ll1&Onp

Internal

302 Chapter 8
rules:
tor the basic
mathematical
expressions
addition we have
In
is z e r o .
node (junction)
flow out of any
1. The net head (HGL).
pressure
node has a unique
2. Each
nodes 2 and 6:
basic rule 1 to (1)
We can apply Node 2:

Node 6: =O,+Q (2)

obvious constraints
and we also have the (3)
4)
(5)
constraints:
obtain the following pressure drop
We apply basic rule 2 to
can
b h, + h, + h + hy
=
6)
b (7)
b h,=h, +h, t bu
b =h,
and Eqs. 8.29 and 8.34 for
each pipe section
together with the continuity relation
This eight
set ot equations, and S to immediately reduce
If we were to manually
iterate, we would use Eqs. 3, 4,
must be solved iteratively. iteration manually,
five (Q2»Q.2P.Qc). IF we were pertorming the
the number of unknowns and equations to

an approach would be to:

1. Make a guess tor Q» Qps and Qp

2. Equations I and 2 then lead to values for Q and Q
the nodes) is
used check to see if rule 2 (for unique pressure heads at
3. Equations 6, 7, and 8 are finaly as a

satished.
If any of Eqs. 6,7, or 8 are not satisfied, use knowledge of pipe
flow to adjust the values of Q, Q, or Q
4.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 5 until convergence occurs.
equations the is
Equation solving software can be used efficiently solve the coupled set of equations. Each of
to

entered and the software does the necessary iterations. This particular solution was obtained using Excel, but
other software would be appropriate as well. The flowrates obtained are:
The flow rates are:
Q = Q, = 1.05 m's
2.(gpm) = 0.45 m''s

Q (gpm) Qm'/s = =
5.99 x 10% m'/s This problem illustrates the
network approach to soving
,(gpm)= 1.51 x 10% m''s a complex piping network

Q(gpm) = 0.45 m's problem.

PART C | FLOW MEASUREMENT

Throughout this text we have referred to the flow rate Q or average velocity V in a pipe. The question arises: How
h
does one measure these quantities? We will address
meters

this question by discussing the various types ot

to
available.
The choice of a flow meter is intluenced by the
accuracy required, range, cost, complication, ease of tee
data reduction, and service
life. The siunplest and cheapest device that gives the desired accuraey shoulu o
The most obvious way to measure flow rate in a
pipe is the direct method-simply measure the d o
fluid that accumulates in a container over a fixed time rate

period. Tanks can be used to determine tlowit time

steady liquid flows by measuring the volume or mass of liquid collected during a known time interval.
interval is
long enough be measured
to
accurately, tlow rates may be determined precisely in this wa
 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 303

Compressibility must be considered in volume measurements for gas flows. The densities of gases generally
to0 small to permit accurate direct measurement of mass flow rate. However, a volume sample often can be
collected by displacing a "bell," or inverted jar over water (if the pressure is held constant by counterweights). If
wolume or mass measurements are set up carefully, no calibration is required; this is a great advantage of direct
methods.
In specializedapplhications. particularly for remote or recording uses, positive displacement flow meters may
specifed, in which the flud moves a component such as a reciprocating piston or oscillating disk as it passes
be
through the device. Common examples include household water and natural gas meters, which are calibrated
read directly in units of product, or gasoline metering pumps, which measure total flow and automatically
to
compure the cost. Many positive-displacement meters are available conmmercially. Consult manufacrurers
literature or Reterences (eg, |18) for design and installation details.

