a.

On misconception in Mathematics

Mathematics is one of the disciplines in which concept learning has an important place, thus
many misconceptions might be observed in mathematics. In fact, it is almost impossible in
mathematics to define any concept without using many other concepts, since mathematics
curricula have a spiral attribute. Hence, students who have misconceptions in previous topics of
mathematics can attach new misconceptions to the previous ones. For this reason, researchers
have been conducting studies on determining and finding ways to eliminate the misconceptions
in mathematics for many years (Türkdoğan, Güler, Bülbül & Danişman, 2015).

( Türkdoğan, A., Güler, M., Bülbül, B.Ö., & Danişman, Ş. (2015). Studies about Misconceptions
in Mathematics Education in Turkey: A Thematic Review. Mersin University Journal of the
Faculty of Education, 11(2), 215-236. )

Mathematical misconceptions are faulty and incorrect ideas resulting from students’
misunderstanding about a mathematical idea or concept (Allen, 2017). Misconceptions are
usually based on applications of inappropriate generalizations or rules, or insufficient teaching
(Allen, 2017). Instruction often includes giving students rules that expire, but students hold onto
those rules and attempt to apply them even when the situation is inappropriate.

( Allen, G. D. (2017). Student thinking. College Station: Texas A&M. Retrieved from
http://www.math.tamu. edu/~snite/MisMath.pdf )

b. Causes of Misconceptions

Misconceptions and errors, crudely speaking, occur when locating information in the mind that is
not viable or correct either by means of oneself or the person they learnt it from (Mahmood,
2012). Besides relying on a wrong or distorted source of information, a misconception could
also arise from applying a rule that is not true under the supposition that it is.

When the learner is asked to apply a rule, she/he applies it too generally. This is mainly due to a
wrong source acquired earlier. For instance, errors are more general than a misconception as a
learner can make an error without assuming something (Bosman, 2014). Thus, an error is doing
something incorrectly. For example, implementing an algorithm by transcribing it incorrectly and
finding it doesn't work properly. Therefore, an error is a fallacious answer to a question and is
induced by scanty prowess of basic concepts, variety and expertise (Sisman & Aksu, 2016).

( Sisman, G. T., & Aksu, M. (2016). A study on sixth grade students’ misconceptions and errors
in spatial measurement: Length, area, and volume. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 14(7), 1293-1319.)
In the study of Makonye and Fakude (2016) the analysis of the learners’ interviews indicated
that the causes of errors are the premature use of calculators, textbooks with insufficient
examples, and poor proficiency of the learners in English. The poor attention of some learners
during lesson presentations could be a result of the fact that numbers are not placed in a real-
life context that learners can relate to.

( Makonye and Fakude (2016). A Study of Errors and Misconceptions in the Learning of
Addition and Subtraction of Directed Numbers in Grade 8. DOI: 10.1177/2158244016671375
sgo.sagepub.com )

Butterfield et.al. (2010) concluded that in converting the radius from millimeters to meters,
students did not know, or could not remember in this context, that the general rule for converting
from millimeters to meters is to divide by a thousand. Without recourse to this general
rule,arriving at the correct conversion factor and its operation proved to be a great problem for
them. Their study illustrates the inefficient strategies used by many of the students who did not
have access to a 'general' approach to everyday conversion problems. Without a general rule
to solve the problem, Students tackled the conversion from millimeters to meters as if it were an
investigation. Having no thorough knowledge of the correct conversion strategy they used a 'trial
and refinement' process of successively reducing the conversion factor, relying on a qualitative
sense of whether to accept it or not. The trial and refinement method is grossly inefficient when
compared with the immediate use of a general rule. This case does illustrate however students'
ability to draw upon their own resources in problem-solving when more formal resources are
weakly understood or have never been learned.

( Butterfield A., Sutherland R., and Hodgson S. (2010). Learning conversions in science: the
case of vocational students in the UK. Research in the Learning Technology 8(3)
DOI:10.3402/rlt.v8i3.12009 )

In sum, we can conclude that a misconception is the result of a lack of understanding or in many
cases the misapplication of a rule‟ or mathematical generalization ; whereas an error takes
place when a person chooses the false as the truth. When the actual result is different from the
objective (erroneous result); when the procedure adopted is different from the accepted
procedures (erroneous actions) erroneous conceptions might be hindering problem solving and
producing irrational results. Errors are of various types and hence difficult to classify accurately
(Spooner, 2012).

c. how to address misconception

Rappaport’s (2017) study of students’ conceptual understanding using a Video Evaluation Task
to record students’ work on the problem revealed that the use of videos afforded more
information about students’ conceptual understanding, which could have otherwise not been
achieved through the direct method of instruction. Thus, a learner-centered approach to
teaching is best positioned to cultivate their conceptual understanding.

