energies

Article
Experimental Study on a Flue Gas Waste Heat Cascade
Recovery System under Variable Working Conditions
Jiayou Liu 1,2,3 , Xiaoyun Gong 3 , Wenhua Zhang 3 , Fengzhong Sun 2, * and Qingbiao Wang 1,3,4, *
1 College of Resources, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Tai’an 271019, China;
liu_jiayou@163.com
2 School of Energy and Power Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
3 Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, College of
Civil Engineering and Architecture, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590,
China; cherub1106@163.com (X.G.); zhangwenhua3322@163.com (W.Z.)
4 National Engineering Laboratory for Coalmine Backfilling Mining, Shandong University of Science and
Technology, Tai’an 271019, China
* Correspondence: sfzh@sdu.edu.cn (F.S.); wangqb73@163.com (Q.W.);
Tel.: +86-531-8839-5691 (F.S.); +86-538-3076-026 (Q.W.)




Received: 23 December 2019; Accepted: 7 January 2020; Published: 9 January 2020


Abstract: Recovering flue gas waste heat is beneficial to improving the unit efficiency in power
plants. To obtain the change rules of performance parameters of a flue gas waste heat cascade
recovery system (FWCRS) under variable working conditions, an experiment bench was designed
and built. The variation laws of the inlet temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of a low
temperature economizer (LTE), the inlet and outlet air temperature of an air preheater (AP), the heat
exchange quantities of the AP, LTE, and front-located air heater and an additional economizer (AE),
as well as the waste heat recovery efficiency, the system exergy efficiency, and the energy grade
replacement coefficient were obtained as the flue gas flow, flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas
ratio, air temperature, and circulating water flow in AE changed. Using an orthogonal test, the flue
gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio and air temperature were proved to be the significant factors
affecting the performance parameters of FWCRS, and the bypass flue gas ratio was suggested as an
adjusting parameter of FWCRS under variable working conditions.

Keywords: flue gas waste heat; cascade recovery; variable working conditions; performance parameters

1. Introduction
With the rapid development of the world economy and increase of the population, the demand
for energy sources is growing. In China, most of the electricity still comes from coal-fired power plants,
and about half of the produced coal was consumed by thermal power stations over the past decade [1],
which brings about greenhouse effect, environmental pollution, and other issues. Despite non-fossil
energy being used as much as possible, coal-fired power will still occupy a dominant position in the
foreseeable future in China [2]. Reducing coal consumption and improving coal use efficiency on the
existing coal-fired units are very necessary for solving the above problems.
For coal-fired power plant units, the exhaust flue gas temperature of boilers can reach more than
120 ◦ C, and about 50–80% of boiler heat loss is due to the exhaust flue gas energy loss, which accounts
for 3–8% total energy input of the units [3]. To reduce exhaust heat loss, reducing exhaust flue gas
temperature is one of the effective measures to decrease coal consumption and improve unit efficiency,
and the temperature can be reduced by recovering the waste heat from high-temperature flue gas.
The recovered flue gas waste heat is generally used to heat condensed water from condenser, heat
boiler feed water, or preheat air for coal combustion in boilers on coal-fired units [4–9], as well as used

Energies 2020, 13, 324; doi:10.3390/en13020324 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 324 2 of 19

for drying boiler fuel, waste heat power generation, seawater desalination, organic Rankine cycle,
etc. [10–14]. The waste heat in sulfur-reduced flue gas can also be recovered by absorption heat pump
to save energy and reduce pollution emissions [15].
The flue gas waste heat is usually recovered by heat exchangers located at tail flue of power plant
boilers. Wang [16] assessed the coal-saving effect of a 600 MW unit installed a low pressure economizer
(LPE) in three cases, and 2–4 g/(kW·h) standard coal was saved. Xu [17] proposed a novel flue gas
waste heat recovery system, in which a low temperature economizer (LTE) was located between a
high-temperature air preheater (AP) and a low temperature AP, and 5.6 MW of exergy destruction
was saved. Stevanovic [18] studied the unit efficiency improvement when a high pressure economizer
(HPE) used for recovering flue gas waste heat was supplied cold or hot feed water on an aged 620 MW
coal-fired unit, and the case of HPE fed with cold water proved to be competitive. To recover more
waste heat effectively from flue gas, many flue gas waste heat depth use systems were put forward
and analyzed. The systems were more complex and can heat feed water and combustion air at the
same time. Han [19] proposed a new heat integration system, 4 g/(kW·h) standard coal was saved
by adding a steam-air heater on a bypass flue gas waste heat recovery system of a 1000 MW unit.
Yan [20] optimized a bypass flue gas waste heat use system on a 1000 MW unit by recovering waste
heat from flue gas after wet flue gas desulphurization, the net standard coal consumption was reduced
5.38 g/(kW·h). Fan [21] developed a cascade energy use system by combining flue gas waste heat
recovery and bleeding steam energy use, the net efficiency of a double reheat cycle was improved 0.61%.
Yang [22] proposed a conceptual waste heat recovery system on a 1000 MW coal-fired unit, in which
the AP was divided into high-temperature AP, main AP and low temperature AP, the flue gas waste
heat was used to heat condensed water by LTE and heat the combustion air by the APs, and 13.3 MW
additional net power output was produced. The above-mentioned flue gas waste heat use systems all
have good energy-saving and coal-saving effects; however, the analysis of energy-saving effects of
the systems were based only on rated conditions, without analyzing the systems’ performance under
variable working conditions.
The performance of flue gas waste heat recovery system under off-design conditions was also
studied in the literature. Song [23] used the thermodynamic analysis method to study the off-design
operating performance of an LTE system, and the results indicated that the energy-saving effect of the
system was stable under high-load conditions. Song [24] also analyzed the energy-saving effect of a
deep waste heat use system on a 1000 MW ultra-supercritical unit under variable operating conditions
by thermodynamic calculation, and the result showed that the energy-saving effect of the unit was
obviously reduced under low-load conditions. Zhang [25] studied the energy-saving potential of an
exhaust gas heat recovery system on a 600 MW unit by developing a calculation model of steam turbine
and heat exchangers under off-design conditions, and the ratio of bypass flue gas was proved to have
the greatest influence on the saved coal amount of the unit. Han [26] simulated the thermal efficiency
of a lignite-fired 600 MW unit with a flue gas drying and waste heat use system, and the improvement
of plant thermal efficiency was reduced from 1.51% to 1.36% as the operating condition changed from
benchmark condition to 50% full load condition. The dynamic model of heat exchangers used for waste
heat use and large scale coal-fired power plants were also studied in the literature [27,28]. However, in
the study of the performance of the waste heat use systems under variable conditions mainly focused
on model analysis, theoretical calculations, and simulation calculations, little experimental research
was conducted, and the influence of operating parameters on performance of waste heat use system
has not been studied experimentally.
The flue gas from coal-fired boiler generally contains acid gases such as SO2 and NOx , the water
vapor in the flue gas will condense and form solution, which may cause corrosion, ash deposit and
fouling on the tail flue and heat exchanger surface, affecting the safe and reliable operation of the
unit [29–32]. Therefore, the exhaust flue gas temperature of flue gas waste heat recovery system should
not be reduced too much before desulfurization, generally reduced to about 80 ◦ C [33].
Energies 2020, 13, 324 3 of 19
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