8.9 FLOW MEASUREMENT AND FLOW RESTRICTION

Internal flow is based on acceleration of a fluid stream
through some form of nozzle, as shown
in Fig. 8.17. One of the examples of an internal flow is the flow through orifices and mouthpieces. The idea ot schematically
this is to the changes in velocity leads to a change in
pressure. This Ap can be measured using a
pressure or
gagge
electronic or mechanical) or a manometer, and the flow rate inferred using either a theoretical analysis an
experimental correlation for the device.
The most commonly used restriction devices are the
orifice, nozzle, and venturi tube. All have similar flow
patterns and the flow through a nozzle will be used to illustrate the behavior of the device. Flow separation at the
sharp edge of the nozzle throat
causes a recirculation zone to
form, as shown by the dashed lines downstream
from the nozzle. The mainstream flow continues to accelerate
from the nozzle throat to form a vena contracta at
sectionand then decelerates again to fill the duct. At the vena
streamlines are essentially straight, and the contracta, the flow area is a minimum, the flow
pressure is uniform across the channel section.
Thetheoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure differential between sections and
continuity and Bernoulli equations. Then empirical correction factors may be by applying the
rate. The assumptions made are: applied to obtain the actual flow
1. Steady flow.
2. Incompressible flow.
3. Flow along a streamline.
4. No friction.
. Uniform velocity at sections O and 2.
6. No streamline curvature at sections O or 2,
7. Z
so
pressure is unitorm across those sections.
for a fluid with a constant density, the conservation of mass equation is

and the
EVA-0 (4.13b)
Bernoulli equation, assuming that the viscous friction is negligible, is

(6.8)

Flow
D -V1 D V2 D2

CV

Figure 8.17 Internal flow through a

generalized nozzle showing control volume used for
analysis.
304 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

Assumptions:
Then, from the Bernoulli equation,

P-Pv; -v})= PV1

and from continuity

-V,A,)+ (pV,A,) =0
OI

V,A=V,A, so

Substituting gives

PP-P
Solving for the theoretical velocity, V»

V=24pP-P) (8.51)
2p[1-(A,1A 1
The theoretical mass flow rate is then given by

mtheoretical =pV,A,
2P-P)
PP1-(A,/A,}T*
mtheoretical A 2p(P-P) (8.52)
1-A,/A
Equation 8.52 shows that, under our set of assumptions, for a given fluid (p) and flow meter geometry (A, and A),
the flow rate is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure drop across the meter taps,

theoretical Ap
which is the basic idea of these devices. This relationship limits the flow rates that can be measured accurarely
to approximately a 4:1 range.
Several factors limit the utility of Eq. 8.52 for calculating the actual mass flow rate through a metet. Ine
actual flow area at section is unknown when the vena contracta is pronounced (e.g., for orifice plates wic
D, is a small fraction of D,). The velocity profiles approach uniform flow only at large Reynolds numb
Additionally, the location of pressure taps influences the differential pressure reading.
The theoretical equation is adjusted for Reynolds number and diameter ratio D,/D, by defining an empit
discharge coefficient C such that, replacing Eq. 8.52, we have

CA (8.53)
cua h-(A,IA
AJF2p(P-P
Letting = D,/D,, then (A,/A,} = (D,/D,)" = f', the general form of the metering equation is

mactual
CA 2PP-B) (8.54)
 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 305

Characteristics of rifce, Flow Nozzle, and Venturi Flow Meters

S.6
Table Initial Cost
FlowMeterlype
Diagram Head Loss
Low
High
Orihce

Intermediate
Intermediate
Flow Nozzle

Low High
Ventur

number.
the type of meter (orifice, nozzle, or venturi) and the Reynolds
The value of C depends
on
coefficient and velocity-ot-approach
In Eq. 8.54, 1//1-F
is the velocity-of-approach factor. The discharge
sometimes combined into a single flow coefficient,
factor are

C (8.55)
Ka1-
of this flow coefficient, the actual mass flow rate is expressed as
In terms

