ASIA PACIFIC THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

THE MAJOR IMPLICATIONS ON CHRISTIAN MISSION

OF THE EFFECTS OF WAR IN RECENT CAMBODIAN HISTORY

A PAPER SUBMITTED TO
THE APTS PROFESSOR OF PERSPECTIVES IN WORLD MISSIONS
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS OF
MIS 510 PERSPECTIVES IN WORLD MISSIONS

BY
WENIFREDO O. CAPAPAS, JR.

BAGUIO CITY, PHILIPPINES

SEPTEMBER 1998
 INTRODUCTION

Purposes of the Paper

This paper wishes to give an exposition on the effects of war on the Cambodians. To narrow

down the topic's concentration, I will focus on the effects of war that started in 1970 down to the present

day fightings and tensions that are still going on in that country.

Another purpose of the paper is to draw out major implications of those effects of war on

Christian mission in Cambodia today. I believe that insights into these people's experiences, and how

those experiences affect them will give an invaluable help for those who are seeking to bring them to the

Lord.

Cambodia: The Land and Its People

Official Name: Kingdom of Cambodia

Area: 182,000 sq.km.

Capital: Phnom Penh

Population: Approximately 9 million [1993].1

People: "Cambodians comprise a variety of people who are commonly called Khmers

and they constitute 90-95% of the population. The population also includes a

diversity of ethnic backgrounds including Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham (Muslim)

and Hilltribes, called Khmer Loeu."2

Official Religion: Theravada Buddhism

1
Patrick Johnstone, Operation World (Carlisle, United Kingdom: OM Publishing, 1993), p. 145.

2
This was directly qouted from a photocopied part of a book entitled Cambodia: Discover the
Hidden Kingdom. The name of the author, facts of publication, and page number are not available.
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I. THE WARS: FROM 1970 ONWARD

Cambodia is one of the nations in the world today that has been experiencing wars and fightings

for a long period of time already. The war that started in 1970 still casts its shadow in the present day

Cambodia through armed conflicts in the provinces, and political tensions and unrests throughout the

country.

There is a generation of Cambodians today that have never known peace for their country had

been constantly engulfed in wars, fightings, and tensions for three decades already.

The following is a survey of wars that ravaged that beautiful country and brought havoc and

miseries to its humble people.

War Between Khmer Republic and the Khmer Rouge (1970-1975)

It is worth mentioning here that even before 1970, Cambodia was already experiencing armed

conflicts. Chandler said:

By the mid-1960s, the continuing war in Vietnam had begun to spill over into Cambodia. Pro-
Vietnamese guerrilla bands took shape along Cambodia's borders, and the numerically
insignificant Cambodian Communist Party began to capitalize on local discontent to launch a
rebellion . . . . By 1970, . . . Sihanouk's [Prince Norodom Sihanouk] government controlled barely
half of Cambodia's territory. 3

A turning point in Cambodia's history happened in March 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanouk

"was overthrown by General Lon Nol and other right-wing leaders, who seven months later abolished the

monarchy and established the Khmer Republic." 4

3
Ainslie T. Embree, gen. ed., Encyclopedia of Asian History, 4 vols. (New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1988), 1:221.

4
Russell R. Ross, ed., Cambodia: A Country Study, Area Handbook Series (n. p.: Library of
Congress, 1990), p. 5.

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Sihanouk was travelling from Moscow to Beijing when the coup d'etat happened. In Beijing,

Sihanouk broadcasted "an appeal to his 'brothers and sisters' . . . to take up arms against Lon Nol" 5 and

join the Khmer Rouge. As an immediate result, riots broke out in the eastern part of the country. On

suspicion of being Communist supporters, thousands of Vietnamese civilians residing in Cambodia were

massacred by Lon Nol soldiers.6

Warshaw reported that Sihanouk was effective in arousing the ordinary people against the Khmer

Republic. He reported:

There were only 3,000 Khmer Rouge when he [Sihanouk] was ousted from office. By 1973, the
movement included almost 50, 000 guerrillas and had set up a revolutionary government . . .
Sihanouk . . . became chief of state of a government-in-exile in Peking, hoping to move it to
Phnom Penh if the Khmer Rouge succeeded in toppling Lon Nol.7

Meanwhile, the United States, together with other Asian countries assisted the Lon Nol

government in its struggle against the Khmer Rouge. Warshaw said:

. . . thousands of American planes rained explosives, napalm, and anti-personnel bombs . . . .

From 1970-1973, the U. S. Strategic Air Command carried out a total of 2,875 raids over
Cambodia. They dropped more than 240,000 tons of bombs, 50 percent more than were
dropped over Japan during World War II. 8

Despite of all its efforts, the Khmer Republic steadily losed its grounds. In April 1975, Phnom

Penh fell to the hands of the Khmer Rouge, and it "marked the end of the Khmer Republic." 9

5
David P. Chandler, A History of Cambodia, 2nd ed. (St. Leonards, New South Wales: Allen &
Unwin, 1993), p. 205.

6
Ibid.

7
Steven Warshaw, Southeast Asia Emerges: A Concise History of Southeast Asia From Its
Origin to the Present (Berkeley, California: The Diablo Press, 1975), p. 175.
8

Ibid.

9
Ross, Cambodia, p. xxxi.

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Life Under Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979)

Immediately after the Khmer Rouge entered the city of Phnom Penh on April 17, 1975, they

forcibly evicted the populace which numbered 2.5 million people during that time. "Similar evacuations

occurred at . . . the country's other towns and cities." 10

All people, including those in the hospitals were driven out to the countryside "leaving the sick to

die by the roadside." There were summary executions of "anyone associated with the former

government . . . Army officers, teachers and civil servants---and, often, their wives and children as well."

The Khmer Rouge killed "anyone who showed evidence of . . . wealth, education or culture, or . . . wear

eyeglasses." Institutions were abolished. There were no schools, banks, markets, money, or private

properties. The Khmer Rouge also destroyed family life by separating children from their parents.

"Homesick children who deserted their work battalions were executed. . . . As ammunition grew short,

victims were lined up in the fields and dispatched with a blow to the back of the head; the bodies were

shoveled into mass graves or left to rot in the fields." 11 There were estimates as high as two to three

million people who died between 1975 to 1979 alone because of starvation, illnesses, hard labor, and

executions.12 Among those who died were Prince Sihanouk's five "children and fifteen grandchildren."

He himself was put under house arrest by the Khmer Rouge after making use of him. 13

War Between Democratic Kampuchea and Vietnam (1977-1979)

Immediately after their victory in 1975, the Khmer Rouge attacked some Vietnamese islands and

incursed into some of its provinces. There was improvement in the two countries' relationship later after

that, but suspicion still prevailed between them. In 1977, the Khmer Rouge attacked Vietnam's border

villages again. This prompted Vietnam to launch "air strikes against Cambodia." This was followed with

10
Ibid., p. 49.
11

Jerry Adler and Ron Moreau, "Pol Pot's Last Days," Newsweek, April 27, 1998, p. 12.

12
Johnstone, Operation World, p. 145.

13
Nicholas Tarling, ed., The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: The Nineteenth and Twentieth
Centuries, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 2:626.
4
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massive deployment of Vietnamese forces into it. On January 6, 1978, the Vietnamese forces withdrew

from Cambodia believing that they have already "taught a lesson" to the Khmer Rouge. 14 Ross said,

"Faced with growing Khmer Rouge belligerence, the Vietnamese . . . decided in early 1978 to support

internal resistance to the Pol Pot regime, . . ." 15 He said further that,

Massacres of ethnic Vietnamese and of their sympathizers by the Khmer Rouge

intensified in the Eastern Zone . . . There were now tens of thousands of Cambodian and
Vietnamese exiles on Vietnamese territory. On December 3, 1978, Radio Hanoi announced the
formation of the Kampuchean (or Khmer) National United Front for National Salvation
[KNUFNS]. . .16

The KNUFNS was composed of communist and non-communist Cambodians who were in exile

in Vietnam. They shared a common sentiment against the Khmer Rouge regime and rely completely on

Vietnam's support and protection. On December 22, 1978, because of the Khmer Rouge atrocities at the

border, the Vietnamese launched a military offensive against Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge

regime in Cambodia). Ross reported, "An invasion force of 120,000 . . . , drove west into . . . Cambodia's

southeastern provinces. After a seventeen-day blitzkrieg, Phnom Penh fell to the . . . Vietnamese on

