficiency is largely independent things.
Quality of fuel is set by a country wide standard and increasing thermal efficiency of engine is
not that easy. All we can do to increase power output of an engine is to consider first three
factors. Every fuel needs oxygen to burn. Same is the case with the fuel which is burnt inside
the automotive engine.
Higher the amount of oxygen available for burning better will be the combustion. This will
result in better fuel efficiency and more power availability to the power train. Most of the
engines we see in our daily life are naturally aspirated. It means the air available to them for
burning, comes to engine at ambient pressure.
Since the time available for air suction is very less for a modern day high speed engine. It
generally happens that the air inlet valve closes before the engines breaths to its full capacity.
It results in less air available for combustion. This ultimately produces inefficient fuel burning.
The breathing efficiency of an engine is the ratio of actual air available for combustion and the
actual volume of engine cylinder.
Breathing efficiency = (actual air available for combustion)/ (actual volume of engine
cylinder)
Naturally aspirated engines generally have poor breathing efficiency. To solve the problem of
poor breathing efficiency, scientists and engineers came up with a solution which is economical
and suitable of normal engines.
The solution was turbocharger. A turbocharger is a device which increases breathing efficiency
of engines by sending compressed air to it. A turbocharger is a combination of turbine and
blower.
Turbine takes power from exhaust gases and gives that power to blower. Blower uses that
power to send compressed (dens) air to the engine. A turbocharger is a very economical
solution for increasing breathing efficiency of an engine. Since it derives power from the
exhaust gases.
Turbochargers are good for normal engines, like our routine cars, trucks and buses. But they are
not efficient for racing cars. The main reason is that they derive power from exhaust gases and
that power is not sufficient for racing cars.
For racing cars, we need a dedicated air compressor which derives its operating power from an
electric motor or directly from the engine. The device which performs the above functions is
known as supercharger.
61
Supercharging of an engine can be summarized as Supercharging increases power output of an
engine without increasing fuel consumption.
Certain amount of power generated by the engine goes for the compression of air but overall
power output is more. The engine which is to be used with a supercharger is made to withstand
higher forces due to supercharging.
Due to increased pressure and temperature of the combustion process, tendency of detonation
increases. Therefore, fuel with better antiknock quality should be used.
Advantages of supercharging
Higher power output
Greater induction of charge mass
Better atomization of fuel
Better mixing of fuel and air
Better scavenging products
Better torque characteristics over whole range
Quick acceleration of vehicle
Complete and smooth combustion
Even fuel with poor ignition quality can be used
Improved cold starting
Reduced exhaust smoke
Reduced specific fuel consumption
Increased mechanical efficiency
Smooth operation and reduction in diesel knock tendency
Disadvantages of supercharging
Increased detonation tendency in SI engines
Increased thermal stress
Increased heat loss due to increased turbulence
Increased gas loading
Increased cooling requirements of the engine
62
EXPERIMENT – 9
STUDY ABOUT VARIOUS METHODS FOR
MEASUREMENTS AND TESTING OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its
assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful
mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the basis of the following:
(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.
63
(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
(c) Specific Power Output.
(d) Specific Weight.
(e) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these
performance parameters. For Example: For an aircraft engine specific weight is more important
whereas for an industrial engine specific fuel consumption is more important. For the
evaluation of an engine performance few more parameters are chosen and the effects of various
operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on these parameters are studied.
The basic performance parameters are the following:
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.
Power and Mechanical Efficiency: The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain
mechanical power. Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of
force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity. Thus, the measurement
of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well as speed.
The torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size. A large
engine produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this reason, torque is
not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement for producing power from
fuel. It is the mean effective pressure which gives an indication of engine displacement
utilization for this conversion. Higher the mean effective pressure, higher will be the power
64
developed by the engine for a given displacement. Again we see that the power of an engine is
dependent on its size and speed. Therefore, it is not possible to compare engines on the basis of
either power or torque.
Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of different
engines. Specific Output Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per
unit of piston displacement and is given by, The specific output consists of two elements – the
bmep (force) available to work and the speed with which it is working. Therefore, for the same
piston displacement and bmep an engine operating at higher speed will give more output. It is
clear that the output of an engine can be increased by increasing either speed or bmep.
Increasing speed involves increase in the mechanical stress of various engine parts whereas
increasing bmep requires better heat release and more loads on engine cylinder. Volumetric
Efficiency Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to
which the engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the swept
volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can be defined
as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at intake conditions to
the swept volume of the piston. Volumetric efficiency, ηv = Mass of charge actually sucked in
Mass of charge corresponding to the cylinder intake.
The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of
an engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the
power output. For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it comes
out to be more than unity.
BASIC MEASUREMENTS The basic measurements to be undertaken to evaluate the