(8.56)
mKA v2p(P,-P)
for cal1bration, and
tactors such as cost, accuracy, need
AS We have noted, selection of a flow meter depends on and
of these tactors are compared tor orifice plate, flow n0zzle,
Case of installation and maintenance. Some cost of the device is high as
it will
that the running
Venturi meters in Table 8.6. Note that a high head loss means

consume a lot of the fluid energy. turbulent velocity

have been measured with fully developed
Flow meter coefficients reported in the literature be installed downstream from a valve, elbow, or
If a flow meter is to
ustributions at the meter inlet (Section
0).
tront of the meter. Approximately
10 diameters
must be placed in
disturbance, a straight section of pipe or flow nozzle meters.
Cr venturi meters, and up
to 40 diameters
for orihce plate
raght pipe are required for flow may be computed
from Eq. 8.54 or 8.56, with an
When d has been properly installed, the rate
meter K, defined in Eqs. 8.53 and
coefficient, C, or flow coethcient,
value for the empirical discharge
pate
8.55, respectively.

The Orifice Meter

Coeficients
Determination of Hydraulic
Hydrauli Coeficients and Experimental
coefficients are used. These are (a) coefficient of velocity
of hydraulic
CL meter, three different types coefficient of discharge (C,).
coefhicient of contraction (C), (c) theoretical velocity of jet (Vh) is defined as
he rat of at vena-contracta
(V) to the
actual velocity jet
fhe ofofvelocir (C,) and is expressed as
coefhcient
vena c o n t r a c t a
Actual velocity of jet at
C Theoretical velocity of jet

V (8.57)

wher
CgH the value of C,
varies berween 0.95 to 0.99.
eight of the orifice. For orifhce,
306 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Plow
The ratio of area of jet at vena contracta to the area ot orihce is def1ned as coethcient ot contraction
CB
definition it can be expressed as

Area of jet at vena contracta

C Area of orifice

S.58)
Value of C varies between 0.61 to 0.69.
The ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge from the orihce is dehned as coethicient of dischare

(C).It can be expressed as in terms of other two hydraulic coetfficients.

Actual discharge
C Theoretical discharge
Actual velocity of jet at vena contracta Area of jet at vena econtracta
Theoretical velocity Area of oritice

C = C, xC
(8.59)
Value of C, varies between 0.60 to .65.
Consider a tank with full of water maintained at constant head (H). An orihce meter is placed at the side of
the tank shown in Fig. 8.18. The water is discharged from the tank into a measuring tank. Rate ot disecharge lor
a particular time interval can be calculated with the help of an area of the tank and height of the water in the
measuring tank. Now consider for any time interval t, water particle traverse x and y along the horizontal and
vertical direction from the vena contracta.
As the flow from the vena contracta is parabolic, so the horizontal and vertical distance can be wnitten as

x = Vt (8.60)

(8.61)

Eliminating t from both the Eqs. 8.60 and 8.61 and performing some simple calculation we get

V= gx*
V2y
Theoretical velocity can be calculated as

Supply
water

Measuring
tank

Figure 8. 18 Schematic diagram of flow through an orihce.

 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 307

coethcient ot velocity is
the
Then

gx
C V2y
2gH
(8.62)
C 4yH
but the ratio of actual the theoretical discharge. In this case
Coefficient of discharge is nothing discharge to

c a n be calculated a s
actual discharge
Area of the measuring tank x Height of the liquid presentin measuring tank
Time
Theoretical discharge is calculated
as

a28H
where a is the of the orihce and H is the height of
area water in the tank.

Finally coefficient of discharge can be calculated as

C, = (8.63)

Coefficient of contraction is calculated as

(8.64)
C
where a 1s area at vena contracta.

EXAMPLE 8.12 Flow through an Orifice

The water surtace in the tank is at a
A cm diameter orifice in the vertical side of a tank discharges
water.
has a diameter of 4.25 cm at its vena contracta.
nstant level of 0.5 m above the center of the orifice. A fluid jet
ne measured discharge is 4 Ls. Determine the coefficients of velocity, discharge and contraction for the orifice.
Giv 1ameter of orifice, diameter of vena contracta, actual discharge, liquid level height.
Find: (a) Coefficients of velocity
(b) Discharge
(c) Contraction for the orifice.
Solution
Governing equation:
Q=Ca2gH

d_0.0425-0.72
0.05
4

Discharge can be calculated as

= C,a2gH

4x 10 =
C,x 1.963 x 10
x
2 x9.81 x0.5
C = 0.65
 Flow
Internal Incompressible Viscous
308 Chapter 8

Coefficient of velocity is
G =0.90
C 0.72
an orifice.
coefficients for flow through
measured different
hydraulic
In this problem, we

depth of the
of depth
of orifice, then it is
i
caled
Small and Large Orifice of the orifice is
more than five times
from the center times of the depth.
If the height of liquid height is less than five
orifice is an orifice whose
small oritice. Large

The Orifice Plate Since its geometrv

between pipe flanges. 1S
is a thin plate
that may be clamped will not foul with scaleo
The orifice plate (Fig. 8.19) edge of the oriice
r
install or replace. The sharp
cost and easy to of a c o n c e n t r i c orihice in a horizontal
simple, it is low in m a t t e r can build up
at the inlet side
suspended m a t t e r . However,
suspended to avoid this difficulty. The primare
flush with the bottom of the pipe
orifice may be placed head loss caused by the uncontrolled
pipe; an eccentric limited capacity and the high permanent
a r e its
disadvantages of the orifice element.
expansion downstream from the metering in Fig. 8.19. The standard locations are
be placed in several locations, as shown
Pressure taps for orifices may diameter upstream and one-half
1 in. on either side of
the orifice plate o r o n e
in the c o r n e r s of the orifice plate, coethcient C depends strongly on the
downstream of the orifice plate. The value of the discharge
a diameter
location of the taps. orifice coefficient C, as
equation using the
The flow through an orifice is then calculated from the metering

2PP-Pe (8.65)
=C,A 1-
diameter upstream of
recommended for a concentric orifice with one tap located o n e
The correlating equation and 1/2 D taps) |23] is
one-half the diameter downstream (D
the orifice and the second located

(8.66)
C= 0.5959 032161-0.1846+ (Ren,91.7125
O-7+0.0900 -0.0337e
<
within t0.6 percent for 0.2<B<0.75 and for <Rep, 10' 10
Equation 8.66 predicts orifice dischargecoefficients
A similar correlating equation is available for orifice plates
The orifice coefficient is plotted in Fig. 8.20.
a different correlation for every line size.
corner taps. Flange taps require
Example 8.12 illustrates the application of flow coeffhcient data to orifice sizing.

Flange taps
0.025 m - 0.025 m

Flow
Corner taps

Dandtaps
Figure 8.19 Orifice geometry and pressure tap locations. (Based on [|18].)
 8.9
Fiow Measurement and Flow Restnction 309
0.58

B= 0.7

0.5
0.
0.4
0.3

0.2

0.58
10 10 10 10
Reynolds number, Re
Figure 8.20 Flow coefficient for concentric orifices with D
and D/2 taps.

EXAMPLE 8.13 Flow

through an Orifice Meter
An air flow rate of up to I m/s at standard conditions is
expected in a 0.25-m diameter duct. An oriice meter is
to measure
UScd the rate of flow. The manometer available to make the
measurement has a
U0 mm of water. Determine the diameter of the orihce plate that should be used with D andmaximum
DI2
range of
DEtermine the head loss if the flow area at the vena contracta is 0.65 ot the orihce diameter. pressure taps.

ven: Flow through duct and orihice as shoWn.

( a ) Orihce diameter for an airflow of I m'/s at a pressure ditterence of 300 mm water.
(6) Head loss for the orifice meter.

Assumptions:
The air flow is
. The air can be steady.
treated as
incompressible fluid.
Solution
he orihce
given by Eq. 8.65 with the orifice coefficient taken trom Fig. 8.20.

G0verning equation:

In
this
m=CA 2PP-P
1-
cquation,themaximum
mm water max1m mass flow rate is known. The pressure ditference will be taken as the maximum
neter ratio the maximum flow rate. The unknowns are the orihce coethcient, throat area, and the
he orifice coefficient C. depends on the Reynolds number and the diameter ratio. An iterative

t erencs used in which a diameter is selected and the pressure diterence determined. If the pressure
The pres largerdifference
than the criterion
o of 300 mm water, a larger diameter ratio will be selected.
from Eq. 8.57 s

\he air
densityty at standard (P-P:20 CA,) 2 C,A,)
at S
kg/m', and the air viscosity
at standard conditions is 1.46 10 Pa-s.
condition is 1.23
310 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

The Reynolds number is given by

P4
Rep
UTD,
1.23 kg 4.1m
m = 3.50 10
1.46x 10 Pa -s r 0.25m
a value of
Our first guess with be for a value of D, of 0.175 m, which 0.7. T he orihce
yields ßot fro
Fig. 8.20 is about 0.625. The pressure difference is then coefficient trom

1.23 (1-0.7*) 1m
P-P)-P- o. 2070Pa
2
0.625 4 0.175 m
The corresponding height of the water column in the manometer is
2070 Pa
=
h PP ke =0.211m 211 mm (A)
ww9.81-998
m

This is lower than the maximum

pressure difference and a second guess will be made using a smaller
diameter of 0.15 m, which corresponds to a of 0.6. The orifice orifice
B coefficient at this diameter ratio is 0.615. The
same calculations as above are
carried out and the resulting pressure difference and manometer
height is
(P, -P) = 4530 Pa and h = 463 mm
The diameter is too small, but the
diameter is made and the process
appropriate diameter is between 0.15 m and 0.175 m. Another guess for the
repeated. The orifice coefficient at the guess diameter is obtained from
interpolation between the values for 0.15 m and 0.175 m. Eventually a diameter of 0.165 m is found to linear
a yield
pressure of 2830 Pa and a manometer height of 289 mm
300 mm. water, which is close enough to the target value
of
The final design is
D, = 0.165 m and B= 0.66.

To evaluate the permanent head loss, apply Eq. 8.29 between sections O and .

Governing equation:

(8.29)
P

Assumptions:
3. a,Ví =a,V.
4. Neglect Az.

Then

h P P-P -(p-P) (2)

P P
-

-
Equation 2 indicates our approach: We will find p, for
p, =289 mm H,O, and obtain a d40.
2
P-P by apply1ng the x component of the momentumP, by using top, a
equation control volume between section

A Flow-
CV

3)
A2 Avena contracta
 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 311
8.9
Goveming equation:
=
0(5) =
O(1)
(4.18a)
F,+K-upd +f "pV-d
Assumptions:
= 0
5. sections and .
6. Uniform flow at
a c r o s s duct at sections and .
7. Pressure unitorm
force o n CV.
8. Neglect friction
and rearranging,
Then, simplifying
(P-P,)A, =u,-pV,A,)+ #,(pV,A,) = (u, - 4,)PQ= (V,-V,)p
P-P= (V2-V,)P
A
Now Vs = QIA,, and
V A Q
0.65A, 0.65B A,
Thus,
1
PL
PPs-P2A0.65
P=
1
P-P=1.23x(1 s2 0.25fm*|0.65(0.66
NS
Jkg m
m
Ps-P= 1290 N/m
Substituting into Eq. 2 gives
h,=h P - P-P-P:-P)
T
P P
m = 1250N m/kg -
h= (2830-1290)
T
1.23kg
The permanent pressure loss as fraction of the meter differential
This problem illustrates flow
PP 1250N/m = 0.44 meter calculations and shows
P-P2 2830N/m* use of the momentum equation
TistCad
he loss is about 44 percent of the pressure drop through the orifice. There
to compute the pressure rise in
a sudden expansion.
then m e recovery of the kinetic energy of the fluid in the vena contracta.
e of Emptying a Tank with Orifice
A and containing liquid of height H,. An orifice is
htted at Shows a tank with uniform cross-sectional area
Dottom of the tank whose area is a. At any instant of time dt, liquid level at the orifice is h and liauid
alls fr
falls from the tank is dh.
At
any instant the orifice
Ischarge through
dQ = Cxax/2gh
312 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
H
H2
Orifice
Figure 8.21 Schematic of a tank with uniform cross-sectional area with an orifice fitted at the bottom.
Volume of liquid flowing through the orifice at that timne
dvritieCx ax/2gh x dt
Reduction of volume of liquid in the tank at that time
avtankA x dh
Based on the continuity equation we can write
d tankV orifice
- A x dh = C, xa x 2gh x dt (Negative sign for reduction of height)
dt = -
Adh
arCa2gh
Let the time taken to fall the liquid from H, to H, is T. We can calculate time T as
After some simple manipulation we arrive the final expression of T, which can be expressed as
2A
T- A,-V,] (8.67)
Time taken to empty the tank is (H, = 0)
2A (8.68)
T
Cya 2
The Mouthpiece
an orihce,
Mouthpiece can be classified based on size of the orifice and height of liquid from the center o nd
orihce
shape ofthe mouthpiece and discharge from the outlet of the mouthpiece.Based on the size of the orenal
of ligud from the
height center of an orifice mouthpiece can be classifñied as (a) external mouthpiece ()
mouthpiece v e r g e n t -
Based on the shape it can be classitied as (a) cylindrical mouthpiece (b) convergent mouthpiece
divergent mouthpiece
l
be (3
Further it can be classified depending upon the discharge from the outlet of tthe can
mouthpie
mouthpiece
he
mouthpiece running full (b) mouthpiece running free.
 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 313
X---
-----------X'
Figure 8.22 Schematic of a cylindrical external
mouthpiece fitted to a tank containing liquid.
External Cylindrical Mouthpiece
A rube with a length two to three times of its diameter fitted with a tank
When this tube connected externally to the orifice then the
containing liquid is called a mouthpiece.
mouthpiece is termed as external
Let us consider a cylindrical external mouthpiece fitted to a tank mouthpiece.
containing
Cross sectional area a. Velocity of liquid at the outlet of the mouthpiece liquid
is V. Cross
as shown in Fig. 8.22 with
sectional area and velocity at
vena contracta are a, and V, respectively. C. is the coefficient of contraction.
If we apply Bernoulli's equation between point S and O we have
P8 2g , pPoo+zo
P8 2g
+h,
atm V<
atm +0+h =am
P8
+
2g
+0+h.
h-h
2g
(8.69)
nere b, is head loss due to sudden enlargement between vena contracta and exit. h, can be expressed as
2g
ApP y g continuity equation between vena contracta and exit we get,
aV = aV
V.=v
V,
After some simple manipulation we have
2glc
subs g the value of b, into Eq. (8.69) we have
314 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

Let K-|1-i|Then

h=

2gh
2gh
Coetticient of velocity for mouthpiece is VVK
J2gh 2gh
As the area of the jet at the outlet is equal to the area of mouthpiece at the outlet so coefficient of contraction
C, for mouthpiece is equal to 1.
Finally the coefficient of discharge for external cylindrical mouthpieceis

C,=C,xC-K (8.70)

Convergent-divergent Mouthpiece
The
mouthpiece which converges upto vena contracta and then
diverges is called convergent-divergen
mouthpiece. In this case, loss due to contraction is significantly reduced. In this case, loss due to contraction is
significantly reduced. Figure 8.23 shows schematic of convergent-divergent mouthpiece.
If we apply Bernoulli's equation between point 1 and 2 we have

P8 2g P8

Pam.+(H-z,)+0+z, DR 2g+0
Pg P8

V a +H-- P (8.71
2g P8 P8
P.
wherem is the atmospheric pressure head and is the pressure at vena contracta.
Pg P8

Figure 8.23 Schematic of a convergent-divergent mouthpiece fitted to a tank containing "9

iquid.
 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 315

After tha e are applying the Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 3

, ,
V
m+(H-z,)+0+z
Pg
z, =
Patm
P8
+0
+0

- = H
(8.72)
2g
Dividing Eq. (8.71) by Eq. (8.72) we have
P.
amH-
Pg Pg
y2 H

atm
PgPg (8.73)
H
Next we apply the continuity equation between section c-c and 3 to calculate the area ratio of vena contracta
and exit. It can be calculated as

acm
11+ P&Pg
H
(8.74)

Borda's Mouthpiece
Borda's mouthpiece is a short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice and projected inwards to a tank. It has
wo types of arrangements. When the length and diameter of the tubes are equal, then the liquid of jet comes
r freely. Such an arrangement is termed as running free. However, when the length is three times of the
meter ofthe tube, at that time jet of liquid comes full diameter of the mouthpiece. This situation is denoted
as running full.

Borda's Mouthpiece Running Free

r . 2 4 shows Borda's mouthpiece operating on running free condition. For analysis, let us take cross
tiea l area of the mouthpiece as a. Cross sectional area and velocity of the jet are a, and V, respectively. Above
ne
centerline
Atthe
of the mouthpiece, height is H.
entrance, pressure of the liquid is

P PgH

Running free

Figure 8.24 Schematic of Borda's mouthpiece running free.

316 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

Now the pressure force acting on the mouthpiece is

F=P xa =pgHa
The
liquid tlowing with mass flow rate pa,V, through the mouthpiece. Velocity of liquid changing from 0to
a

across the jet. Now the rate of change ofmomentum due to change of velocityis equal to pa, V. (V. -0) or
rom Newton's second law of motion net force is equal to rate of change of momentum. a
PgHa = pa, V*

H V
a (8.75)
Applying Bernoulli's equation between a point on the top of the tank and section 1-1, we have

PPg 2
28g , oPg 2g
P
atm +0 +H =am.
Pg Pg 2g

H
28 (8.76)
Equating Eqs. (8.75) and Eq.- (8.76) we get

As there is no head loss here so C, = 1.

Finally, C, for mouthpiece running free

C = C.x C,=

Borda's Mouthpiece Running Full

Figure 8.25 shows Borda's mouthpiece operating
sectional of the
running full condition. For analysis, let us take cross
on
area
mouthpiece as a. Cross sectional
and velocity of the jet at vena contracta are 4, and
area
respectively. Above the centerline of the mouthpiece, height is H. Liquid velocity at the outlet is V. V
If we
apply Bernoulli's equation between a point on the top of the tank and at section 1-1, we have

P- 2 ,
P8 28,th,
th,

Running full

Figure 8.25 Schematic of Borda's

nmouthpiece running full.
 8.9 Flow Measurement and Flow Restriction 317

am+0+
Pg
H= Pg +0+h,
2g
V2
(8.77)
H-h
i s the head loss due to sudden enlargement between section C-C and 1-1. It is defined as

(8.78)
2g
between section C-C and 1-1, have
Now applying continuity we

a V =aV

V.V=V
a =2V (As C,=0.5)

Put the value of V, into Eq. (8.78), we get

2g
lnvoke the value of h, into the Eq. (8.77), we finally come to the expression of velocity as

y2 y2
H 2 2s

V = gH

Theoretical velocity can be expressed as

V=2gH
Coefficient of velocity is given by
V vgH 1

fere cocfficient of contraction (C) is equal to 1 due to equal area at outlet and the mouthpiece. So the coefficient
of discharge is

1
C =C,x C, = 1 x

EXAMPLE88.14 Discharg through Mouthpiece

A Borda's mouthpie
piece of 10
rough mouthpiece, when
a constant head of 3 m. Findthe discharge
cm diameter is discharging water under
(a) the mouthpiece is running
free and (b) the mouthpiece is running full.

Gves of mouthpiece and head for discharge.

Leter
he
a water

discharge through mouthpiece.