During
During thethe
operation
operation ofof
the
thepower
powerstation
stationunit,
unit,the
theunit
unitload
loadoften
oftenchanges
changes duedue toto the
the influence
influence of
electricity demand, the operation of the flue gas waste heat recovery system
of electricity demand, the operation of the flue gas waste heat recovery system may deviate from may deviate from
thethe
design
design working
workingcondition
conditionandandrunrununder
under variable workingconditions,
variable working conditions,and andthetheflue
fluegas
gas waste
waste heat
heat
recovery
recovery effect
effectwill
willbebeaffected.
affected.To Toobtain
obtain better
better waste heat
heat recovery
recoveryeffect
effectand
andguide
guidethe the operation
operation
andand regulationofofflue
regulation fluegas
gaswaste
wasteheat
heatrecovery
recovery system,
system, studying
studyingthe thevariation
variationlawslawsofofperformance
performance
parameters
parameters of of the
the systemunder
system undervariable
variableoperating
operating conditions
conditionsisisnecessary.
necessary.However,
However,asas the operating
the operating
parameters
parameters ofof a fluegas
a flue gaswaste
wasteheat
heatrecovery
recovery system
system may
may affect
affect system
systemperformance
performance and
and cannot be be
cannot
adjusted arbitrarily on an actual unit, it is difficult to obtain the operating rules
adjusted arbitrarily on an actual unit, it is difficult to obtain the operating rules of the system byof the system by on-
site test.
on-site test.
In In thisstudy,
this study,ananexperimental
experimental benchbench waswas built
built to
to study
study thethe variation
variationlawslawsofofperformance
performance
parameters such as the inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of an LTE, the
parameters such as the inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of an LTE, the
inlet and outlet air temperature of an AP, the heat exchange quantity of the AP, LTE, front-located
inlet and outlet air temperature of an AP, the heat exchange quantity of the AP, LTE, front-located air
air heater (FAH) and additional economizer (AE), the waste heat recovery efficiency, the system
heater (FAH) and additional economizer (AE), the waste heat recovery efficiency, the system exergy
exergy efficiency, and the energy grade replacement coefficient of a flue gas waste heat cascade
efficiency, and the energy grade replacement coefficient of a flue gas waste heat cascade recovery
recovery system (FWCRS) as the flue gas flow, flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio, air
system (FWCRS) as the flue gas flow, flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio, air temperature, and
temperature, and circulating water flow in AE changed, and the main factors affecting the
circulating
performance water flow in AE
parameters changed,
of FWCRS wereand the main by
determined factors affecting
orthogonal test.the
Theperformance parameters
obtained experimental
of results
FWCRS were determined by orthogonal test. The obtained
can provide a reference for the operation adjustment of actual units. experimental results can provide a
reference for the operation adjustment of actual units.
2. Experimental Section
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Description of FWCRS
2.1. Description of FWCRS
FWCRS is a flue gas waste heat depth use system. The technical process of the system is shown
in FWCRS
Figure 1.isMost
a flue
ofgas
the waste heat depth use
high-temperature system.
exhaust flueThe
gas technical
from boiler process of the flows
economizer system is shown
through an in
Figure
AP to heat combustion air, and small part of flue gas passes through an AE to heat boiler feed waterAP
1. Most of the high-temperature exhaust flue gas from boiler economizer flows through an
to or
heat combustion
condense water.air, andthe
After small
twopart ofof
parts flue gas
flue passes
gas through
are cooled down,an AEthe to heat
low boiler feedflue
temperature water
gas or
condense water. After the two parts of flue gas are cooled down, the low temperature
merges into an LTE to heat circulating medium. Then, the heated medium enters into a FAH to heat flue gas merges
into
theanair
LTE to heat
flowing circulating
into the AP. Inmedium. Then,
the system, the the heated medium
high-temperature enters
flue gas isinto
useda FAH to the
to heat heatboiler
the air
flowing into the
feed water AP. In the system,
or condensed thematching
water with high-temperature fluethe
temperature, gaslow
is used to heat the
temperature flueboiler
gas isfeed
usedwater
to
or heat
condensed water
the air with with matching
matching temperature,
temperature by LTE-FAH the system,
low temperature
the cascadeflue gas isofused
recovery to heat
exhaust fluethe
gasair
is achieved.
with matching temperature by LTE-FAH system, the cascade recovery of exhaust flue gas is achieved.

Figure 1. Technical process of flue gas waste heat cascade recovery system. AP: Air Preheater; AE:
Figure 1. Technical process of flue gas waste heat cascade recovery system. AP: Air Preheater; AE:
Additional Economizer;
Additional Economizer;LTE:
LTE:Low
LowTemperature
TemperatureEconomizer;
Economizer; FAH:
FAH: Front-located AirHeater.
Front-located Air Heater.
 respectively, and the bypass flue gas valve is used to adjust the flue gas flow. The rest flue gas flows
through an AP and heat primary air and secondary air in it. Then the cooled flue gas flows through
electrostatic precipitator and enters into an LTE with the action of an induced fan. In an LTE, the low
temperature flue gas heats the circulating medium and enters into desulfurization process. A feed
fan drives
Energies the
2020, 13, 324cold air into a FAH, in which the air is heated by the heated circulating medium. Then 4 of 19
the heated air is further heated in the AP. The primary air flows to coal mill, and the secondary air
flows to boiler hearth.
The In FWCRS
the process has of
been
flueapplied
gas heattouse
a 1000 MW ultra-supercritical
in Figure double
2, the cold air is heated reheat
in the FAH coal-fired unit [34].
by low energy
The technical process of the system is displayed in Figure 2 [35]. Up to 30% of high-temperature
grade flue gas waste heat transferred from the LTE, saving high energy grade flue gas heat. The saved flue
gasheat
flows through
is used to heatanboiler
HPEfeedandwater
an LPEandincondensed
sequencewater,
to heat boiler feed
reducing waterfor
the stream and condensed
heating water
the water,
respectively,
and the saved stream can be used to drive steam turbine to generate electricity. The unit efficiencyflows
and the bypass flue gas valve is used to adjust the flue gas flow. The rest flue gas is
through
improved,an AP andand heat
the coalprimary air andand
consumption secondary
exhaustair in temperature
gas it. Then the cooled flue gasWhen
are reduced. flowsthethrough
air
electrostatic
temperature precipitator
meets the unitandoperation
enters into an LTE withthe
requirements, themore
actionflueofgas
anwaste
inducedheatfan. In an LTE,
is recovered the low
in HPE,
LPE, and LTE,
temperature the higher
flue gas heats theis the unit efficiency.
circulating medium However,
and entersas into
the unit often operates
desulfurization under A
process. varying
feed fan
loads,
drives thethe
coldoperating
air into aconditions of thethe
FAH, in which FWCRS will also
air is heated bychange.
the heatedTo circulating
guide the system
medium. operation
Then the
adjustment
heated and optimize
air is further heated in system design,
the AP. as well air
The primary as to obtain
flows higher
to coal waste
mill, and heat use efficiency,
the secondary it is to
air flows
necessary
boiler hearth. to study the operating performance of the system under variable working conditions.

Figure 2. 2.Technical
Figure Technical process ofFWCRS
process of FWCRS onon a 1000
a 1000 MWMW ultra-supercritical
ultra-supercritical double
double reheat reheat coal-fired
coal-fired unit.
unit. AP: Air Preheater; HPE: High Pressure Economizer; LPE: Low Pressure Economizer;
AP: Air Preheater; HPE: High Pressure Economizer; LPE: Low Pressure Economizer; LTE: Low LTE: Low
Temperature
Temperature Economizer;
Economizer;FAH:
FAH:Front-located
Front-locatedAir
AirHeater.
Heater.

2.2.InExperimental
the processSetup
of flue gas heat use in Figure 2, the cold air is heated in the FAH by low energy
grade flue gas waste heat transferred from the LTE, saving high energy grade flue gas heat. The saved
A prototype experimental bench was designed and built based on the technical process of the
heat is used to heat boiler feed water and condensed water, reducing the stream for heating the water,
FWCRS in Figure 1 and the actual system on a 1000 MW double reheat ultra-supercritical coal-fired
and the saved stream can be used to drive steam turbine to generate electricity. The unit efficiency
unit in Figure 2. The flow chart of the flue gas waste heat cascade recovery experimental bench is
is improved,
illustrated inand the 3.
Figure coal
Theconsumption
high-temperatureand flue
exhaust gas produced
gas was temperatureby aare
465reduced.
kW oil-firedWhen the air
hot blast
temperature meets the unit operation requirements, the more flue gas waste heat is recovered
stove, and the stove fuel is diesel oil. The temperature and the flow of the flue gas can be adjusted by in HPE,
LPE, and LTE, the higher is the unit efficiency. However, as the unit often operates under
combustion control system. The initial design flue gas temperature was 400 °C. The hot flue gas varying loads,
theentered
operating
into conditions
an AP and an of AE
the in
FWCRS willrespectively.
two ways, also change.The To AE
guide the system
consists operation
of an HPE and an adjustment
LPE, and
andthey are double H-finned tube heat exchangers. The flue gas flew outside the tubes, and the to
optimize system design, as well as to obtain higher waste heat use efficiency, it is necessary
study the operating
circulating performance
water flew inside theof the system
tubes. The APunder variable
is a spiral working
finned conditions.
tube heat exchanger, in which the

