Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Microalgae–nutritious, sustainable aqua- and animal feed source T

a,⁎ a a a a,b
Gnanasekaran Dineshbabu , Gargi Goswami , Ratan Kumar , Ankan Sinha , Debasish Das
a
Department of Biosciences & Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
b
DBT-PAN IIT Centre for Bioenergy, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Aquaculture and animal rearing for meat has increased exceedingly to meet the demands of ever-increasing
Aqua feed population. Utilizing small fishes and agricultural products for feed production will lead to over exploitation of
Microalgae nutrition profile the resources and competition with food respectively. Microalgae can be next alternate source for animal and
Omega-3 fatty acids aquatic feed production in an environmentally sustainable and economically advantageous manner. Microalgae
Aquaculture
are more nutritious than the traditional sources of animal and aquatic feed like millet, grams and other small
Livestock
fishes in terms of its protein, omega 3 fatty acids and carotenoids content. Apart from being nutritious, they have
anti-oxidative, anti-microbial and disease-preventing molecules that can provide long life span to the animals
and fishes. The mass production strategies for low value commodities like feed has to be further improved. The
review emphasizes the nutritional, physiological importance of microalgae to animals and aquatic organisms;
highlighting the companies involved in microalgal feed production.

1. Introduction
Agriculture should essentially cater to the entire human population
and in the recent decades, the population is increasing in a steady rate.
World population in the year 2017 was 7.6 billion and is projected to
rise up to 9.8 billion by 2050 (United Nations, 2017). There were re-
ports that food production needs to be doubled by 2050 to meet the
increasing demands (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012; Tilman, Balzer,
Hill, & Befort, 2011). However, some adjusted projections and valua-
tions arrive at an increase of 25–60% to feed all of the population by
2050 (Hunter, Smith, Schipanski, Atwood, & Mortensen, 2017).
Whatever land and water bodies we have or found has to be conserved
for food production and not feed production. Here in this review, we
analyse the demands from aquaculture, ruminants and poultry and its
feed requirements and the scenario of alternate feeds. Aquaculture is
another important part of agriculture, which involves breeding, rearing,
and harvesting of freshwater and marine species of fish and aquatic
plants in all water systems like ponds, rivers, lakes, oceans, closed re-
circulating tanks. As of 2015, 66% of global aquaculture yield (ex-
cluding plants) is produced using exogenous feed (FAO, 2018a). Owing
to the increased demand and, driven by the profitability through high
production, the use of aqua feed had increased six-fold, from 8 to 48
million tonnes (Hasan, 2017; Tacon, Hasan, & Metian, 2011). Green-
house emissions from aquaculture has been increasing in the recent
years and reduction in fishmeal, fish oil production and feed conversion
ration could reduce the emissions (Hasan & Soto, 2017). In 2016, the
global fish production (including capture and aquaculture) was 171
million tonnes, valuing the industry at USD 362 billion. By 2030 it is
projected to rise to 209 million while 103 million alone will be from
aquaculture (FAO, 2018a). With this projections, it is estimated that
almost 16% of capture fisheries will be utilized for producing 5.3 and
1.0 million tonnes of fish meal and fish oil in 2030 (FAO, 2018b). In
future, we will not be in a position to allocate part of the production for
feeding fishes and other livestock. An alternate, healthy, easy to pro-
duce and cheaper feed has to be identified and utilized.
Meat industry is another loose subsidiary of agriculture and it in-
volves rearing and slaughtering cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock
for human food. To meet the population demand, meat production is
projected 1.5 percent growth in 2018 to 335 million tonnes. Pig meat is
showing higher increase in terms of volume followed by poultry, bovine
and ovine meat (FAO, 2018b). Vast and faster urbanization, change in
food habits, liking for processed food has led to increased demand for
pork and poultry meat. Eventually the demand for pig and poultry feed
is also fast growing and to cope up with the growth, feed production
should be enhanced. In 2017, the global animal feed market value stood
at USD 10.97 billion and is projected to rise up to USD 14.15 billion by
the year 2023 (Techsciresearch, 2018). Agriculture yield is required to
meet the feed requirements for animals. Food grains, legumes, hay,
straw, silage, compressed pelleted feed and oils are the most used an-
imal feed. It is roughly calculated that for a kilogram of meat, cows and

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dineshbty1@gmail.com (G. Dineshbabu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.103545
Received 15 June 2019; Received in revised form 26 August 2019; Accepted 26 August 2019
Available online 03 September 2019
1756-4646/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
sheep need 8 kg of feed, while pig and chicken require 4 and 1.6 kg of
feed respectively (Heap, 2008). Mixing an alternate ingredient that
could supply enough nutrition, easy to produce and cost effective to the
animal feed could relieve the pressure on agricultural yield to provide
for animal rearing.
Microalgae holds the potential to aid in both the issues and still be
economical and efficient. They are fast growing, microscopic, photo-
synthetic organisms that dwell in any ecosystem ranging from rivers,
lakes, oceans, hot springs, cold mountains etc. They account for over
50% of primary photosynthetic productivity on earth and can produce
many valuable products (Chisti, 2000; Wijffels, 2008). However, we are
yet to achieve maximum possible sustainable commercial exploitation
of these microscopic bio-factories. Using microalgae as fish feed or feed
supplement could reduce the burden on fishmeal-based aquaculture;
and in turn help reduce the gap between fish production and demand.
Similarly, microalgae when mixed along with animal feed for the re-
quired nutrient portion the requirement of grains, millets could be re-
duced. This review will address aquatic- and animal feed, and how
microalgae can be an efficient, nutritious, cheaper, sustainable and
environmentally advantageous alternate to them.
2. Microalgae
Algae are diverse category of aquatic photosynthetic living organ-
isms and classified as macroalgae (seaweed) and microalgae (uni-
cellular and filamentous). Microalgae grow in aerated, liquid environ-
ment where there is sufficient light, carbon dioxide and other nutrients
required for growth (Rosenberg, Oyler, Wilkinson, & Betenbaugh,
2008). They are not strictly photosynthetic, for they can be grown
heterotrophically. They are either freshwater or marine and found in
various environment inclusive of hostile places like hot springs, deserts,
frozen lands etc. Microalgae have higher photon conversion efficiency,
CO2 sequestration, growth rate and hence enhanced biomass yield than
the terrestrial plants (Gouveia, 2011; Malcata, 2011). With such simple
growth requirements, microalgae can accumulate ample quantities of
protein, lipid and carbohydrates making the biomass rich in growth
promoting nutrients. Microalgae’ simple growth requirements, ease of
cultivation and its other advantages are discussed elsewhere (Packer,
Harris, & Adams, 2016). They are produced through economic and
environmentally friendly process and are sustainable. The products
from the microalgae range from phycobilin pigments, carotenoids,
omega-3-fatty acids, vitamins and polysaccharides which are very much
valuable in food, feed, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic
applications. Fig. 1 provides a simple outlook of the diverse applica-
tions of microalgae as feed. Nutritional supplements, antioxidants,
cosmetics, natural dyes and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), algae
based foods are some microalgal products that are successfully com-
mercialized (Algaefactory, 2019; Spolaore, Joannis-Cassan, Duran, &
Isambert, 2006).
2.1. Nutrition from microalgae
Some species of microalgae are so much rich in protein content that
almost half of its biomass is protein. Most strains of Spirulina, few
strains of Chlorella and Nannochloropsis has protein content ranging
from 40 to 65% (Da Silva Vaz, Botelho Moreira, Greque de Morais, &
Vieira Costa, 2016). It depends on their medium components and the
environment. Since humans cannot synthesize all amino acid by
themselves, the essential amino acids (EAA) has to be consumed
through diet. Algal protein contain almost all of the EAA in their
composition hence making microalgae tablets or capsules a worthy and
simple nutritional supplement (Buono, Langellotti, Martello, Rinna, &
Fogliano, 2014; Černá, 2011). Microalgal protein (Spirulina platensis
protein concentrate) exhibit high protein digestibility rate of
87.45–97.81% (Yucetepe, Saroglu, Bildik, Ozcelik, & Daskaya-Dikmen,
2018). The protein content in some microalgal species (510–710 g kg−1
2
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
dry powder) are higher than egg and soybean (132 and 370 g kg−1);
essential amino acids are also very close to the levels found in egg and
soybean (Buono et al., 2014). Numerous established companies, new
start-ups, and cottage industries are involved in producing, processing
and commercializing microalgae in the form of powder, tablets, cap-
sules etc. Hence, it is not surprising that a UK company has introduced a
vegan egg based on algae which provides the same nutrition that of an
egg (Young, 2017). All cyanobacterial members like Spirulina, Oscilla-
toria and Phorphyridium are capable of producing phycobiliproteins.
They are classified as phycocyanin (blue pigment), phycoerythrin (red
pigment), and allophycocyanin (pale-blue pigment) (Odjadjare,
Mutanda, & Olaniran, 2017). Phycobilin pigments are protein based
and they are finding their use as a natural dye in food industry, cos-
metics and in diagnostic techniques (Sekar & Chandramohan, 2008).
These pigments provide nutrition, colour and a very good antioxidant
(Gantar, Simović, Djilas, Gonzalez, & Miksovska, 2012).
Carbohydrates constitute 10–25% in dry weight in microalgae and it
varies according to their growth conditions and the age of the cultures
(Chacón-Lee & González-Mariño, 2010). In microalgae, they are found
in the form of starch, cellulose, sugars, and other polysaccharides. β -
glucan is a polysaccharide comprising of β-D-glucose and naturally
occurring in bacteria and fungi. Chlorella sp. is a rich source of these
polysaccharides (Iwamoto, 2007). β-glucan reported to have some an-
tiviral, antibacterial properties in humans and significant antibacterial
activity and immune-stimulant activity in fishes (Sahoo & Mukherjee,
2001; Yaakob, Ali, Zainal, Mohamad, & Takriff, 2014).
Microalgae can accumulate high quantities of lipid when grown in
stress and they have a nutritionally valuable fatty acid profile.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA,
20:5, ω-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6, ω-3), are the most
valuable functional ingredients of the microalgal lipids. Microalgal
species namely Schizochytrium limacinum (DHA) and Phaeodactylum
tricornutum and Nannochloropsis sp. (EPA) have omega-3-fatty acids
between 30 and 40% of their total fatty acids (Adarme-Vega et al.,
2012). Consumption of these omega 3 fatty acids have been found to
enhance brain function and improve development of nervous system in
infants and are therapeutic agents against cardiovascular and neuro-
degenerative diseases (Innis, 2008; Wysoczański et al., 2016). Supple-
menting aquatic and animal feed with microalgae rich in PUFA will
yield fishes, eggs, milk and other food products having higher omega 3
fatty acids.
Carotenoids are another class of pigments that are commercially
valued and profitable in its pure form. Microalgae at its final stages of
metabolism shift themselves to carotenoids production stage, where
they accumulate higher amounts of the pigment as an adaptation to the
changing environment. (Bhosale, 2004). Astaxanthin, lutein, neox-
anthin, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, and α-carotene are
some of the carotenoids produced by microalgae. Carotenoids in algae
function primarily as photo-protective agent, an accessory light har-
vesting pigment and in phototropism and phototaxis (Ben‐Amotz,
Gressel, & Avron, 1987; Borowitzka, 1988). Being an antioxidant, car-
otenoids protects the cell from free radicals, prevent lipid peroxidation
and keep the photosynthetic apparatus steady and functional
(Grossman, Lohr, & Im, 2004). Astaxanthin is the most important of the
carotenoids and is being produced commercially from Haematococcus
sp. (Enzing, Ploeg, Barbosa, & Sijtsma, 2014). Aqua feed with con-
siderable amount of carotenoids is found to provide better health, de-
velopmental and survival rate (de Carvalho & Caramujo, 2017).
In addition to bio-macromolecules, microalgae are also a very good
source of vitamins and minerals. Vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, E, K,
niacin, nicotinate, biotin, and folic acid are some of the vitamins found
in microalgae (Becker, 2013; de Jesus Raposo, de Morais, & de Morais,
2013). Vitamin A, B1, B2, niacin and E levels in some microalgae like
Spirulina, Chlorella and Scenedesmus are higher than that in spinach and
baker’s yeast (Becker, 2013). Microalgae are also rich in minerals like
calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, iron,
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
Fig. 1. Graphical outline of the diverse application of microalgal feed and its advantages.
copper and sulphur (Fox & Zimba, 2018). Minerals occupy around 2.2
to 4.8% of total dry weight (Hoseini, Khosravi-Darani, & Mozafari,
2013). Composition of the minerals and its type vary according to its
growth medium composition, strain type and the environmental con-
ditions.
Microalgae is a treasure trove when it comes to nutrition, providing
significant amounts of almost all the nutrients required for fishes, ani-
mals and also for humans. Every species of microalgae has its own
nutrient profile and microalgae can provide for any kind of nutritional
needs. Table 1 provides a more detailed analysis of the composition of
nutrients in some selected microalgal strains of significant importance
in food and feed development. However, this nutritional content of the
individual microalgae species may vary from the literatures owing to
their temperature, medium conditions, incident light quality and in-
tensity, photoperiod, growth phase and harvesting methods.
3. Aqua feed
Aquaculture is next important sector after terrestrial agriculture and
associated farming that provide food for the human population.
Increasing population demands higher production from all food related
3
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
industries. To cope up with this tight situation industries use higher
feed for increased production. Fishmeal is usually supplied as feed in
fish farming and it is produced from small fishes or fish waste which are
cooked, pressed, dried and ground to form a solid (Miles, 2015). Fish
waste processed for fishmeal is acceptable, however whole fishes cap-
tured and processed for producing fish meal is not suitable for the
current demand and in future food perspective. Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) reported that fishmeal utilization in the year 2030
will be 19% higher than that of 2016. However, 54% of the fishmeal
produced then will be from efficient use of fish waste and oil (FAO,
2018b). Utilization of fishes for fishmeal is decreasing in the recent
years and a search for nutritious alternate is already in process. Mi-
croalgae can be one valuable and economically feasible alternative and
using them for feed or feed supplement could ease the impediment on
fishmeal-based aquaculture. It will help diminish the gap between fish
production and demand by reducing the burden on fishmeal produc-
tion.
Microalgae based feed are used in aquaculture as a sole entity or in
combination with regular feed. Many toxicological and physiological
studies on microalgae that were carried out earlier approved its usage
as feed supplements (Ghaeni, Matinfar, Soltani, Rabbani, & Vosoughi,
G. Dineshbabu, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545

Table 1
Nutrition profile of different microalgae commonly used in aqua and animal feeds.
Biomolecule(% dwt) Spirulina Chlorella Dunaliella Chlamydomonas Scenedesmus Haematococcus Porphyridium Isochrysis Nannochloropsis Schizochytrium

Total proteins 53.21 46.53 40.46 48.00 43.66 30.87 33.55 41.00 29.70 21.00
Total carbohydrate 16.40 15.84 20.44 17.00 25.39 37.93 40.87 14.46 22.84 22.50
Total lipid 8.86 15.82 15.51 21.00 16.02 23.07 9.02 17.72 20.39 43.05
DHA 0.30 2.60 0.36 ND ND ND 0.20 2.49 1.1(TFA) 7.60
EPA 0.25 0.40 0.60 ND 0.41 ND 3.13 0.22 3.47 0.08
C- Phycocyanin 9.27 NP NP NP NP NP 1.20 NP NP NP
C-phycoerythrin 1.79 NP NP NP NP NP 4.22 NP NP NP
Carotenoids
Beta carotene 0.14 0.014 0.102 ND 0.070 0.05 ND ND 0.048 0.00
Lutein/Fucoxanthin ND 0.40 ND ND 0.54 ND ND 1.8 (Fucoxanthin) ND ND
Astaxanthin ND 0.203 0.083 20.85* 0.150 3.07 ND 0.640 1.25
Amino acids (g 100 g−1
protein)
Leucine 9.26 14.22 13.41 14.00# 12.27 6.43 12.40 9.43 22.77 7.43
Valine 8.69 9.40 9.73 16.00# 10.86 5.11 5.32 6.00 20.08 5.43
Lysine 6.46 13.53 10.75 39.00# 11.13 4.10 11.70 6.14 22.77 4.52
Phenyl alanine 6.53 8.46 9.71 31.00# 9.39 3.44 10.64 8.00 18.42 4.90
Methionine 4.43 6.17 5.52 16.00# 5.82 1.38 9.43 7.14 13.25 1.04
Tryptophan 2.45 3.55 2.95 80.00# 2.92 0.00 5.91 3.14 7.87 5.39
Threonine 6.94 7.61 8.55 41.70# 9.65 3.82 14.36 5.86 16.19 4.29
Histidine 2.65 4.47 3.65 8.30# 4.30 2.57 2.36 2.14 8.75 2.22
Vitamins (mg kg−1 dwt)
Vitamin E 85.00 434.50 116.30 ND ND ND ND 471.60 350.00 0.00
Vitamin B1 24.00 17.55 29.00 4.00 14.00 70.00 0.02
Vitamin B6 13.70 7.70 2.20 3.00 1.80 9.50 14.00
Vitamin B12 13.45 0.60 0.70 1.00 0.60 0.85 0.54
Vitamin B3 144.50 82.50 79.30 60.00 77.70 ND 140.00

Note: The values are average of data reported in 2 or 3 published articles. (Brown, Mular, Miller, Farmer, & Trenerry, 1999; Chacón-Lee & González-Mariño, 2010;
De Andrade, 2018; Del Campo et al., 2004; Fabregas & