Unit 1 Foundation

Building Materials & Construction Technology
UNIT1: FOUNDATIONS
Terracing
Every building consists of two basic components: Super
structure and Sub-structure or foundations. The super
RCC Slab
structure is usually that part of the building which is above
ground, and which serves the purpose of its intended use. Lintel
The substructure or foundations is the lower portion of the
SUPER -STRUCTURE
Jambs
building, usually located below ground level, which Reveals
transmits the load of the super structure to the sub – soil.
Sill
A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which
is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
Floor level
transmitted. The soil which is located immediately below
the base of the foundation is called the sub – soil or
PLINTH HT
foundation soil, while the lowermost portion of the
foundation which is in direct contact with the sub – soil is
GL
called the footing.
The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the
SUB-STRUCTURE
dead loads, super – imposed loads (or live loads) and wind
loads from a building to the soil on which the building
rests, in such a way that (a) settlements are within
permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super- Footing
structure, and (b) the soil does not fail.
When loads are transmitted to the sub-soil, it settles. If this settlement is slight are uniform
throughout, no damage will be caused to the building. But if the settlement is excessive or
unequal, serious damage may result in the form of cracked walls, distorted doors and window
openings, cracked lintels, walls thrown out of plump etc., and sometimes the complete
collapse of the building.
The foundation is thus the most important part of a building. Since it remains below
the ground level, the signs of failure of foundation are not noticeable till it has already
affected the building. A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive
settlement as well as unequal settlement. Unequal settlement or differential settlement may
be caused by (i) weak sub-soils, such as made up ground (ii) shrinkable and expansive soils
(such as clay), (iii) frost action, (iv) movement of ground water, and uplift pressure, (v)
excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc., (vi) slow consolidation of saturated clays,
Yashwanth.M.K Page 1
and (vii) slipping of strata on sloping sites. When designing the foundations, therefore, the
above factors must be taken into account.
LOADS
The loads coming on the foundations are generally divided into (i) Live Load (ii) Dead Load
(iii) Wind Load (iv) Snow load and (v) Seismic load.
(i) Live Load: It is a temporary or moving load. The weight of the inhabitants of a building.
The weight of furniture or any stored material is called Live Load. Sometimes the live load is
also called super-imposed load. For designing foundations, the live load on the structure is
also taken into account.
(ii) Dead Load: It is the permanent load of the structure, i.e., the weight of the structure
itself. The weight of the walls, floors, roofs, weight of fixed machinery ad any immovable
load, is called Dead load.
(iii) Wind load: When the wind blows, it causes a lateral thrust or pressure on the vertical as
well as the inclined members of the structure. This wind pressure is called Wind load. The
tendency of the wind load is to over-turn the structure. The wind pressure has a severe effect
on tall buildings but has very little effect on small buildings. Hence the building by-laws
specify that if the height of a building is less than twice its width this wind pressure should be
neglected, provided that the building is stiffened by cross walls, roofs, floors etc.
(iv) Snow load: In places which have a heavy snow-fall, the roofs have to bear the load of
the snow in addition to the dead ad live loads, therefore, at the time of designing it should
also be take into account. But when the roofs are sloping to an angle of 45 0, i.e., 1 in 1 or
more, no account of the snow load is made. In India while building in hill stations, snow load
is taken into account.
FUNCTIONS (OBJECTS) OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations serve the following purposes:
1. Reduction of load intensity. Foundations distribute the loads of the super-structure, to a
larger area so that the intensity of the load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total area)
does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the sub-soil. In the case of deep foundations, it
transmits the super-imposed loads to the sub-soil both through side friction as well as through
end bearing.
2. Even distribution of load. Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super-
structure evenly to be sub-soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a
combined footing which may transmit the load to sub-soil evenly with uniform soil which
may transmit the load to sub-soil evenly with uniform soil pressure. Due to this, unequal or
differential settlements are minimized.
3. Provision of level surface. Foundations provide leveled and hard surface over which the
super-structure can be built.
4. Lateral stability. It anchors the super-structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral
stability to the super-structure. The stability of the building, against sliding and overturning,
due to foundations.
5. Safety against undermining. It provides the structural safety against undermining or
scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements. Special foundation measures prevent or minimize the
distress (or cracks) in the super-structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil
because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION:

Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements:
1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would
impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized, specially
for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or
distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF SOIL:

An inspection of the site and study of topographical features is often helpful in getting useful
information about the soil and ground water conditions and in deciding the future program
me of exploration. On going over the site, a study of the following features may be useful:
local topography, excavations, cuttings, quarries, escarpments evidence of erosion or
landslides, fills, water level in wells and drainage pattern for the building site. If there has
been an earlier use of the site, information should be gathered, in particular about the
underground workings, if any, and about the location of fills ad excavations.
The study of site exploration can be broadly subdivided in to following groups
1. Purpose of site exploration.
2. Site exploration & Preliminary Investigation.
3. Methods of site Exploration.
1. Purpose Of Site Exploration:
The purpose of site exploration is to collect complete details of the site to enable the
designer to take following decisions:
(i) To fix the value of the safe bearing capacity of soil.
(ii) To select an economical yet safe type of foundation.
(iii) To fix the depth up to which the foundation must be taken inside the ground.
(iv) To predict the likely settlement of the selected foundation and to make allowance
For the same in the design.
(v) To know the underground water level ad if needed, to decide upon the method to be
Adopted to solve the ground water problem.
(vi) To forecast the difficulties which are likely to be encountered due to nature of the
Sub-soil during construction and to take advance actions in this regard.
2. Site Exploration:
Sub – soil exploration is done for the following purposes:
(a) For New Structures:
1. The selection of type and depth of foundation.
2. The determination of bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
3. The prediction of settlement of the selected foundation.
4. The determination of the ground water level.
5. The evaluation of the earth pressure against walls, basements, abutments etc.
6. The provision against constructional difficulties.
7. The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.

(b) For Existing Structures
1. The investigation of the safety of the structure.
2. The prediction of settlement.
3. The determination of remedial measures if the structure is unsafe or will suffer
detrimental settlement.
3. Methods of site exploration:
The methods commonly adopted for site exploration are:
(i) Test pits or open Excavation or Trial pits.
(ii) Probing.
(iii) Sub surface sounding.
(iv) Boring.
(i) Test pits or open Excavation or Trial pits:
DENSE GRAVEL
Fig: Trial Pit

 Tests pits are the cheapest way of site exploration & do not require any
specialized instrument or equipment.
 A pit is manually excavated to get an indication of the soil classification &
obtain undisturbed & disturbed samples.
 The test pit is large enough to permit the entry of persons for inspection.
 Test pits allow visual inspection of any change of strata & facilitate insite
testing.
 Test pits are suitable for shallow foundation only.
 Test pits are comparatively expensive & hence they are used only for structures
having shallow foundation up to 3m.
(ii) Probing:
 In this method of exploration a steel bar of 25 to 40mm dia with pointed end is
driven in ground until the hard strata is obtained.
 The bar is driven by allowing it to fall vertically under its own weight (or) drop
hammer.
 At some intervals the bar is drawn out, some idea of the nature of soil is obtained
by examining the soil sticking in to the sides of the bar.
 This method is suitable to be performed in places where the soil is soft like clay,
gravel (or) sand.
(iii) Subsurface Sounding:
 The method of sub surface sounding is measuring of variation in the resistance
offered by soil with the depth by means of tool known as Penetrometer.
 The two commonly used tests are
(a) Standard Penetration Test,
(b) Cone penetration Test.
 The penetrometer consists of a 50mm dia mild steel cone fitted loosely to a steel
rod (or) it may be known as split spoon sampler.
 The sampler can be split in to two parts longitudinally for removal of soil sample
which gets filled up in its tube when it is driven in the ground.
 The Penetrometer is driven in the ground with the help of blows from a 650N
weight falling from a height of 750mm.
 The number of blows required to drive the penetrometer through a distance of
300mm is termed as Standard Penetration Resistance (or) SPT of the soil and it is
designated as ‘N’. Thus ‘N’ value is determined at different depth.
(iv) Boring Methods:
The boring methods commonly adopted for site exploration are
(a) Auger Boring
(b) Shell & Auger Boring.
(c) Wash Boring.
(d) Percussion Boring.
(e) Rotary Boring.
(a) Auger Boring:
Fig: Auger
 Augers are used in cohesive & other soft soil above water table.
 They may either operate manually or mechanically.
 Hand augers are used up to a depth up to 6m & mechanically operated augers are used
for greater depths and they can also be used in gravelly soils.
 Augers are of two types (a) Spiral Auger & (b) Post-hole Auger.
 Augers are held vertically and driven in to the ground by rotating its handle by
applying leverage.
 At every 30 cm of depth penetrated, the auger is taken out and the samples of the soil
are collected separately for the examination.
 Limitation
 If the sub soil is of gravel, boulders (or) compact materials present this method
is not adopted.
 This method can be conveniently used for soil penetration up to a depth of
15cm.
(b) Shell & Auger Boring:
Fig: Sand Pump

 In this method different types of tools have been adopted for boring.
 If the sub soil is of soft to stiff clay, cylindrical auger consisting of hollow tube of
75 to 200mm in dia with cutting edge at its bottom is used.
 If the sub soil is of stiff & hard clay, shells with cutting edge (or) teeth at the
lower end are to be adopted while in case of sandy soils, shells or sand pumps are
used for boring.
 This method is possible to make vertical boring up to 200mm in dia & 25m in
depth by use of a hand rig & up to 50m bore hole using mechanical rig.
 The samples are collected at regular intervals (whenever there is change in strata)
for conducting test in laboratory.
( c) Wash Boring:
 Wash boring is a fast & simple method for advancing holes in all types of soil.
 This method is adopted in soft to stiff cohesive soil & fine sand.
 The method consists of first driving a hollow steel pipe known as casing pipe or
drive pipe through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or chopping bit
at the lower end is inserted.
 The pipe usually known as water jet pipe or wash pipe which is shorter in dia is
lowered in to the casing pipe.
 At the upper end of the casing pipe, the wash pipe is connected to water supply
system while the lower end of the pipe is contracted so as to produce jet action.
 Water under considerable pressure is forced down in to wash pipe. The hydraulic
pressure displaces the material immediately below the pipe and the slurry thus
formed is forced up through the annular space between the wash pipe and casing.
 The changes in soil stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress &
color of wash water.
 The sample recovered from wash water is almost valueless for interpreting the
correct geo-technical properties of soil.
 Limitations
 In this process particles of finer material like clay, loam etc do not settle
easily.
 The larger & heavy particles of a material in the formation may not bring
up.
Fig: Wash Boring
(d) Percussion Boring:
 In this method, soil & rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel
(or) bit suspended by a cable (or) drill rod.
 Water is added to hole during boring, if not already present & the slurry of pulverized
material is bailed out at intervals.
 Limitations:
 This method is not suitable for advancing holes in all types of soils, boulders
and rock
 This method is not suitable for loose sand (or) clayey soils.
(e) Rotary Boring:

 Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing holes in both
rocks & soils.
 A drill bit fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck, and
is always kept in firm contact with bottom of the hole.
 In this process a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a cutting bit at
its base. The cutting bit makes an annular cut in strata and leaves a cylindrical core
of material in the hollow tube.
 Two types of cutting bit are generally used namely (a) Diamond bit & (b) shot bit.
 Diamond bit consists of industrial diamonds set in the face of the bit & in the shot
bit, chilled shot is used an abrasive to cut the hard pan. When core samples of
smaller dia are needed, diamond bit is used.
Fig: Rotary Drilling
BEARING CAPACITY:
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the superstructure
without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. Foundation soil is that portion of
ground which is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and superstructure are
constructed on the ground.
The bearing capacity of soil, used for the design of foundations (i.e., for determining the
dimensions of the foundation) is determined on the basis of the following criteria
(i) It must have some specified safety against ultimate failure.