January 7, 1979."17 Chandler said,

Almost immediately after capturing Phnom Penh, the Vietnamese set up what
purported to be an independent government in Cambodia, . . . the People's Republic of
Kampuchea [PRK]. Its leading officials were DK [Khmer Rouge] military officers who had
defected to Vietnam in 1978, Cambodians who had lived in Vietnam since the 1950's, and
members of ethnic minorities . . . Several figures in this original group---including Heng Samrin,
Chea Sim, and Hun Sen---remained powerful through the 1980s. 18

14
Ross, Cambodia, p. 66, 68.

15
Ibid., p. 68.

16
Ibid., p. 69.
17

Ibid.

18
Chandler, History of Cambodia, p. 228.
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War Between Vietnamese-Installed Government in Phnom Penh and the Coalition Government
in Exile (1979-1993)

The Vietnamese-installed government in Phnom Penh "known until 1989 as the People's

Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) and later as the State of Cambodia (SOC)" 19 had to face the resistance

forces who primarily entrenched themselves at Cambodia's border with Thailand. About the resistance,

Chandler wrote,

. . . three factions of the resistance---claiming to be loyal to Sihanouk, to a former prime minister

named Son Sann, and to DK [Khmer Rouge] --- were recognized as a coalition government in
exile by the United Nations in 1982. These factions share a desire to seize power in Phnom Penh
and a distrust of the Vietnamese; [but] they are also hostile to each other. 20

As far as the United Nations was concerned, this coalition government of the resistance forces

was the legitimate government of Cambodia, and not the Vietnamese-backed government in Phnom

Penh.

After much negotiation, in October 1991 the Paris Peace Agreement brokered by the United

Nations was signed by the different factions fighting for supremacy in Cambodia. 21 It was intended to end

decades of fighting and "to uphold democracy" 22in that land. This peace agreement opened the way for

the UN-organized election in May 1993.23

19
Ibid., p. 227.
20

Ibid.

21
Caroline Hughes, UNTAC in Cambodia: The Impact on Human Rights (Pasir Panjang,
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1996), p. 19.
22

William Shawcross, "Cambodia Beyond Pol Pot," Newsweek, April 27, 1998, p. 14.

23
Gary Klintworth, " Cambodia 1992: Hopes Fading," in Southeast Asian Affairs, 1993, ed. Daljit
Singh (Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993), p. 115.

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Fightings and Tensions Within the Kingdom of Cambodia (1993-present)

The Funcinpec Party of Prince Norodom Ranariddh won the election in 1993. But Hun Sen,

leader of the Cambodian People's Party which was the ruling party that time refused to give up reins of

power and threatened another civil war if forced to do so. 24 "So the U.N. allowed a coalition of the two

parties, in which both Ranariddh and Hun Sen would be prime ministers. The prince was no match for

Hun Sen, who has retained most real power." 25 The tension within the coalition erupted last July 1997

when Hun Sen ousted Ranariddh in a two-day fighting within the capital. Hun Sen's men "have murdered

at least 60 and perhaps more than 100 of Ranariddh's colleagues." 26

At the time of writing this paper, there is tension going on within Cambodia because of the July

26, 1998 election result. The oppositions lead by Sam Rainsy and his ally Prince Ranariddh refused to

recognize the result of the election which was won by Hun Sen's party because of an alleged fraud. The

Philippine Daily Inquirer reported that the oppositions are having a "round-the-clock protests demanding

his [Hun Sen] election victory be overturned." 27 It further reported that, "In Phnom Penh, thousands of

people joined in a student-led demonstration . . . the protests---unprecedented in size or duration---

entered their 11th day."28 In Cambodia, demonstrations like this could turn bloody. For example, on

March 30, 1997, Sam Rainsy and his group were holding a rally when hand grenades were thrown at

them killing at least 16 people.29

24
Dominic Faulder, "The Election Circle," Asiaweek, July 24, 1998, p. 24.
25

Shawcross, Newsweek, p. 14.

26
Ibid.

27
"Hun Sen Asks King To Help End Deadlock," Philippine Daily Inquirer, 04 September 1998, p.
12.

28
Ibid.

29
Dominic Faulder, "People Want Change," Asiaweek, April 10, 1998, p. 25.

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Aside from political turbulence, violence and social unrests still prevail in the country. Newsweek

reported in its May 4, 1998 issue that even though the Khmer Rouge movement is weakening, it can still

wrought havoc among the people: "Last week about 50 suspected guerrillas, . . . attacked a fishing

village . . . just north of Phnom Penh, killing 23 ethnic Vietnamese men, women and children." 30 It further

reported,

. . . every year hundreds of Cambodians across the country are killed, wounded, kidnapped,
tortured and unlawfully imprisoned by soldiers, police and officials who are lusting after power,
money, land and cattle. Gunmen working for syndicates dealing in gambling, prostitution, illegal
logging and drug smuggling take their toll as well. Not even foreigners are immune. Last week a
young French journalist was robbed by two government soldiers waving AK-47 assault rifles as
she travelled along a central Cambodian highway.31

30
Ron Moreau, "The Culture of Violence: Can Anyone Destroy The Legacy of Pol Pot?"
Newsweek, May 4, 1998, p. 32.

31
Ibid.

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II. THE EFFECTS OF WAR ON THE CAMBODIAN PEOPLE

Physical Effects

One obvious result of war and fightings were people who got killed. As mentioned earlier in this

paper, there was an estimate as high as 3 million people who got killed from 1975-1979 alone. Most of

the intellectuals, like doctors, teachers, engineers, lawyers, etc. were killed during the Khmer Rouge

regime resulting to shortage of manpower in professional field.

People were displaced from their places of residence because of the fightings. Many of them

evacuated to the neighboring countries, specifically Thailand. Today, there is a diaspora of Khmers

throughout the world. Many of them settled in the United States, Australia, and the European countries.

Cambodia is a very fertile land and has a great economic potential. But large tracts of land

cannot be used for economic production because they were planted with land mines (bombs). Cambodia

was known before as a country where there were more land mines than people. In spite of demining

programs by some non-govermental organizations (NGOs), land mines are still big problem for the

country. Many people, including women and children are either killed or maimed every month because of

land mines. Displaced people cannot go back to their homes or work in the ricefields because of the

same problem.

People cannot not concentrate well in working and uplifting their livelihood because of the political

unrest that continually plagues the country. Factories in Cambodia were closed or even destroyed during

the war, and this resulted to paralyzed industries.

Social Effects

One of the obvious effect of war is poverty. It is one of the major social problem in Cambodia. It

contributes a lot in the breakdown of families and marriages which is very common in the country. It also

results to robberies, kidnappings for ransom, prostitution, and many other social ills. People resort to

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these kind of activities because of extreme poverty. There are even children and infants being sell by

their own parents for money. It is common for young girls to be sold to prostitution by their own parents

or relatives for the same reason.

Psychological Effects

One of the psychological effects of war and fightings is fear. I was able to talk with one

Cambodian about her experiences during the war. She told me that even today, she is still haunted in

her dreams by those horrible experiences. 32 Almost everyone that I talked about their past experiences

shed tears while recounting them to me. They are people that were traumatized, and broken emotionally

and psychologically. They really need healing from the Lord.

Another psychological effect of war and tensions is hopelessness. I had a conversation with a

Cambodian guy about the situation of his country. He told me that there seems to be no more hope for

their country to have peace.33 Many people are not only hopeless with regards to peace in their country

but also about their lives and future. One of the evidences of this hopelessness is the rampant suicides

going on in the country.

War and fightings also conditioned the minds of many Cambodians to violence. Gruesome

murders and violence seem not to bother or disturb them anymore. This explains wanton robberies,

kidnappings, and murders. Aside from this, violence is frequently modeled by people in authorities.

Spiritual Effects

All of the effects of war that I mentioned above are negative. But if there is any area where war

has a positive result, it is in the spiritual side.

32
Interview with Mrs. Ravan, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 1995.

33
Interview with Ratha Kong, Teuk Tlar, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 1997.
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Cambodia has been a Buddhist country for centuries and was very resistant to the

gospel. Catholic missionaries did missions work there as early as 1556 but with very meager results. 34 In

1923, the Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA) entered Cambodia, 35 but just like the Catholic

missionaries before them, they encountered resistance and had very little results for their efforts.

All of these were changed when Cambodia plunged into civil war in the 1970s. People realized

that Buddha and their religion could not save them. 36 Before its fall to the Khmer Rouge in 1975, revival

broke out, and there was a great outpouring of the Holy Spirit. 37

At present, there is a great spiritual awakening among the Cambodians. They are looking for
answers not only for their immediate needs but also for their deeper need, the spiritual one. They are
becoming open to the preaching of the gospel. Indeed, the Lord can turn around what the enemy
intended for evil to work out for the good of the people and for the fulfillment of His purposes. If only
Christian missionaries can address their needs intelligently, they may come to the Lord who can give
them hope and healing. When I say "intelligently", I mean ministering to them with consideration of their
past and present situations and experiences.

34

Chandler, History of Cambodia, p. 82.

35
Jeanette Lockerbie, When Blood Flows, The Heart Grows Softer (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania:
Christian Publications, Inc., 1976), p. 9.

36
Ibid., p. 124.

37
Todd Burke and De Ann Burke, Anointed for Burial (Plainfield, New Jersey: Logos International,
1977), pp. 180-181.
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III. IMPLICATIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF WAR ON CHRISTIAN MISSION

As I have discussed above, we need to consider the effects of war on the Cambodians for us to

minister to them effectively. Insights into these people's real situations might give us the key to their

hearts for them to open it up for the Lord Jesus Christ.

Personnel

Aside from spiritual maturity and commitment, missionaries to Cambodia must have the following

qualities and outlooks:

1. Genuine compassion and commitment to the people - The Khmers are people who have

suffered a lot. They listen more to people who show genuine concern to their situations and needs, and

those who identify themselves with the people.

2. Assurance of calling - Cambodia is a very stressful place to live in. The political and security

situations are not stable. Robberies, kidnappings, and physical assaults are rampant with the foreigners

sometimes as prime targets In addition to this, Cambodia is a poor country which would be very lonely,

uncomfortable, and unhealthy place to live in. All of these must be considered by prospective

missionaries to that place. Being sure of God's call to minister there is one big factor that will sustain

them when "the going gets tough."

3. Long-term commitment - Knowing the people's worldview and language is indispensable in an

effective missionary work. But this is only possible when the missionary stays longer in the place of his

calling. For a missionary to reach the vast majority of the Cambodian people, he must learn their

language (which is also a way to have insights into their worldview). Learning a new language takes

time, therefore, he must have a long-term commitment for him to have an impact in the people's lives.

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Strategy/Methodology

Cambodians are broken people. They have a lot of "felt needs" that needed to be met first

before we can address their real need which is salvation in the Lord Jesus Christ. As long as we do not

address those needs that bother them everyday, they will consider our message irrelevant and view us to

be interested only in converting them to our religion. We must show our genuine concern for them by

addressing what concerns them, and from there moved into their deeper needs that maybe they were not

even aware of at first. We can only do that if we have won their trust. And how do trust can be built? By

being with them, identifying with them, and being willing to help them. Through these we can show to

them that we are there because we are concerned about them, and that is why they need to listen to us.

The missionary approach that I consider very relevant to Cambodia at present time (I say, "at

present time" because I believe strategy must be based on the present condition of the place and people;

maybe there will be a time in Cambodia's future that this approach will no longer be relevant) is the

"wholistic approach"38 in missions. This means ministering to the whole man. Man is not just a spiritual

being, that all that we need is to minister to his spiritual needs only. Man is also a physical, social,

psychological, biological, and cultural being as well.39 For us to be relevant in our ministry, we need to

minister to all these areas of man's being.

Some of the ways that we can do to help the people is by uplifting their livelihood. We can start

cooperatives, lending programs, vocational trainings, livelihood projects, etc. to make them productive

and self-reliant. This is one way of combatting poverty and at the same time avoiding dependency on

missionaries for financial support among Christians and churches.

Missionaries in Cambodia must be creative in their ministry approaches. They must suit their

approaches/methodologies to the need of the people to have relevancy. However, they must be

consistent and constantly aware of their primary call, that is to make Christ known to the people.