Solution
Governing equation:
Q=0.5ay2gH.O= 0.707a 2gH
318 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow

Assumption:
In case of Borda's mouthpiece running free, coeficient of velocityis 1 due to no head loss and in cas
mouthpiece running full.coefficient of contraction is 1 due to equal area at outlet and the mouthpis
ece.
Area of mouthpiece

a =(0.10 = 7.854x 10 m

Discharge when mouthpiece running free

10 2x 9.81x3 0.03013 m'/s

Q=0.5a 2gH 7.854x =
= 0.5 x x

(a) Discharge when mouthpiece running full

Q=0.707a 2gH = 0.707 x 7.854 x 10x v2x9.81 x3 =

0.0426 m'/s
In chis problem, we measured discharge through Borda's mouthpiece in both running tree and full condition.

8.10 RESTRICTION FLOW METERS FOR INTERNAL FLOWNS

In this section we will discuss most restriction flow meters which are based on acceleration of a tluid stream
through some form of a nozzle. Some of the examples are free jet flow, flow nozzle, laminar flow elements, lincar
flow meters, traversing methods.

Free Jet Flow =

=

Free jet flow means, liquid issuing from a nozzle into the atmosphere. The path of a liquid jet traversed througn
space after coming out from the nozzle is called trajectory. Basically the trajectory for a free jet flow is usuany

parabolic.
The jet of liquid coming out from the nozzle at an initial velocityU is Umakes
shown in Fig. 8.26. This veiocity
an angle with the horizontal. It has rwo components-horizontal one is U cos 6 and vertical oneis sn ntal
Consider at any interval of time t, jet corresponds to a position P shown in Fig. 8.26. At that time horizo
and vertical distance travelled by jet is
(8./9)

x = horizontal distance = U cosx t

(8.80)
y = vertical distance = U sin 6xt -xgxt?

Trajectory
path

U cos 6

Nozzle

Figure 8.26 Jet of liquid coming out from the nozzle.

 8.10 Restriction Flow Meters for Internal Fiows 319
Eqs. (8.79) and (8.80) we gget
trom both
(8.81)
y=xtan 6-
20 cos6
the trajectory of
a tree liquid jet.
Ea 8.81) is
Jet of Water Issuing from a Nozzle
EYAMPLE8.15
15 m/s from a point 12 m from a vertical
wall. Find the angle
is issuing from a nozzle ata velocity
ier Ofwater clears the top of the wall which
is 5 m
the horizontal so that the jet of water just
roiection of the nozzle to
in height.
water is
of water issuing from a nozzle, distance from a vertical wall from where jet ot
Civen:
GIven: Velocity of a jet
issuing.
of the nozzle to the horizontal.
Find: Angle of projection
Solution
Governing equation:
y= x tane- gx
2 0 cos0
Assumption
Trajectory for a free jet flow is parabolic.
From the equation of jet one can write
gx
y = * tan&.
2U cose
5 12 tane.
9,81x1sec e
2x 15
=0
tan'6 3 . 8 2 tan 6 +2.59
a_3.82ty(3.82)* -4x2.59 x 1
tan =
2x1
tan 4.03, 0.215
=
76.06° or 12.13
nozzle to the horizontal so that the jet of water iust
of projection of the
ars tho
clears We measured angle
the top of the wall.
The Flow Nozzle
Flow nozzles 8.27 shows a schematic of nozzle installation
n e also commonly used as metering elements. Figure
duct and in a
plenums or
ducts. pressure tap location,
and placement as given in
3.The well-established standards for the nozzle shape, are shown in Fig. 8.28. Similar to the orifice, the
nozzle
Coethicients for the ASME long-radius
ethcient funct of Reynolds number and contraction ratio. However,
the losses for a nozzle aare less than
those of an isorihce
a
ction
and the coefficien are correspondingly higher.
The flow ori
rate
through a nozzle is given by
m= C A 1 - (8.82)
 Nozzle Coeficients, C

TTT TTT

'N'