(ii) The settlements under working loads should not exceed the allowable limits for
the super structure.
Super Structure
Ground Level
Foundation
Foundation Soil
Fig. : Main components of a structure including soil
The following are a few important terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.
1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf): It is the maximum pressure that a foundation soil can
withstand without undergoing shear failure.
2. Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn): It is the maximum extra pressure (in addition to
initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear
failure.
qn = qf + qo
Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to γD for level
ground without surcharge where ү is the unit weight of soil and D is the depth to foundation
bottom from Ground Level.
3. Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is subjected to in
addition to initial overburden pressure.
qn
qs= +q o
F
Here F represents the factor of safety.
4. Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa): It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil is
subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.
5. Net Pressure intensity:

Net load on base of foundation
Net upward pressure =
Area of footing
Net load on base of foundation= W -W 1
W1 =Weight of soil that was existing above the base of foundation prior to excavation.
W = Total load on the base of the foundation

¿ [ This being sum of (i) Total dead load upto footing top +(ii ) Self weight of footing + ¿] [( i i ) Weight of backfil top+(iv ) Live load on the foundation due to floors above, ¿] ¿ ¿ ¿
¿
¿
PROPOSED PIT
Back fill
ORIGINAL SOIL
Footing
W1 W1
B B
Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity:

The bearing capacity of soil can be determined by the following method:
1. Analytical Method.
2. Plate load test method
3. Penetration test method
4. Adopting SBC values given in codes ( IS 1904 – 1978)
1. Analytical Method.
A number of analytical methods have been developed to determine the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil. They are
(i) Terzaghi’s Analysis.
(ii) Rankine’s Analysis.
2. Plate load test method:
Sand Bags
Platform for
loading
Dial Gauge
Testing Plate
Foundation Level
Foundation
Soil
Fig : Typical set up for Plate Load test assembly
Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.
1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of
ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.
3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25 mm thick acts
as model footing.
4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate on plate at
corners to measure the vertical deflection.
5. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller loads
gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load.
6. In reaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A hydraulic jack
applies the reaction load.
7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are recorded
after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) & average settlement of 2
or more gauges is recorded.
8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the horizontal scale
and settlement (Δ) is plotted on the vertical scale.
9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the local or
punching shear failure.
10. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate bearing capacity
of soil.
The advantages of Plate Load Test are
1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both shear
failure and settlement.
2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.
3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are identical to the
actual conditions in the field.
4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P – Δ behavior of ground.
The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are
1. The test results reflect the behavior of soil below the plate (for a distance of ~2Bp),
not that of actual footing which is generally very large.
2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long term
consolidation settlement of clayey soil.
3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is essential in
such soils.
4. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and carry out
testing for several days in the tough field environment.
3. Penetration test method:

There are two types of penetration tests. They are
(i) Standard Penetration Test:
65 kg Hammer
750 Tripod
mm
Bore Hole
Split Spoon Sampler
Fig. : Typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly
1. Reference can be made to IS 2131 – 1981 for details on Standard Penetration Test.
2. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.
3. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long and
63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm.
4. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.
5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under its
own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating drive.
6. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the ground is the
standard penetration number N
7. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure, saturated
fine silt and energy)
8. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained
cohesion, density etc.
Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are
1. Relatively quick & simple to perform

2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample
4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of soil
5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available.
Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are
1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.

2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance
3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.
5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.
6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.
(ii) Cone Penetration Test:
Fig : Typical set up for Static Cone Penetration test assembly
1. Reference can be made to IS 4968 (P3) – 1987 for details on Standard Penetration
Test.
2. Cone Penetration Test can either be Static Cone Penetration Test or Dynamic Cone
Penetration Test.
3. Continuous record of penetration resistance with depth is achieved.
4. Consists of a cone 36 mm dia (1000 mm2) and 60o vertex angle.
5. Cone is carried at the lower end of steel rod that passes through steel tube of 36 mm
dia.
6. Either the cone, or the tube or both can be forced in to the soil by jacks.
7. Cone is pushed 80 mm in to the ground and resistance is recorded, steel tube is
pushed up to the cone and resistance is recorded. Further, both cone and tube are
penetrated 200 mm and resistance is recorded. Total resistance (qc) gives the CPT
value expressed in kPa.
8. Cone resistance represents bearing resistance at the base and tube resistance gives the
skin frictional resistance. Total resistance can be correlated with strength properties,
density and deformation characteristics of soil.
9. Correction for overburden pressure is applied.
10. Approximately, N = 10qc (kPa)
Advantages of SCPT are
1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.

2. Static resistance is more appropriate to determine static properties of soil.
3. Can be correlated with most properties of soil.
Disadvantages of SCPT are
1. Not very popular in India.

2. If a small rock piece is encountered, resistance shown is erratic & incorrect.
3. Involves handling heavy equipment.
4. Presumptive Safe Bearing Capacity (or) Adopting SBC values given in codes ( IS 1904 –
1978)
It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data based on visual
identification at the site. National Building Code of India (1983) lists the values of
presumptive SBC in kPa for different soils as presented below.
A: Rocks
Sl Description SBC (kPa)

No
1 Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. granite, 3240
trap & diorite
2 Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in sound 1620
condition
3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard 880
shale cemented material
4 Soft Rock 440
B: Cohesion less Soils

No
1 Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to 440

penetration when excavated by tools
2 Coarse sand, compact and dry 440
3 Medium sand, compact and dry 245
4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers) 150
5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium 245

sand, dry
6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100
C: Cohesive Soils
No
1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry 440
2 Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail 245
3 Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with 150
strong thumb pressure
4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100
5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters with 50

the thumb
6 Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry 130 - 160
condition (50 % saturation)
Methods of improving the bearing capacity of soils:

The bearing capacity of a soil mainly depends on the closeness of its particles. The bearing
capacity of a soil can be increased by the following methods;
1. By increasing the depth of foundation: The compactness of the soil increases as we
go below ground level. As the bearing capacity directly depends on the depth of
foundation is increased.
2. By draining of the sub- soil water: Water reduces the cohesive properties and hence
reduces the bearing capacity of the soil. By draining off water from the sub – soil the
bearing capacity of the soil is certainly increased.
3. By compacting the soil: If the soil is compacted thoroughly, the voids are decreased
and the bearing capacity is increased.
4. By confining the soil and preventing it from spreading and lateral movement:
Spreading soils, if confined by sheet piling will resist more loads, that is, their bearing
capacity will increase.
5. By increasing the width of foundation: By increasing the width of foundations, the

intensity of load is decreased and on the same soil more loads can be placed.
(Virtually speaking the bearing capacity of that particular area of the soil is
increased).
6. By Hardening the soil by grouting, i.e., pumping in the cement grout into the
ground: By grouting, the cohesive properties are increased and the soil will be able to
take up more loads.
7. By solidifying the ground by chemical processes: In this case, the soil is compacted
by mixing certain chemicals such as calcium chloride etc.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:
Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads:
(a) Shallow Foundations
(b) Deep Foundations.
Mat (Raft foundation)
According to Terzaghi, a
Combined footing
foundation is shallow if its
depth is equal to or less than Isolated footing
its width.
In case of deep foundations,
Spread stepped footing
the depth is greater than its
width.
Spread wall footing
(A) SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

From the point of view of design, shallow foundations may be of the following types:
1. Spread footings. 2. Combined footings 3. Strap footings. 4. Mat foundation.

5. Inverted arch foundation.
1. Spread Footings
Spread footings are those which spread the super-imposed load of wall or column over a
larger area. Spread footings support either a column or wall. This type of foundation can
normally be used for three to four storied buildings on common type of alluvial soils. Spread
footings may be of the following kinds:
b b
(i) Single footing for a column: C

o
l
u
Fig. Shows a single footing for a column, in which the loaded area (b x m
n
b) of the column has been spread to the size B x B through a single
spread. The base is generally made of concrete. Concrete
B
B
(ii) Stepped footing for a column

Fig. Shows the stepped footing for a heavily loaded column, which requires greater spread.
The base of the column is made of concrete.
Concrete
(iii) Sloped footing for a column Fig. shows the case in which the
concrete base does not have uniform thickness, but is
made sloped, with greater thickness at its junction with the
column and smaller thickness at the ends.
(iv) Wall footing without step (strip footing)
A strip footing is the one which provides a continuous Wall

longitudinal bearing. Thus, a spread footing for
continuous wall is called a strip footing.
Concrete
Fig shows the spread footing for a wall, consisting of
concrete base without any steps.
(v) Stepped footing for wall (strip footing)
Wall
Steps
Concrete
Usually, masonry walls have stepped footings (offsets) as shown in Fig. With a concrete
base.
An offset is the projection of the lower step from the vertical side of the upper step.
(vi) Grillage foundation:

Fig shows a steel grillage foundation for a steel stanchion carrying heavy load. It is a special
type of isolated
footing generally
provided for Steel Stanchion
heavily loaded
steel stanchions
and used in these
Gusset Plate
locations where Slab Base
bearing capacity of Gusset Angle
soil is poor. The Top tier

depth of such a Bottom tier
foundation is
limited to 1 to 1.5
m. The load of the
stanchion is distributed or spread to a very large area by means of two or more tiers of rolled
steel joints, each layer being laid at right angles to the layer below it. Both the tiers of the
joists are then embedded in cement concrete to keep the joists in position and to prevent their
corrosion. Grillage foundation is also constructed of timber beams and planks.
2. Combined Footings.
A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. The
combined footings may be of the following kinds:
(i) Rectangular combined footing
(ii) Trapezoidal combined footing

(iii) Combined column-wall footings
Combined footings are invariably constructed of reinforced concrete.
The combined footing for columns will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal loads. The
design of rigid rectangular combined footing should be done in such a way that centre of
gravity of column loads coincide with the centroid of the footing area. If the columns carry
unequal loads, the footing can be rectangular or trapezoidal shape, as shown in fig.
Sometimes, it may be required to provide a combined footing for columns and a wall. Such
combined footings are shown in Fig 2.6 (a) (when the columns carry equal loads) and in Fig.
2.6 (b) (when the columns carry unequal loads).
3. Strap Footings (Cantilever Footing):
If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap
footing. A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that
a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In that
case, each column is provided with its independent footings and a beam does not remain in
contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil. The strap, assumed to be
infinitely stiff, serves to transfer the column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil
pressure under both footings.
Fig shows the strap footing for two columns A and B. Column A is so near to an existing
wall that the footing of the wall does not permit the independent footing of column A to
spread out towards the wall, though it has freedom in other directions.
4. Mat Foundation (Raft Foundation) :
 It is recommended when safe bearing capacity of soil is low (poor) and columns
carry heavy load.
 It is very useful for strata, where there is a possibility of uneven settlement.
 Footings of group of columns or all the columns in the structures are combined to
form a raft foundation.
 Recommended for soils which have a higher water table.

 Raft foundation consists of thick RCC slab covering the entire area at the bottom.
 Thus, raft foundation spreads the load of the building over the whole plan area and
reduces the foundation pressure to the minimum.
5. Inverted Arch Foundation:
This is not a common type of foundation. This type of foundation is used in such places
where the bearing capacity of the soil is very poor and load of the structure is
concentrated over the pillars. The other conditions of the soil are such that deep
excavations are also not possible. For this foundation an inverted arch is constructed
below the foot of piers etc. Generally segmental arches with a rise of 1/5 th to 1/10th of the
span are used. The span of arches will of course depend upon the arrangement of the
pillars. The thickness of the arch ring should not be less than 30 cm.
(B) DEEP FOUNDATIONS:

Deep foundations may be of the following types:
1. Deep strip, rectangular or square footings.
2. Pile foundation.
3. Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation.
4. Well foundation or caissons.
2. Pile foundation:
Pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by
means of vertical members.
It is one of the important types of foundation which is used in the following situations:
1. When it is not economical to provide spread foundation and hard soil is at a greater depth.
2. When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundation.
3. When heavy concentrated loads are to be taken up by the foundation.
4. When the top soil is of made up type and of compressible nature.
5. When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
6. In case of bridges when the scouring is more in the river bed in marshy places.
Piles are vertical columns driven into the ground on which wooden or concrete platforms are
supported. The piles are driven at regular distances. The size and spacing of the piles,
depends upon the bearing capacity, type of soil and the load of the structure.
Classification of Piles:
The piles can be classified according to
(i) Material
(ii) Working.
(i) Material classification:

The piles are classified as
(a) Wooden Piles.
(b) Concrete Piles.
(c) R.C.C. Piles.
(d) Sheet Piles.
(a) Wooden Piles: These are made from trunks of trees, such as Teak, Sal, Babul, Deodar
etc. The wooden or timber piles are generally circular in shape, the diameter varying from 20
cm to 50 cm. The length of the pile is generally 20 times the diameter. The top of the pile is
provided with an iron ring or cap and the bottom is sharpened and provided with iron shoe. If
the soil is soft, blunt piles may be used, but if the ground contains boulders, metal points
should be used. Timber piles should be driven below the permanent water table; otherwise
they decay to fungi and insects. These piles are economical and can be driven rapidly
without heavy machinery and much technical supervision.
(b) Concrete Piles: Concrete piles are made cast-in-situ. Holes of the specified diameter are
made into the ground and filled with cement concrete. Sometimes, the shell drive for making
the hole is left inside and the concrete is filled. The advantage of this is that there is the shell
to protect the cement concrete of the pile from getting disturbed or eroded by the action of
acidic water encountered in the sub-stratum. These piles are used when they are to be drive
to a hard stratum. These piles are used when they are to be driven to a hard stratum passing
through plastic soils. These are sound in construction as they have to bear hammer blows.
These are cast in exact lengths and there is no wastage like in precast piles. The main
drawback of these piles is that they cannot be constructed under water.
c) Reinforced Cement: Concrete Piles R.C.C. Piles are generally precast and their feet are
beveled like wooden piles. The R.C.C. Piles can be octagonal, square or circular in shape
with steel cap on their top. After the piles are cured and seasoned, they are driven into the
ground. These piles are 15 cm to 60 cm in diameter and can be 3 m to 30 m in length.
R.C.C. Piles should not contain more than 4% steel. These piles can be cast early before
starting the foundation work and the execution of the work can be done very quickly. Unlike
timber piles these can be used above the ground water table. But these piles are very heavy
and cause difficulty in transportation and there are chances of them being damaged.
(d) Sheet Piles: This class of pile is essentially used during the construction of foundation
and not as foundation member of a structure. Their main function is to enclose a certain area
of the ground within which the foundation work can be carried and also to confine loose soil
and prevent it from spreading. Sheet piles can be wooden, steel, concrete or R.C.C.
(ii) Working (or) function classification:

This classification is based o the mode of working of the piles. According to this
classification, piles are divided into two groups.
(i) Bearing piles and (ii) Friction piles.
PILE CAP
GL
(i) Bearing Piles: Shoe HARD STRATA
 These piles are used to bear vertical loads.

 They are driven into the ground until hard bed is reached.
 The load of the superstructure is transferred to the hard strata through these piles.
 These piles act like columns carrying structural load, below ground level.
 The bearing piles may be cast – insitu or may be pre-cast.
 For pre-cast piles, the piles are driven in the ground either manually or
mechanically.
 For cast – insitu piles, the bores of the required diameter are excavated until the
hard strata are reached.
 The bore is cleaned, de-watered and pile cage is slowly lowered down to the hard
strata.
 As the depth is more, the concrete is poured through tremie or shoots to avoid
segregation.
PILE CAP
(ii) Friction Piles: When the soil is very loose or soft
GL
to a considerable depth, friction piles are used. These
piles balance the load of the structure by the friction
offered by the surrounding soil on the sides of the PILE
piles. They are generally short in length and are not

FRICTION FORCE
driven up to the hard bed. The surface of the friction SOFT SOIL
piles is made rough so as to increase skin friction.

Shoe
There are various types of piles however, most

common and widely used in building construction is HARD STRATA
‘under – reamed’ pile.

(iii) Compaction Piles:
Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing their
bearing capacity. The compaction piles themselves do not carry any load. Hence they may be
of weaker material sometimes of sand only. The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is
gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place thus forming a ‘sand pile’
3. Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation:

A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of larger dia to support and transfer
large super imposed load to the firm strata below.
The difference between pile & pier foundation lies in the method of construction.
Piles transfer the load through friction and or bearing where as pier transfer the load
through bearing only.
Pier foundation is preferred in the location where the top strata consist of decomposed
rock overlying strata of sound rock.
Pier Foundation may be of the following types
(i) Masonry or concrete Pier.
(ii) Drilled Caissons.
When a good bearing stratum exists up to 5m below G.L masonry or concrete foundation
piers in excavated pits may be used.
A Drilled Caisson is generally a compressed member subjected to axial load at top and
reaction at bottom.
Drilled Caisson is of 3 types:
(a) Concrete caisson with enlarged bottom.
(b) Caisson of steel pipe with concrete filled in pipe.
(c) Caisson filled with concrete & steel core in steel pipe.
Size & spacing of piers depends upon the depth of hard bed, nature of overlying soil & super
imposed loads.
4. Well foundation or caissons:

The term Caisson derived from French word, caisse meaning a chest or box. Caisson has
come to mean a box like structure, round or rectangular, which is sunk from the surface of
either land or water to some desired depth.
Caissons are of three types:
(i) Box Caissons.
(ii) Open Caissons (wells).
(iii) Pneumatic Caissons.
FOUNDATIONS IN BLACK COTTON SOIL

Collapsing of sides is one of the major problems while excavating black cotton soil, making it
a risky and dangerous job. The precautions to be taken are listed below.
 The pit size for excavation should be minimum 30 cm more than the PCC size on all
sides.
 If the depth increases, the pit size should also be increased accordingly.
 In black cotton soil, as the depth increases the sides begin to collapse. To prevent this,
shoring should be done or a larger pit may be excavated in slopes or in steps as shown
in fig.
 Never start excavation of two adjacent pits simultaneously.
 Excavated black cotton soil should be removed from the site. It should not be used for
refilling. As black cotton soil is very soft, more labor force can be applied to
excavate, collect and dispose of the excavated material.
 Avoid excavation on rainy days.

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Building Materials & Construction Technology

The substructure or foundations is the lower portion of the

structure, and (b) the soil does not fail.

FUNCTIONS (OBJECTS) OF FOUNDATIONS

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION:

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF SOIL:

7. The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.

Fig: Trial Pit

(a) Auger Boring:

(b) Shell & Auger Boring:

Fig: Sand Pump

Fig: Wash Boring

(d) Percussion Boring:

(e) Rotary Boring:

Fig: Rotary Drilling

(i) It must have some specified safety against ultimate failure.

Fig. : Main components of a structure including soil

Here F represents the factor of safety.

5. Net Pressure intensity:

W = Total load on the base of the foundation

Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity:

2. Plate load test method:

Fig : Typical set up for Plate Load test assembly

Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.

3. Penetration test method:

Fig. : Typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Relatively quick & simple to perform

Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.

(ii) Cone Penetration Test:

Fig : Typical set up for Static Cone Penetration test assembly

Advantages of SCPT are

1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.

Disadvantages of SCPT are

1. Not very popular in India.

Sl Description SBC (kPa)

4 Soft Rock 440

B: Cohesion less Soils

Sl Description SBC (kPa)

1 Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to 440

2 Coarse sand, compact and dry 440

3 Medium sand, compact and dry 245

4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers) 150

5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium 245

6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100

Sl Description SBC (kPa)

1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry 440

2 Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail 245

4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100

5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters with 50

Methods of improving the bearing capacity of soils:

5. By increasing the width of foundation: By increasing the width of foundations, the

Spread wall footing

(A) SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

1. Spread footings. 2. Combined footings 3. Strap footings. 4. Mat foundation.

(i) Single footing for a column: C