performance of an engine on almost all tests are the following :
(a) Speed
(b) Fuel consumption
(c) Air consumption
(d) Brake horse-power
(e) Indicated horse power and friction horse power
(f) Heat going to cooling water
(g) Heat going to exhaust
65
In addition to above a large number of other measurements may be necessary depending
upon the aim of the test.
Measurement of Speed One of the basic measurements is that of speed. A wide variety
of speed measuring devices are available in the market. They range from a mechanical
tachometer to digital and triggered electrical tachometers. The best method of measuring speed
is to count the number of revolutions in a given time. This gives an accurate measurement of
speed. Many engines are fitted with such revolution counters. A mechanical tachometer or an
electrical tachometer can also be used for measuring the speed. The electrical tachometer has a
three-phase permanent-magnet alternator to which a voltmeter is attached. The output of the
alternator is a linear function of the speed and is directly indicated on the voltmeter dial. Both
electrical and mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and
are not very accurate. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a magnetic pick-up
placed near a toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used. The magnetic pick-up will
produce a pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the speed.
Fuel Consumption Measurement Fuel consumption is measured in two ways: (a) The
fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a given time
interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel which should be measured
occasionally to get an accurate value. (b) Another method is to measure the time required for
consumption of a given mass of fuel. 85 Accurate measurement of fuel consumption is very
important in engine testing work. IC Engine Testing As already mentioned two basic types of
fuel measurement methods are: • Volumetric type • Gravimetric type. Volumetric type flow
meter includes Burette method, Automatic Barrette flow meter and Turbine flow meter.
Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement The efficiency of an engine is related to the kilograms of
fuel which are consumed and not the number of liters. The method of measuring volume flow
and then correcting it for specific gravity variations is quite inconvenient and inherently limited
in accuracy. Instead if the weight of the fuel consumed is directly measured a great
improvement in accuracy and cost can be obtained. There are three types of gravimetric type
systems which are commercially available include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four
Orifice Flow meter, etc.
Measurement of Air Consumption One can say the mixture of air and fuel is the food
for an engine. For finding out the performance of the engine accurate measurement of both is
essential. In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult
because the flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air a
compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the induction pipe is not
satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and unreliable. All kinetic flow-inferring
systems such as nozzles, orifices and venturies have a square law relationship between flow
66
rate and differential pressure which gives rise to severe errors on unsteady flow. Pulsation
produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the pressure across the orifice for a given
set of flow conditions. The various methods and meters used for air flow measurement include
(a) Air box method, and (b) Viscous-flow air meter.
EXPERIMENT – 10
STUDY ABOUT ENGINE EMISSIONS AND THEIR
CONTROL
67
Substances which are emitted to the atmosphere from any opening of the exhaust port of the
engine are termed as exhaust emissions. If combustion is complete and the mixture is
stoichiometric the products of combustion would consist of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
vapor only. However, there is no complete combustion of fuel and hence the exhaust gas
consists of variety of components, the most important of them are carbon monoxide (CO),
unburned hydrocarbons (UBHC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Some oxygen and other inert
gases would also be present in the exhaust gas. Over the decade numerous devices have been
developed for measuring these various exhaust components. A brief discussion of some of the
more commonly used instruments is given below.
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
The schematic diagram of a flame ionization detector burner is shown in Figures 7.1(a) and (b)
shows burner.