2.2. Experimental Setup

A prototype experimental bench was designed and built based on the technical process of the
FWCRS in Figure 1 and the actual system on a 1000 MW double reheat ultra-supercritical coal-fired
unit in Figure 2. The flow chart of the flue gas waste heat cascade recovery experimental bench is
illustrated in Figure 3. The high-temperature flue gas was produced by a 465 kW oil-fired hot blast
stove, and the stove fuel is diesel oil. The temperature and the flow of the flue gas can be adjusted
by combustion control system. The initial design flue gas temperature was 400 ◦ C. The hot flue gas
entered into an AP and an AE in two ways, respectively. The AE consists of an HPE and an LPE,
and they are double H-finned tube heat exchangers. The flue gas flew outside the tubes, and the
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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

circulating
flue gas flew water
insideflew
theinside
tubes,theand tubes. The
the air APoutside
flew is a spiral
thefinned
tubes. tube heatflow
The gas exchanger,
into theinAP which
and the
AE
flue
can be adjusted by plug valves. The cooled flue gas mixed and flowed into an LTE. In an LTE, AE
gas flew inside the tubes, and the air flew outside the tubes. The gas flow into the AP and the
can be adjusted by plug valves. The cooled flue gas mixed and flowed
flue gas exchanged heat with circulating medium water, and was further cooled and discharged by into an LTE. In an LTE, the
flue gas exchanged
an induced fan. Theheatinletwith circulating
flue gas temperaturemedium andwater,
exhaust and
fluewas
gasfurther cooledof
temperature andthedischarged
LTE were set by
an induced fan. The inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust flue
at 115 °C and 85 °C, respectively. The cold air was sent to FAH by a feed fan and heated by the gas temperature of the LTE were
set at 115 ◦ C
circulating
◦ C, respectively. The cold air was sent to FAH by a feed fan and heated by the
and 85 water
medium from the LTE. The LTE and FAH are elliptical finned tube heat exchangers,
circulating
in which the medium
gas flew water fromthe
outside thetubes,
LTE. TheandLTE theand FAH arewater
circulating elliptical
flewfinned
insidetubethe heat
tubes.exchangers,
The LTE,
in
FAH, circulating pipeline, and water pump make up an LTE-FAH system. In the system, theThe
which the gas flew outside the tubes, and the circulating water flew inside the tubes. flueLTE,
gas
FAH, circulating pipeline, and water pump make up an LTE-FAH system.
heat was transferred from the flue gas side to the air side by the circulating water. Then the heated In the system, the flue gas
heat was transferred
air flowed into AP and from
wasthe flue continuously.
heated gas side to theFinally,
air sidetheby hot
the air
circulating water. Then
was discharged outside,theand
heated
the
air flowed into AP and was heated continuously. Finally, the hot air was
outlet air temperature was set at 350 °C. The induced fan and the feed fan are centrifugal fans. Driven discharged outside, and
the ◦ C. The induced fan and the feed fan are centrifugal fans.
by aoutlet air temperature
circulating pump, thewas set at 350
circulating water entered into the LPE and HPE in sequence, and was
Driven
heated by by the
a circulating pump, the
high-temperature circulating
flue gas. The water
water entered
flow into into
thetheHPELPE andandLPE HPE caninbesequence,
adjustedand by
was heated by the high-temperature flue gas. The water flow into the
valves on water pipeline. A water-water tube-shell heat exchanger was set on the circulation loop.HPE and LPE can be adjusted by
valves on water pipeline. A water-water tube-shell heat exchanger
On one side of the heat exchanger, the circulating water temperature was reduced to prevent was set on the circulation loop. On
one side of theOn
vaporization. heattheexchanger,
other sidethe of circulating water temperature
the heat exchanger, a cooling wastower reduced to prevent
was located on the vaporization.
roof of the
On
laboratory and used to reduce the temperature of circulating water to ensure the safe operation ofand
the other side of the heat exchanger, a cooling tower was located on the roof of the laboratory the
used
system. to reduce
The on-sitethe temperature
layout of flue of gas
circulating
waste heat water to ensure
cascade the safe
recovery operation of
experimental the system.
bench is shown The
in
on-site
Figure 4. layout of flue gas waste heat cascade recovery experimental bench is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Flow chart of flue gas waste heat cascade recovery experimental bench. AP:
AP: Air
Air Preheater;
Preheater;
FAH: Front-located
FAH: Front-locatedAir
AirHeater;
Heater;HPE:
HPE: High
High Pressure
Pressure Economizer;
Economizer; LPE:
LPE: LowLow Pressure
Pressure Economizer;
Economizer; LTE:
LTE: Temperature
Low Low Temperature Economizer.
Economizer.
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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

Experimental setup
Figure 4. Experimental setup of
of flue
flue gas
gas waste
waste heat
heat cascade
cascade recovery
recovery system.
system. AP:
AP:Air
AirPreheater;
Preheater;FAH:
FAH:
Front-located Air Heater; HPE: High Pressure
Pressure Economizer; LPE: Low
Low Pressure
Pressure Economizer;
Economizer; LTE:
LTE: Low
Temperature
Temperature Economizer.
Economizer.

2.3. Data Acquisition and Processing

2.3. Data Acquisition and Processing
On the above experimental bench, the thermal resistances were set at the inlet and outlet of
On the above experimental bench, the thermal resistances were set at the inlet and outlet of the
the heat exchangers to obtain the temperatures of the flue gas, air, and water. The gas flow meter
heat exchangers to obtain the temperatures of the flue gas, air, and water. The gas flow meter and
and water flow meter were used to measure the flow of flue gas, air, and water, respectively. The
water flow meter were used to measure the flow of flue gas, air, and water, respectively. The
measured data were all transmitted by an industrial switch typed X108 to an industrial computer
measured data were all transmitted by an industrial switch typed X108 to an industrial computer
typed IPC-610H in a control room for subsequent processing. The data acquisition system was set up
typed IPC-610H in a control room for subsequent processing. The data acquisition system was set up
based on WinCC software, and Origin software was used for data subsequent processing. The models
based on WinCC software, and Origin software was used for data subsequent processing. The models
and accuracies of the measuring instruments are displayed in Table 1. For every test condition, the
and accuracies of the measuring instruments are displayed in Table 1. For every test condition, the
data acquisition system collects data every minute. As all data fluctuations did not exceed 1%, five sets
data acquisition system collects data every minute. As all data fluctuations did not exceed 1%, five
of data were selected for subsequent calculations. Affected by the accuracies of measuring instruments,
sets of data were selected for subsequent calculations. Affected by the accuracies of measuring
the experimental parameters have uncertainties. Assuming the expression of the tested parameters is
instruments, the experimental parameters have uncertainties. Assuming the expression of the tested
parameters is Y = f(x1, x2, …, xn), and x1, x2, …, xn are independent variables, the uncertainty
transmission of the experimental parameter Y can be obtained using Equation (1).
Energies 2020, 13, 324 7 of 19

Y = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are independent variables, the uncertainty transmission of the

experimental parameter Y can be obtained using Equation (1).
s
!2 !2 !2
∂f ∂f ∂f
σY = (δx1 )2 + (δx2 )2 + · · · + ( δ xn ) 2 (1)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
 
|∆x|max xi − x
max
δx = × 100% = × 100% (2)
x x

Table 1. Measuring instruments used in the experiments.

Measuring Instruments Manufacturer Model Accuracy

Hong De Control Technology
Thermal resistance (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, HD-WZPK-238 0.1 ◦ C
China
Xi’an Zhongwang Measurement
Gas flow meter and Control Instrument Co., Ltd., FCY-110D-AMYG ±1%
Xi’an, China
Hebei Feigerise Automation
Water flow meter Technology Co., Ltd., Langfang, PMFG-S-32-FAPAC0116EIASAR 0.5
China
Hong De Control Technology
Smart pressure
(Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, HD3051GP3S22M3B3C1 0.1
transmitter
China

Where σY is the uncertainty of Y, δx1 , δx2 , δxn are the relative errors of x1 , x2 , and xn , respectively,
and can be calculated by Equation (2). |∆x|max , xi , x are the maximum absolute error, test value and
average value of the measured x, respectively. In the experiment, the uncertainties of the calculated
parameters are not more than 5%.