38
I first heard this term and idea from a World Vision International worker, Weng Amper.

39
Paul G. Hiebert, Anthropological Insights for Missionaries (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Bake
House, 1985), pp. 23-27.
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Relationships

Cambodia has been under Communist regimes since 1975 to 1993. Many of the government

officials during that time are still the same officials that govern the country today. And many of them still

retain their communist mentality. They are suspicious of new groups and organizations, especially

religious groups connected with the West. There is a need to disarm these suspicions and establish

good relationship with the government. Social works uplifting the people's lives is one of the most

effective way to do away with these suspicions and distrust.

The wholistic approach that I am suggesting can be a very effective way also in establishing

close relationship with the people. People have the tendency and confidence to open up their lives to

those who are genuinely concern for their welfare. It is in this atmosphere of trust and close relationship

that we can effectively share the gospel.

Urgency

The political and security situation in Cambodia is not stable. The open door for missionaries

may close anytime. In view of this, missionaries must have a sense of urgency in their ministry. They

must do their ministry as if they are leaving "tomorrow." There is a need for a massive discipleship of

young converts and churches. There is a very great need to disciple and train Cambodian nationals for

leadership role. Missionaries may go when time comes to worst, but the churches will stay, and they

need solid, strong, and mature leaders. These are some of the big challenges that Christian missionaries

in Cambodia are facing today. They must respond to it urgently but surely, and this is only by the grace of

God.

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CONCLUSION

The light of the gospel had indeed dawned upon the dark land of Cambodia. People now have

the opportunity to hear and respond to the saving gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ. But for this to happen,

there is a need for the gospel-bearers to know the situations where the people are. They need to

consider the Khmer people's experiences in the past because those horrible and traumatic experiences

overwhelmingly affects them at the present. These things may cloud their minds that they cannot receive

and understand the gospel. But Christian missionaries who look at the people as Jesus sees them, will

make use of these gaping wounds and real needs of the people as a means in reaching into their hearts.

May the Christian missions respond to the challenges in Cambodia intelligently (by knowing the

needs and the way to address those needs), urgently, and sacrificially in the love and healing grace of the

Lord Jesus Christ.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adler, Jerry, and Moreau, Ron. "Pol Pot's Last Days." Newsweek, April 27, 1998, pp. 10-
13.

Burke, Todd, and Burke, De Ann. Anointed for Burial. Plainfield, New Jersey: Logos
International, 1977.

Cambodia: Discover the Hidden Kingdom. Name of the author and facts of publication
are not available.

Chandler, David P. A History of Cambodia. 2nd ed. St. Leonards, New South Wales:
Allen & Unwin, 1993.

Embree, Ainslie T., gen. ed. Encyclopedia of Asian History. 4 vols. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1988.

Faulder, Dominic. "People Want Change." Asiaweek, April 10, 1998, p. 25.

________. "The Election Circle." Asiaweek, July 24, 1998, pp. 24, 26.

Hiebert, Paul G. Anthropological Insights for Missionaries. Grand Rapids, Michigan:

Baker Bake House, 1985.

Hughes, Caroline. UNTAC in Cambodia: The Impact on Human Rights. Pasir Panjang,
Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1996.

"Hun Sen Asks King To Help End Deadlock.." Philippine Daily Inquirer, 04 September
1998, p. 12.

Johnstone, Patrick. Operation World. Carlisle, United Kingdom: OM Publishing, 1993.

Klintworth, Gary. " Cambodia 1992: Hopes Fading." In Southeast Asian Affairs, 1993,
pp. 113-129. Edited by Daljit Singh. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies, 1993.

Kong, Ratha. Teuk Tlar, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Interview, 1997.

Lockerbie, Jeanette. When Blood Flows, The Heart Grows Softer. Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania: Christian Publications, Inc., 1976.

Moreau, Ron. "The Culture of Violence: Can Anyone Destroy The Legacy of Pol Pot?"
Newsweek, May 4, 1998, p. 32.

Ravan. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Interview, 1995.

Ross, Russell R., ed. Cambodia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. N. p.: Library
of Congress, 1990.

Shawcross, William. "Cambodia Beyond Pol Pot." Newsweek, April 27, 1998, p. 14.

16
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Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: The Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Warshaw, Steven. Southeast Asia Emerges: A Concise History of Southeast Asia From
Its Origin to the Present. Berkeley, California: The Diablo Press, 1975.

17