The working principle of this burner is as follows: A hydrogen-air flame contains a negligible
amount of ions. However, if even trace amounts of an organic compound such as HC are
introduced into the flame, a large number of ions are produced. If a polarized voltage is applied
across the burner jet and an adjacent collector, an ion migration will produce a current
proportional to the number of ions and thus to the HC concentration present in the flame. The
output of the FID depends on the number of carbon atoms passing through the flame in a unit
time. Doubling the flow velocity would also double the output. Hexane (C6H14) would give
double the output of propane (C3H8). Therefore, FID output is usually referred to a standard
hydrocarbon, usually as ppm of normal hexane. Presences of CO, CO2, NOx, water and
nitrogen in the exhaust have to effect on the FID reading. Oxygen slightly affects the reading of
FID. FID analyzer is a rapid, continuous and accurate method of measuring HC in the exhaust
gas.
Spectroscopic Analyzers
A spectrum shows the light absorbed as a function of wavelength (or frequency). • Each
compound shows a different spectrum for the light absorbed. • All the spectroscopic analyzers
work on the principle that the quantity of energy absorbed by a compound in a sample cell is
proportional to the concentration of the compound in the cell. There are two types of
spectroscopic analyzers
Dispersive Analyzers These analyzers use only a narrow dispersed frequency of light spectrum
to analyze a compound. These are usually not use for exhaust emission measurements.
Non-Dispersive Infra-red (NDIR) Analyzers In the NDIR analyzer the exhaust gas species
being measuring is used to detect itself. This is done by selective absorption. The infrared
68
energy of a particular wavelength or frequency is peculiar to a certain gas in that the gas will
absorb the infracted energy of this wavelength and transmit and infrared energy of other
wavelengths. For example, the absorption band for carbon monoxide is between 4.5 and 5
microns. So the energy absorbed at this wavelength is an indication of the concentration of CO
in the exhaust gas.
The NDIR analyzer consists of two infrared sources, interrupted simultaneously by an optical
chopper. Radiation from these sources passes in parallel paths through a reference cell and a
sample cell to opposite side of a common detector. The sample cell contains the compounds to
be analyzed, whereas this compound is not present in the reference cell. The latter is usually
filled with an inert gas, usually nitrogen, which does not absorb the infrared energy for the
wavelength corresponding to the compound being measured. A closed container filled with
only the compound to be measured works as a detector. The detector is divided into two equal
volumes by a thin metallic diaphragm. When the chopper blocks the radiation, the pressure in
both parts of the detector is same and the diagram remains in the neutral position. As the
chopper blocks and unblocks the radiation, the radiant energy from one source passes through
the reference cell unchanged whereas the sample cell absorbs the infrared energy at the
wavelength of the compound in cell. The absorption is proportional to the concentration of the
compound to be measured in the sample cell. Thus unequal amounts of energy are transmitted
to the two volumes of the detector and the pressure differential so generated causes movement
of the diaphragm and a fixed probe, thereby generating an a.c., displayed on a meter. The signal
is a function of the concentration of the compound to be measured. The NDIR can accurately
measure CO, CO2 and those hydrocarbons which have clear infrared absorption peaks.
However, usually the exhaust sample to be analyzed contains other species which also absorb
infrared energy at the same frequency. For example, an NDIR analyzer sensitized to n-hexane
for detection of HC responds equally well to other paraffin HC but not to olefins, acetylenes or
aromatics. Therefore, the reading given by such analyzer is multiplied by 1.8 to correct it to the
total UBHC as measured by an FID analyzer in the same exhaust stream
Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography is first a method of separating the individual constituents of a mixture and
then a method of assured their concentration. After separation, each compound can be
separately analyzed for concentration. This is the only method by which each component
existing in an exhaust sample can be identified and analyzed. However, it is very time
consuming and the samples can be taken only in batches. Gas chromatograph is primarily a
laboratory tool.
69