3. Performance Parameters of FWCRS

Under variable working conditions of FWCRS, the inlet and outlet temperature of each heat
exchangers change constantly. Too low exhaust flue gas temperature may cause corrosion and ash
fouling in the tail flue, and too high exhaust flue gas temperature will reduce the waste heat recovery
efficiency. Too high or too low inlet combustion air temperature of boiler will affect the safe and reliable
running of the unit. The inlet flue gas temperature of LTE is an important parameter affecting system
efficiency [36]. The lower outlet air temperature of FAH may lead to ash deposit and corrosion in
AP. Therefore, the exhaust flue gas temperature to,LTE and the inlet flue gas temperature ti,LTE of LTE,
the outlet air temperature to,FAH of FAH, and the outlet air temperature to,AP of AP were studied as
important operating parameters of FWCRS in the experiment. The temperatures can be measured
using thermal resistances in the experiment.
For FWCRS, the heat exchange quantities of AP, AE, LTE, and FAH directly related to the flue gas
waste heat recovery effect. The heat exchange quantities Q are also used as performance parameters of
the system and are calculated using Equation (3).

Q = ρGcp (T1 − T2 ) (3)

where Q is the heat exchange quantity of each heat exchangers, ρ is the density of flue gas, water, or air,
G is the flow rate of flue gas, water, or air in unit time, cp is the specific heat of flue gas, water, or air, T1
and T2 are the initial temperature and final temperature of flue gas, water and air, respectively. The
Energies 2020, 13, 324 8 of 19

energy grade replacement coefficient ε is defined to evaluate the increase degree of energy grade of
flue gas waste heat, which can be obtained using Equation (4).

λs − λr
ε= (4)
λr

where ε is the energy replacement coefficient, λr is the energy grade of recovered low-grade flue gas
waste heat, and λs is the energy grade of replaced high-grade flue gas waste heat. The energy grade of
flue gas waste heat can be calculated by Equation (5) [36].

T
 
E cρG T1 − T2 − T0 ln T11 T0 T
λ= = = 1− ln 1 (5)
q cρG(T1 − T2 ) T1 − T2 T2

where λ is the energy grade of flue gas waste heat, E is the exergy released by flue gas, q is the heat
released by flue gas, c is the average specific heat of flue gas, m is the flow of flue gas, T1 and T2 are the
initial temperature and final temperature of flue gas, T0 is the ambient temperature.
According to Figure 2, the recovered flue gas waste heat is finally used to save steam for heating
boiler feed water and condensate from condenser, improving the working capacity of the unit. The
more flue gas waste heat is recovered, the more steam is saved. The waste heat recovery efficiency
is used to evaluate the amount of the recovered waste heat. Due to the exergy loss caused by the
irreversibility of energy conversion, the recovered waste heat cannot be completely converted into
useful work. The exergy is defined as the available energy in the recovered waste heat that can be
converted into work. The system exergy efficiency is introduced to evaluate the amount of the available
energy in the input energy of FWCRS. The waste heat recovery efficiency ηr and the system exergy
efficiency ηe of FWCRS are determined by the following Equations, respectively.

QAE + QFAH
ηr = × 100% (6)
Qf

EAE + EAP
ηe = × 100% (7)
Ef + W
where ηr and ηe are the waste heat recovery efficiency and system exergy efficiency, respectively, Qf is
the heat supplied by flue gas to the system, QAE is the heat released by flue gas in AE, QFAH is the heat
obtained from the air from FAH, Ef is the exergy released by flue gas in FWCRS, EAE is the exergy
obtained from the water in AE, EAP is the exergy obtained from the air in AP, W is the electric power
consumption of fans and water pumps in FWCRS in unit time. In Equation (6), Qf , QAE , and QFAH are
determined by Equation (3), EAE , and EAP are calculated by Equation (8) [36].

T
 
E = ρGcp (T1 − T2 ) − T0 ln 1 (8)
T2

where E is the exergy, ρ is the density of flue gas, water, or air, G is the flow rate of flue gas, water, or
air in unit time, cp is specific heat of flue gas, water, or air, T1 and T2 are the initial temperature and
final temperature of flue gas, water and air, respectively, T0 is ambient temperature.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Effect of Flue Gas Flow on Performance Parameters of FWCRS

The flue gas temperature was set at 380 ◦ C, the initial air temperature was 24.3 ◦ C, and the bypass
flue gas ratio was about 15% of the total flue gas flow. As the flue gas flow varied from 125 to 250
Nm3 /h, the relationships between the flue gas flow and the performance parameters of FWCRS such as
main node temperatures, heat exchange quantities of exchangers, waste heat recovery efficiency ηr ,
Energies 2020, 13, 324 9 of 19
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

system exergy
ηr, system efficiency
exergy ηe ,ηand
efficiency energy
e, and grade
energy gradereplacement coefficientεεare
replacementcoefficient areshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure 55 with
error bars.

(a) 360 (b) 24

320
to, AP 20
280 ti, LTE
to, LTE 16 QAP
240
to, FAH QAE
QLTE

Q/104kJ
200
t/°C

12
QFAH
160

115°C 8
120
85°C
80 4
40
0
0
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Flue gas flow/Nm3/h Flue gas flow/Nm3/h

(c) 100
ηr 1.8
ηe
80 ε
1.6
Efficiency/%

60 1.4

ε
40 1.2

1.0
20

0.8

0
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Flue gas flow/Nm3/h

Figure 5. Effect of flue gas flow on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between flue gas flow and main node
temperatures; (b) Relationship between flue gas flow and heat exchange quantities of heat exchangers;
Figure 5. Effect of flue gas flow on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between flue gas flow and main node
(c) Relationship between flue gas flow and ηr , ηe , and ε.
temperatures; (b) Relationship between flue gas flow and heat exchange quantities of heat exchangers;
(c) Relationship between flue gas flow and ηr, ηe, and ε.
As shown in Figure 5a, with the flue gas flow increased, the outlet air temperature of AP, the inlet
flue gas temperature of LTE, the outlet air temperature of FAH, and the exhaust flue gas temperature
As shown in Figure 5a, with the flue gas flow increased, the outlet air temperature of AP, the
of LTE increased to different degrees. When the flue gas flow was about 220 Nm3 /h, the inlet flue
inlet flue gas temperature of LTE, the◦ outlet air temperature of FAH, and the exhaust flue gas
gas temperature of LTE was nearly 117 C, slightly higher than the design temperature, the exhaust
temperature of LTE increased to different degrees. When the flue gas flow was about 220 Nm3/h, the
flue gas temperature was about 90 ◦ C, higher than the design value, and the outlet air temperature of
inlet flue gas temperature of LTE was nearly 117 °C, slightly higher than the design temperature, the
FAH and AP were close to the design conditions. The increasing flue gas flow led to higher exhaust
exhaust flue gas temperature was about 90 °C, higher than the design value, and the outlet air
flue gas temperature, and measures should be taken to reduce the temperature to improve waste
temperature of FAH and AP were close to the design conditions. The increasing flue gas flow led to
heat recovery. Figure 5b indicates the heat exchange quantities of AP, AE, LTE, and FAH increased
higher exhaust flue gas temperature, and measures should be taken to reduce the temperature to
with the flue gas flow added. The heat exchange quantity of AP increased greatly because more
improve waste heat recovery. Figure 5b indicates the heat exchange quantities of AP, AE, LTE, and
high-temperature flue gas flowed across the AP. In Figure 5c, the waste heat recovery efficiency and
FAH increased with the flue gas flow added. The heat exchange quantity of AP increased greatly
system exergy efficiency increased slightly, which revealed the added flue gas flow was beneficial to
because more high-temperature flue gas flowed across the AP. In Figure 5c, the waste heat recovery
improve waste heat recovery. However, the energy grade replacement coefficient decreased with the
efficiency and system exergy efficiency increased slightly, which revealed the added flue gas flow
flue gas flow increased, the main reason was the increased exhaust flue gas temperature and inlet flue
was beneficial to improve waste heat recovery. However, the energy grade replacement coefficient
gas temperature of LTE reduced the energy grade improvement of flue gas waste heat. For an actual
decreased with the flue gas flow increased, the main reason was the increased exhaust flue gas
coal-fired unit, as the unit load rises, the flue gas flow increases, the variation of theoretical calculation
temperature and inlet flue gas temperature of LTE reduced the energy grade improvement of flue
results such as some node temperatures and heat exchange quantities of HPE and LPE on a 1000 MW
gas waste heat. For an actual coal-fired unit, as the unit load rises, the flue gas flow increases, the
unit in [24] is consistent with the experiment results. A large amount of flue gas flow will cause the
variation of theoretical calculation results such as some node temperatures and heat exchange
exhaust flue gas temperature to increase. As the unit load rises, the FWCRS should be adjusted to
quantities of HPE and LPE on a 1000 MW unit in [24] is consistent with the experiment results. A
reduce the exhaust flue gas temperature to ensure the waste heat recovery effect.
large amount of flue gas flow will cause the exhaust flue gas temperature to increase. As the unit load
rises, the FWCRS should be adjusted to reduce the exhaust flue gas temperature to ensure the waste
heat recovery effect.
Energies 2020, 13, 324 10 of 19
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

4.2.
4.2. Effect
Effect of
of Flue
Flue Gas
Gas Temperature on Performance
Temperature on Performance Parameters
Parameters of
of FWCRS
FWCRS
The
The flue
flue gas
gas flow
flow was
was set at 250
set at 250 NmNm3/h,/h, the
the initial
initial air
air temperature
temperature waswas 24.5
24.5 °C,
◦ C, and
and the
the bypass
bypass
flue
flue gas
gas ratio
ratiowas
wasabout
about15%
15%ofofthe
thetotal
totalflue
fluegas flow.
gas AsAs
flow. thethe
flue gasgas
flue temperature varied
temperature from
varied 320320
from °C
to
◦ C400
to 400 C, the relationship between the flue gas temperature and the performance parameters of
°C, ◦ the relationship between the flue gas temperature and the performance parameters of
FWCRS
FWCRS areare displayed
displayed in
in Figure
Figure 66 with
with error
error bars.
bars.

400 (b) 28
(a)
360
24
320
to, AP
20
280 ti, LTE QAP
to, LTE QAE
240 16

Q/104kJ
to, FAH QLTE
t/°C

QFAH
200 12

160
8
120 115°C

85°C 4
80

40 0
320 340 360 380 400 320 340 360 380 400
Flue gas temperature/°C Flue gas temperature/°C

(c) 80 0.90

70
ηr 0.85
60 ηe
ε
Efficiency/%

50
0.80
ε

40

30
0.75

20

10 0.70
320 340 360 380 400
Flue gas Temperature/°C

Figure 6. Effect of flue gas temperature on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between flue gas temperature and
Figure 6. Effect of flue gas temperature on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between flue gas temperature
main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between flue gas flow and heat exchange quantities of heat
and main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between flue gas flow and heat exchange quantities of
exchangers; (c) Relationship between flue gas temperature and ηr , ηe , and ε.
heat exchangers; (c) Relationship between flue gas temperature and ηr, ηe, and ε.
In Figure 6, as the flue gas temperature rose, the main node temperatures, and the heat exchange
In Figure 6, as the flue gas temperature rose, the main node temperatures, and the heat exchange
quantities of the exchangers increased. The waste heat recovery efficiency and the system exergy
quantities of the exchangers increased. The waste heat recovery efficiency and the system exergy
efficiency rose, and the energy grade replacement coefficient decreased. The change trends of the
efficiency rose, and the energy grade replacement coefficient decreased. The change trends of the
parameters were basically the same as the trends when the flue gas flow was added. This is consistent
parameters were basically the same as the trends when the flue gas flow was added. This is consistent
with the actual operation of a power station unit. As the unit load increases, the flue gas flow and
with the actual operation of a power station unit. As the unit load increases, the flue gas flow and the
the flue gas temperature will increase at the same time, leading to the increased exhaust flue gas
flue gas temperature will increase at the same time, leading to the increased exhaust flue gas
temperature and more heat recovery. However, excessive exhaust flue gas temperature will result in
temperature and more heat recovery. However, excessive exhaust flue gas temperature will result in
greater waste heat loss. As the flue gas temperature and flue gas flow increase, the FWCRS should
greater waste heat loss. As the flue gas temperature and flue gas flow increase, the FWCRS should
be adjusted to transfer the flue gas waste heat to the boiler’s feed water and condensate as much as
be adjusted to transfer the flue gas waste heat to the boiler’s feed water and condensate as much as
possible by AE to decrease the exhaust flue gas temperature and improve the waste heat use efficiency,
possible by AE to decrease the exhaust flue gas temperature and improve the waste heat use
saving more steam for power generation.
efficiency, saving more steam for power generation.
4.3. Effect of Bypass Flue Gas Ratio on Performance Parameters of FWCRS
4.3. Effect of Bypass Flue Gas Ratio on Performance Parameters of FWCRS
The flue gas flow was set at 250 Nm3 /h, the initial air temperature was 27.1 ◦ C, and the flue gas
The
temperaturefluewas
gas 380
flow◦ C.
wasAsset
theatbypass
250 Nm 3/h, the initial air temperature was 27.1 °C, and the flue gas
flue gas ratio varied from 10% to 30% of the total flue gas flow,
temperature was 380 °C. As the bypass flue gas ratio varied from 10% to 30% of the total flue gas
of LTE was greatly reduced, the exergy released by flue gas increased, the reduction of exergy
obtained from the air flowing through the AP was dominant, the total exergy decreased, so the system
exergy efficiency was reduced. However, more waste heat was recovered in AE, leading to increased
waste heat recovery efficiency. The energy grade replacement coefficient increased because the large
bypass2020,
Energies flue13,
gas ratio reduced the inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of11LTE,
324 of 19
increasing the energy grade of recovered waste heat. It can be seen that changing the bypass flue gas
flow can effectively adjust the exhaust temperature and the waste heat recovery efficiency of FWCRS.
the the
So relationship
bypass flue between the ratio
gas flow bypass
canflue
be gas
usedratio andimportant
as an the performance parameters
adjustment of FWCRS
parameter for FWCRS are
shown in
operation. Figure 7 with error bars.

(a) 360 (b) 28

320
24
280
to, AP 20
240
ti, LTE
to, LTE 16 QAP
200

Q/104kJ
t/°C

to, FAH QAE

160 12 QLTE
QFAH
120 115°C
85°C 8
80
4
40

0 0
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30
Bypass flue gas ratio/% Bypass flue gas ratio/%

(c) 90 1.2

ηr
80 1.1
ηe
ε
70
1.0

60
Efficiency/%

0.9
50

ε
0.8
40
0.7
30

20 0.6

10 0.5
10 15 20 25 30
Bypass flue gas ratio/%

Figure 7. Effect of bypass flue gas ratio on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio and
main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio and heat exchange quantities
Figure 7. Effect of bypass flue gas ratio on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio and
of heat exchangers; (c) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio and η , η , and ε.
main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio rande heat exchange quantities
of heat exchangers; (c) Relationship between bypass flue gas ratio and ηr, ηe, and ε.
Figure 7 indicates the main node temperatures decreased as the bypass flue gas ratio increased.
When the ratio was about 30%, the exhaust flue gas temperature of LTE was close to the designed value.
As the bypass flue gas flow added, more heat was transferred to the circulating water by the HPE and
LPE, the bypass flue gas temperature decreased, and at the same time, the flue gas used to heat the
air in AP was reduced, the outlet flue gas temperature of AP also decreased. Then the inlet flue gas
temperature of LTE was reduced. The heat exchange quantities of AP, LTE, and FAH decreased, and
the heat exchange quantity of AE increased. As the flue gas flowed through the AP was reduced, the
heat exchange quantity of AP decreased. More flue gas flowed through AE increased heat exchange
quantity of AE. The lower node temperature caused the decreased heat exchange quantity in LTE and
FAH. As the bypass flue gas ratio added, the inlet flue gas temperature of LTE was greatly reduced, the
exergy released by flue gas increased, the reduction of exergy obtained from the air flowing through the
AP was dominant, the total exergy decreased, so the system exergy efficiency was reduced. However,
more waste heat was recovered in AE, leading to increased waste heat recovery efficiency. The energy
grade replacement coefficient increased because the large bypass flue gas ratio reduced the inlet flue
gas temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of LTE, increasing the energy grade of recovered
waste heat. It can be seen that changing the bypass flue gas flow can effectively adjust the exhaust
temperature and the waste heat recovery efficiency of FWCRS. So the bypass flue gas flow ratio can be
used as an important adjustment parameter for FWCRS operation.
exhaust flue gas temperature. The higher air temperature can cause high exhaust flue gas
temperature, so the higher air temperature was not good for reducing exhaust flue gas temperature.
The heat exchange quantities of LTE and FAH increased slightly and the heat exchange quantities of
AE and AP decreased. The main reason was the heat transfer temperature difference of AE and AP
was reduced
Energies 2020, 13,and
324 the temperature difference of LTE and FAH was added because of the increased 12 ofair
19
temperature. The exergy released from the flue gas was reduced, and the exergy obtained from the
air in FAH and AP and the water in AE also decreased, but the obtained exergy reduced more, leading
4.4. Effect of Air Temperature on Performance Parameters of FWCRS
to decreasing system exergy efficiency. The increased air temperature reduced the heat released by
The gas,
flue the
gas recovered
temperature wasinset ◦ C, the flue gas flow was 250 Nm3 /h, and the bypass flue
the flue heat AEatand
380 FAH changed slightly, resulting in rising of waste heat
gas ratio was
recovery about 15%
efficiency. Theof the total inlet
increased flue gas
air flow. The experiment
temperature was carried
and exhaust flue gasout respectivelyofwhen
temperature LTE
the −5.1 ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
reduced the energywas
air temperature grade replacement
C, 6.5 C, coefficient,
15.2 C, 24.3decreasing the energy
C, and 28.4 grade promotion
C. The relationship betweeneffect.
theFor
air
FWCRS on an
temperature actual
and unit, the parameters
performance system should be adjusted
of FWCRS to main
such as makenode
the exhaust flue gas
temperatures, temperature
heat exchange
higher than
quantities of the exchangers,
safe operating
wastetemperature of tail
heat recovery heatingsystem
efficiency, surfaceexergy
in coldefficiency,
season, and
and to reduce
energy the
grade
exhaust flue coefficient
replacement gas temperature
are shownas much as possible
in Figure 8 withto improve
error bars. the waste heat use effect in hot season.

(a) 360 (b) 28

320
24

Heat exchange quantity/104kJ

280 to, AP
ti, LTE 20 QAP
240
to, LTE QAE
200 to, FAH 16 QLTE
t/°C

QFAH
160 12

120 115°C
85°C 8
80
4
40

0 0
−10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER Air
REVIEW
temperature/°C Air temperature/°C
13 of 20

(c) 80 0.95
ηr
70 ηe
ε 0.90

60
Efficiency/%

0.85
50
ε

40
0.80

30
0.75
20

10 0.70
−10 −5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Air temperature/°C

Figure 8. Effect of air temperature on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between air temperature and main
node temperatures; (b) Relationship between air temperature and heat exchange quantities of heat
Figure 8. Effect of air temperature on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between air temperature and main
exchangers; (c) Relationship between air temperature and ηr , ηe , and ε.
node temperatures; (b) Relationship between air temperature and heat exchange quantities of heat
exchangers; (c) Relationship between air temperature and ηr, ηe, and ε.
In Figure 8, as the air temperature increased, the main node temperatures were raised. When the
air temperature was −5.1 ◦ C, the exhaust flue gas temperature was about 80 ◦ C, below the designed
4.5. Effect of Circulating Water Flow in AE on Performance Parameters of FWCRS
temperature. The lower air temperature may lead to too low exhaust flue gas temperature and too low
Thetemperature
inlet air flue gas temperature was set at 380 °C,
of AP, low−temperature the flue gas
corrosion flow
or ash was 250
fouling Nm
will 3/h, and
occur thetail
in the bypass flue
flue and
gas ratio
cold end ofwasAP,about 15% the
affecting of the
safetotal
andflue gas flow.
reliable The circulating
operation of the unit.water flow in
Therefore, asAE
thewas adjusted from
air temperature is
5.0 to 7.1 t/h. The relationship between the circulating water flow in AE
low, measures must be taken to control the exhaust flue gas temperature above the safe temperature and the performance
parameters
in the operationof FWCRS
of FWCRS.are illustrated
The higher in air
Figure 9 with error
temperature wasbars.
not good for reducing exhaust flue gas
In FigureThe
temperature. 9, as the circulating
higher water can
air temperature flowcause
in AEhigh
increased,
exhaustthe main
flue gas node temperatures
temperature, so the decreased
higher air
slightly. Thewas
temperature inletnot
fluegood
gas temperature
for reducing of LTE and
exhaust fluethe
gasexhaust flue gasThe
temperature. temperature werequantities
heat exchange higher thanof
design
LTE andvalue. The node slightly
FAH increased temperatures
and thewere
heatnot sensitive
exchange to circulating
quantities of AE flow changes
and AP in AE.The
decreased. Themain
heat
exchange
reason wasquantity
the heatoftransfer
AE increased and the
temperature heat exchange
difference of AE and quantities
AP was ofreduced
AP, LTEandandtheFAH decreased
temperature
slightly, mainly
difference of LTE because
and FAHthe wasadded
added water flowofreduced
because the inlet
the increased flue gas temperature
air temperature. The exergy of LTE and
released
decreased
from thegas
the flue heat
was exchange
reduced,quantity. The changes
and the exergy obtained in from
circulating
the air water
in FAHflow andof
APAEandhadtheawater
small in
effect
AE
on heat exchange quantities of heat exchangers. The reduced exhaust flue gas
also decreased, but the obtained exergy reduced more, leading to decreasing system exergy efficiency.temperature increased
exergy released from flue gas. However, less exergy obtained in AP and AE increased, leading to
decreasing system exergy efficiency. The recovered waste heat in AE increased slightly, and the
recovered heat in FAH decreased, the total recovered heat changed a little, but the released heat by
flue gas in FWCRS increased more because of the decreased exhaust flue gas temperature, the waste
heat recovery efficiency was reduced slightly. The decreased inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust
Energies 2020, 13, 324 13 of 19

The increased air temperature reduced the heat released by the flue gas, the recovered heat in AE and
FAH changed slightly, resulting in rising of waste heat recovery efficiency. The increased inlet air
temperature and exhaust flue gas temperature of LTE reduced the energy grade replacement coefficient,
decreasing the energy grade promotion effect. For FWCRS on an actual unit, the system should be
adjusted to make the exhaust flue gas temperature higher than the safe operating temperature of tail
heating surface in cold season, and to reduce the exhaust flue gas temperature as much as possible to
improve the waste heat use effect in hot season.

4.5. Effect of Circulating Water Flow in AE on Performance Parameters of FWCRS

The flue gas temperature was set at 380 ◦ C, the flue gas flow was 250 Nm3 /h, and the bypass
flue gas ratio was about 15% of the total flue gas flow. The circulating water flow in AE was adjusted
from 5.0
Energies to 13,
2020, 7.1x t/h.
FOR The
PEERrelationship
REVIEW between the circulating water flow in AE and the performance
14 of 20
parameters of FWCRS are illustrated in Figure 9 with error bars.