( Rappaport’s (2017) Rethinking Mathematics Misconceptions: Using Knowledge Structures to

Explain Systematic Errors within and across Content Domains. International Journal of
Research in Education and Science, 5(1), 1-21. )

To mitigate against this difficulty, children could learn better through the use of concrete
manipulatives, representational pictures and abstract symbols such as beans or different types
of beans, hundred charts, unifix cubes, dice and place value mats (Abella, 2012). Therefore,
teachers should consider students’ developmental levels when teaching because that could
affect their understanding (Abella, 2012). For example, such developmental levels could follow
logical sequencing of certain skills.

( Abella (2012). Student errors in fractions and possible causes of these errors. Journal of
education and training studies, 5(11), 219-233. )

d. Development of Intervention programs

As already noted, it is especially important that progress-monitoring measures examine

students’ misconceptions and ability with regard to reversibility, flexibility, and generalization. In
addition, measures should be designed to include items that assess both procedural knowledge
and conceptual understanding. Multiple-choice items can be developed that include response
choices indicative of mathematical misconceptions, such as those Cara demonstrates. Students
should be able to demonstrate not only what the correct answer to a problem is but also why an
answer is correct. By closely examining student responses to progress monitoring items,
teachers can determine whether the student is benefiting fully from instruction or requires
additional teaching.

As an example, a trying-it-on-your-own (TIOYO) item that represents conceptual

understanding (because there is a why component) and offers potential misconceptions as
response choices. Items such as these help teachers understand student thinking. How
students respond to TIOYO items can help inform intensive intervention. When students
continue to miss many TIOYO items (e.g., 50% or more), it is important to change or intensify a
component of instruction by deploying explicit instruction to correct the identified misconception
as the first approach. Other ways to intensify or change a component of instruction include
increasing the number of scaffolds presented, regrouping students, administering a
supplemental lesson that focuses on similar skills, and so forth. It is unlikely that students who
consistently respond poorly to TIOYO items will make satisfactory progress throughout the
remaining lessons or do well on high-stakes test items. Some interventions provide independent
practice items at the end of a lesson; others do not. When independent practice items are not
available, teachers can create items by examining the skills and concepts that were taught in a
lesson. What problems were used as teaching examples or during guided practice? Create four
or five similar items for the students to work on at the end of the lesson. If students respond
correctly to 75% or more of the items, teachers can be fairly confident that the students
benefited from the lesson. (Foegen & Morrison, 2010)

( Foegen, A., & Morrison, C. (2010). Putting algebra progress monitoring into practice: Insights
from the field. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46, 95–103. doi:10.1177/1053451210375302 )

Scaffolds or instructional supports can help students access the content that may be
challenging for them.Teachers can use scaffolds to assist students in attending to and tackling
problems that may at first appear too difficult to attempt (Bryant et al., 2014). When concepts
and skills are first introduced, supports may include graphic organizers, cognitive strategies,
teacher prompts, and “think-alouds"; supports are gradually decreased as students gain
proficiency

( Bryant, B. R., Bryant, D. P., Porterfield, J., Dennis, M., Falcomata, T., Valentine, C., Brewer,
C., & Bell, K. (2014). The effects of a Tier 3 intervention on the mathematics performance of
second grade students with severe mathematics difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities.
Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0022219414538516)

Another scaffold teachers can employ is small groups. Using small groups by purposefully
situating problems within a small group (either pairs or groups no larger than four students) so
that students have a safe environment in which to discuss their ideas. As students share their
thinking coupled with teacher facilitation (e.g., questioning, prompting), misconceptions can be
identified and, in some cases, self-corrected as students become more proficient with explaining
mathematics to others. Discussions within the small groups also can affirm or correct their
thinking and give students confidence in sharing their ideas before the whole class. Other
examples of scaffolds are opportunities to respond and student verbalizations as they learn new
concepts and skills. Recommendations in the Standards for Mathematical Practice (NGA &
CCSSO, 2010) specifically include the use of multiple opportunities for students to solve
problems, reason abstractly and quantitatively, look for and make generalizations, construct and
critique arguments, and make use of mathematical structure. A crucial component of
opportunities to respond is that students are also given explicit, frequent feedback. Teachers
should ensure these recommendations are systematically included across a series of lessons
for students to build competence in using and demonstrating these standards.

( National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School
Officers. (2010) Common Core State Standards for mathematics. Washington, DC: Author.
Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org )