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1

2 Performance test of 4-stroke

3 Performance test of multi

4 Performance test of 2-stroke

5 Performance test of multi

8 Study about supercharging

9 Study about various methods

The Four stroke Cycle

FUEL INPUT MEASURING ARRANGEMENT:

ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING THE HEAT CARRIED BY COOLING WATER:

AIR INTAKE MEARURING ARRANGEMENT:

Engine : Multi cylinder, 4 stroke, water cooled

Brake Power, BP = 2*3.14*N* T/60*1000 Kw

FUEL CONSUMPTION, W f = X* Rf/ t*106 Kg /sec

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, SFC = Wf/BP kg/ BP sec

HEAT SUPPLIED BY FUEL = BP/Hf * 100%

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

Heat carried away by cooling water from Engine jacket (Hcw)

Hecw= mecw*Cp* (T2-T1) KW

mecw= Wecw/ 3600 Kg/sec

Heat carried away by exhaust gases (Heg)

Hexh = meg * Cpeg (T3- Ta) KW

From the heat balance by the calorimeter

Heat given by the exhaust gases = Heat gained by cooling water

mexh * Cpexh ( T3- T4) = mccw * Cp( T6 – T5)

mexh * Cpexh = mccw * Cp ( T6- T5)/ ( T3- T4)

Mccw = Wccw/ 3600 kg/ sec

Heat lost in radiation and unaccounted losses (Hun)

Hun = Hf – (BP + H ecw + Hexh) KW

AIR CONSUMPTION ( Qa) = Cd* ao*(2*g*H) m3/sec

SWEPT VOLUME, Vs = 3.14*D2*L*N*Nc/4*60*N m3/sec

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Ƞ vol%, Ƞvol = (Qa/Vs)*100

AIR CONSUMPTION (Qa)

Quantity of air sucked through orifice

Qa= Cd ao (2gH) 0.5 m3/s

Density of air at room temp.ρa (room) =1.293(ρa)*0273/ (273+Ta) Kg/m3

= (3.14/4) D2*L*(cycle/s) *No. of cylinders

= (3.14/4) D2*L*(rpm/2*60)*4 m3/s

D = Bore of engine = 75mm= 0.75m

L = stroke of engine = 795 mm = 0.0795 m

do = Diameter of orifice = 27 mm = 0.027m

ao = Cross sectional area of orifice = 5.7244 * 10

Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.64

ρa = Density of air at 0 degree C = 1.293 kg / m3

ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water = 1000 kg/ m3

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/ s2

Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.81 KJ/Kg ̊C

dp = Diameter of pulley = 300mm = 0.3m

dr = Diameter of rope = 12 mm = 0.012 m

Cv = Calorific value of diesel = 42630 KJ/KG

Density of diesel = 780 kg/m3

X = Volume of fuel consumed (ml) (1 ml = 1 centi meter cube)

t = Time taken for X (sec.)

Qf = Fuel consumption, meter cube/sec

Cv = Calorific value of Diesel,

H = Total pressure head, m

ao = Cross sectional area of orifice

ρm = Density of manometer fluid i.e. water.

ρ fuel = Density of fuel.

12. PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

The Four Stroke cycle

1. A four Cylinder, Four Stroke petrol engine,

MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE:

Brake Power, BP = 23.14N* T/60*1000 Kw

Hecw= mecwCp (T2-T1) KW

AIR CONSUMPTION ( Qa) = Cd* ao(2g*H) m3/sec

SWEPT VOLUME, Vs = 3.14D2LNNc/460N m3/sec

= (3.14/4) D2L(cycle/s) *No. of cylinders

= (3.14/4) D2L(rpm/260)4 m3/s

Brake Power, BP = 23.14N* T/60*1000 Kw

Hecw= mecwCp (T2-T1) KW

AIR CONSUMPTION ( Qa) = Cd* ao(2g*H) m3/sec

SWEPT VOLUME, Vs = 3.14D2LNNc/460N m3/sec

= (3.14/4) D2L(cycle/s) *No. of cylinders

= (3.14/4) D2L(rpm/260)4 m3/s