(a) 360 (b) 28

320
24
280 to, AP
ti, LTE 20 QAP
240 to, LTE QAE
to, FAH 16 QLTE
Q/104kJ

200
t/°C

QFAH
160 12

120 115°C
85°C 8
80
4
40

0 0
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Circulating water flow in AE/t/h Circulating water flow in AE/t/h

(c) 80 0.90
ηr
70 ηe
0.85
ε

60
0.80
Efficiency/%

50
0.75
ε

40
0.70
30

0.65
20

10 0.60
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Circulating water flow in AE/t/h

Figure 9. Effect of circulating water flow in AE on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between circulating water
flow in AE and main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between circulating water flow in AE and
Figure 9. Effect of circulating water flow in AE on FWCRS: (a) Relationship between circulating water
heat exchange quantities of heat exchangers; (c) Relationship between circulating water flow in AE and
flow in AE and main node temperatures; (b) Relationship between circulating water flow in AE and
ηr , ηe , and ε.
heat exchange quantities of heat exchangers; (c) Relationship between circulating water flow in AE
and ηr, ηe, and ε.
In Figure 9, as the circulating water flow in AE increased, the main node temperatures decreased
slightly. The inlet flue gas temperature of LTE and the exhaust flue gas temperature were higher
5. Orthogonal Test of Influence Factors
than design value. The node temperatures were not sensitive to circulating flow changes in AE.
It canexchange
The heat be seen from 4.1–4.5,
quantity forincreased
of AE FWCRS, the andmain node
the heat temperatures,
exchange heat of
quantities exchange
AP, LTEquantities
and FAH
in heat exchangers,
decreased waste because
slightly, mainly heat recovery efficiency,
the added system
water flow exergy
reduced theefficiency, andtemperature
inlet flue gas energy grade of
replacement coefficient
LTE and decreased the of theexchange
heat system were affected
quantity. Thetochanges
differentindegrees by the
circulating operating
water flow ofparameters
AE had a
such
smallas the flue
effect gas exchange
on heat flow, flue quantities
gas temperature, bypass flue gas
of heat exchangers. Theratio, air temperature,
reduced andtemperature
exhaust flue gas circulating
water flow in AE. However, in the actual operation of FWCRS, the operating parameters usually
change at the same time. To obtain the variation laws of the main node temperatures, heat exchange
quantities in heat exchangers, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy
grade replacement coefficient under variable working conditions by comprehensive experiments,
more experiments and more time are required. To determine the main factors affecting the system’s
Energies 2020, 13, 324 14 of 19

increased exergy released from flue gas. However, less exergy obtained in AP and AE increased,
leading to decreasing system exergy efficiency. The recovered waste heat in AE increased slightly, and
the recovered heat in FAH decreased, the total recovered heat changed a little, but the released heat by
flue gas in FWCRS increased more because of the decreased exhaust flue gas temperature, the waste
heat recovery efficiency was reduced slightly. The decreased inlet flue gas temperature and exhaust
flue gas temperature of LTE promoted the energy grade replacement coefficient, improving the energy
grade of waste heat recovered. The changes of circulating water flow in AE have less effect on node
temperatures, heat exchange quantities, and waste heat recovery efficiency. The inlet and outlet water
temperature of AE are restricted by the water temperature required by other heat exchangers on an
actual unit, adjusting the circulating water flow in AE plays a limited role in regulation of FWCRS.

5. Orthogonal Test of Influence Factors

It can be seen from 4.1–4.5, for FWCRS, the main node temperatures, heat exchange quantities in
heat exchangers, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement
coefficient of the system were affected to different degrees by the operating parameters such as the flue
gas flow, flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio, air temperature, and circulating water flow in AE.
However, in the actual operation of FWCRS, the operating parameters usually change at the same
time. To obtain the variation laws of the main node temperatures, heat exchange quantities in heat
exchangers, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement
coefficient under variable working conditions by comprehensive experiments, more experiments and
more time are required. To determine the main factors affecting the system’s performance, and to
guide the operation adjustment of FWCRS, orthogonal test was carried out using exhaust flue gas
temperature, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement
coefficient of FWCRS as test factors.
In the orthogonal test, five level data of each test factors was selected, and the data is shown in
Table 2. The orthogonal table L25 (56 ) was used in the test. The level data of each test factors was chosen
individually based on the orthogonal table for 25 tests, and 25 sets of test results of exhaust flue gas
temperature, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement
coefficient of FWCRS under different flue gas flow, flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio, air
temperature, and circulating water flow in AE were obtained. The influence of the test factors on
system performance can be got by range analysis and variance analysis.

Table 2. Level data of test factors in orthogonal test.

Test Factors
Level Data Flue Gas Flue Gas Bypass Flue Air Circulating Water
Flow/Nm3 /h Temperature/°C Gas Ratio /% Temperature/°C Flow in AE/t/h
1 125 320 10 −5.1 5
2 156 340 15 6.5 5.5
3 188 360 20 15.2 6
4 219 380 25 24.3 6.5
5 250 400 30 28.4 7.1

Figure 10 indicates the influence of test factors on the performance parameters of FWCRS. It can
be seen the variation rules of exhaust flue gas temperature, waste heat recovery efficiency, system
exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement coefficient of FWCRS were basically consistent with
the laws in 4.1–4.5. According to the range analysis, the range value and important order of the main
factors affected the systems performance parameters were determined and are displayed in Table 3.
It can be seen the initial flue gas temperature has the greatest effect on exhaust flue gas temperature
to,LTE , the bypass flue gas flow has the most important effect on waste heat recovery efficiency ηr
and system exergy efficiency ηe , the air temperature is the most important factor affecting the energy
grade replacement coefficient ε. In addition, the flue gas flow is also an important factor affecting
 exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement coefficient of FWCRS were basically consistent with
the laws in 4.1–4.5. According to the range analysis, the range value and important order of the main
factors affected the systems performance parameters were determined and are displayed in Table 3.
It can be seen the initial flue gas temperature has the greatest effect on exhaust flue gas temperature
to,LTE, the bypass flue gas flow has the most important effect on waste heat recovery efficiency ηr and
Energies 2020, 13, 324 15 of 19
system exergy efficiency ηe, the air temperature is the most important factor affecting the energy
grade replacement coefficient ε. In addition, the flue gas flow is also an important factor affecting
performance parameterssuch
suchas
as tto,LTE and ηe. The circulating water flow in AE has a small impact on
performance parameters o,LTE and ηe . The circulating water flow in AE has a small impact
on the performance parameters of FWCRS.the
the performance parameters of FWCRS. In actual
In the operation
actual of unit,
operation as theasflue
of unit, thegas flow,
flue gas flue gas
flow, flue
temperature, and air temperature are mainly affected by fuel properties, unit loads and ambient
gas temperature, and air temperature are mainly affected by fuel properties, unit loads and ambient
environment, they are generally difficult to be adjusted arbitrarily. Therefore, when the unit runs
environment, they are generally difficult to be adjusted arbitrarily. Therefore, when the unit runs under
under variable working conditions, adjusting the bypass flue gas ratio is an important way to
variable working conditions, adjusting the bypass flue gas ratio is an important way to improve flue
improve flue gas recovery effect, adjusting circulating water flow in AE can be used as an auxiliary
gas recovery effect, adjusting circulating water flow in AE can be used as an auxiliary adjustment mean.
adjustment mean.

(a) 100 80 1.1 (b) 110 80

to, LTE to, LTE
1.2
ηr 105 ηr
70 70
ηe ηe
95 ε 100 ε
1.0
60 1.1
60
95

Efficiency/%

Efficiency/%
90 50
50 90 1.0
t/°C

t/°C
0.9

ε
85 40
85 40
0.9
80
30
30 0.8
80 75
20 0.8
70
20
10
75 0.7 65 0.7
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 320 340 360 380 400
3
Flue gas flow/Nm /h Flue gas temperature/°C
(c) 100 70 1.05 (d) 100 80 1.1
to, LTE
ηr 70
60 1.00 ηe
95 to, LTE 95 ε 1.0
ηr 60
ηe
50 0.95
Temperature/°C

Efficiency/%
Efficiency/%

ε
50

ERC
t/°C

90 40 0.90 90 0.9
ε

40

30 0.85
30
85 85 0.8
20 0.80
20

80 10 0.75 80 10 0.7
10 15 20 25 30 ?5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER
Bypass REVIEW
flue gas ratio/% Air Temperature/°C 16 of 20

(e) 100 70 1.10

to, LTE
ηr
1.05
ηe
60
ε
95 1.00

50 0.95
Efficiency/%
t/°C

90 0.90
ε

40
0.85

30
85 0.80

0.75
20

80 0.70
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Circulating water flow in AE/t/h

Figure Orthogonal
10. 10.
Figure Orthogonal analysis of the
analysis of factors affected
the factors exhaust
affected flue gas
exhaust temperature,
flue waste heat
gas temperature, recovery
waste heat
recovery
efficiency, efficiency,
system exergysystem exergy
efficiency, andefficiency, and energy
energy grade grade replacement
replacement coefficient:
coefficient: (a) Flue gas (a) Flue
flow; (b)gas
Flue
gasflow; (b) Flue gas
temperature; temperature;
(c) Bypass (c) ratio;
flue gas Bypass(d)flue
Airgas ratio; (d) Air
temperature; (e)temperature; (e) Circulating
Circulating water water
flow in AE.
flow in AE.

Table 3. Importance order of the influencing factors.

Range Value
Test Factors Importance Order
FGF 1 FGT 2 AT 3 BFR 4 CWF 5
to,LTE 8.4 31.4 2.0 6.2 2.2 FGT > FGF > BFR > CWF > AT
ηr 0.0083 0.0162 0.0041 0.1799 0.0046 BFR > FGT > FGF > CWF > AT
ηe 0.0302 0.0102 0.0203 0.1316 0.0186 BFR > FGF > AT > CWF > FGT
ε 0.0839 0.4204 0.4645 0.1738 0.1058 AT > FGT > BFR > CWF > FGF
Notes: 1 FGF: Flue gas flow; 2 FGT: Flue gas temperature; 3 AT: Air temperature; 4 BFR: Bypass flue
gas ratio; 5 CWF: Circulating water flow in AE.

6. Conclusions
An experiment bench was designed and built, and using experiments the variation rules of
Energies 2020, 13, 324 16 of 19

Table 3. Importance order of the influencing factors.

Range Value
Test Factors Importance Order
FGF 1 FGT 2 AT 3 BFR 4 CWF 5
to,LTE 8.4 31.4 2.0 6.2 2.2 FGT > FGF > BFR > CWF > AT
ηr 0.0083 0.0162 0.0041 0.1799 0.0046 BFR > FGT > FGF > CWF > AT
ηe 0.0302 0.0102 0.0203 0.1316 0.0186 BFR > FGF > AT > CWF > FGT
ε 0.0839 0.4204 0.4645 0.1738 0.1058 AT > FGT > BFR > CWF > FGF
Notes: 1 FGF: Flue gas flow; 2 FGT: Flue gas temperature; 3 AT: Air temperature; 4 BFR: Bypass flue gas ratio; 5
CWF: Circulating water flow in AE.

6. Conclusions
An experiment bench was designed and built, and using experiments the variation rules of
performance parameters of FWCRS such as main node temperatures, heat exchange quantities of AP,
AE, LTE, and FAH, as well as waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy
grade replacement coefficient of FWCRS were obtained. The orthogonal test was carried out using
exhaust flue gas temperature, waste heat recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy
grade replacement coefficient of FWCRS as test factors, and the main factors affecting the system’s
performance were determined. The conclusions are as below.
As the flue gas flow varied from 125 to 250 Nm3 /h, the outlet air temperature of FAH and AP, the
inlet flue gas temperature of LTE, and the exhaust flue gas temperature increased, the heat exchange
quantities of AP, AE, LTE, and FAH also increased, the waste heat recovery efficiency and system
exergy efficiency rose slightly, and the energy grade replacement coefficient decreased.
As the flue gas temperature varied from 320 ◦ C to 400 ◦ C, the main node temperature including
the outlet air temperature of FAH and AP, inlet flue gas temperature of LTE, and the exhaust flue
gas temperature all increased, the heat exchange quantities of exchangers increased, the waste heat
recovery efficiency and system exergy efficiency rose slightly, and the energy grade replacement
coefficient decreased.
As the bypass flue gas ratio varied from 10% to 30% of the total flue gas flow, the main node
temperatures such as the outlet air temperature of FAH and AP, the inlet flue gas temperature of LTE,
and the exhaust flue gas temperature decreased, the heat exchange quantities of AP, LTE, and FAH
decreased, and the heat exchange quantity of AE increased, the system exergy efficiency was reduced,
and the waste heat recovery efficiency and the energy grade replacement coefficient increased.
As the air temperature rose from −5.1 to 28.4 ◦ C, the main node temperatures increased, the heat
exchange quantities of LTE and FAH increased slightly and the heat exchange quantities of AE and AP
decreased, the waste heat recovery efficiency rose, and the system exergy efficiency and energy grade
replacement coefficient decreased.
As the circulating water flow in AE was adjusted from 5.0 to 7.1 t/h, the main node temperatures
decreased, the heat exchange quantity of AE increased and the heat exchange quantities of AP, LTE
and FAH decreased slightly, the waste heat recovery efficiency rose, and the system exergy efficiency
were reduced, and the energy grade replacement coefficient rose.
The orthogonal test proved the variation laws of the exhaust flue gas temperature, waste heat
recovery efficiency, system exergy efficiency, and energy grade replacement coefficient of FWCRS were
basically consistent with the experiment results. The flue gas temperature, bypass flue gas ratio and air
temperature were the significant factors affecting the performance of FWCRS. The bypass flue gas ratio
was suggested to be a main adjusting parameter of FWCRS under variable working conditions.

Author Contributions: J.L. designed the experimental bench, carried out the experiments and wrote the manuscript,
X.G. and W.Z. processed the experiment data, F.S. provided experimental conditions, reviewed the manuscript
and provided valuable suggestions, Q.W. assisted in conducting experiments and made recommendations. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Energies 2020, 13, 324 17 of 19

Funding: This work was supported by the National Development and Reform Commission Fund of the Power
Industry Low–carbon Technology Innovation and Industrialization Demonstration Projects [Development and
Reform Office High–tech (2013) 1819] and SDUST Research Fund (2018TDJH101).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
AE Additional Economizer
AT Air temperature
AP Air Preheater
BFR Bypass flue gas ratio
CWF Circulating water flow in AE
FAH Front located Air Heater
FGF Flue gas flow
FGT Flue gas temperature
FWCRS Flue gas Waste heat Cascade Recovery system
HPE High Pressure Economizer
LPE Low Pressure Economizer
LTE Low Temperature
Symbols
c Average specific heat of flue gas, kJ/(kg·K)
cp Specific heat of flue gas, water, or air, kJ/(kg·K)
E Exergy released by flue gas, kJ/kg
EAE Exergy obtained by water in AE, kJ
EAP Exergy obtained by air in AP, kJ
Ef Exergy released by flue gas in FWCRS, kJ
G Flow of flue gas, water, or air in unit time, m3 /s
Q Heat exchange quantity of each heat exchangers, kJ
QAE Heat released by flue gas in AE or heat exchange quantity in AE, kJ
QAP Heat exchange quantity in AP, kJ
Qf Heat supplied by flue gas to the system, kJ
QFAH Heat obtained by air from FAH or heat exchange quantity in FAH, kJ
QLTE Heat exchange quantity in LTE, kJ
q Heat released by flue gas, kJ/kg
T1 Initial temperature, K
T2 Final temperature, K
T0 Ambient temperature, K
ti,LTE Inlet flue gas temperature of LTE, ◦ C
to,LTE Exhaust flue gas temperature of LTE, ◦ C
to,FAH Outlet air temperature of FAH, ◦ C
to,AP Outlet air temperature of AP, ◦ C
W Electric power consumption of fans and water pumps in FWCRS in unit time, kJ
xi Single value of measured x
x Average value of measured x
|∆x|max Maximum absolute error of measured x
δx Relative errors of x
ε Energy replacement coefficient
ηe System exergy efficiency, %
ηr Waste heat recovery efficiency, %
λ Energy grade of flue gas waste heat
λr Energy grade of recovered low-grade flue gas waste heat
λs Energy grade of replaced high-grade flue gas waste heat
ρ Density of flue gas, water, or air, kg/m3
σY Uncertainty of Y
Energies 2020, 13, 324 18 of 19

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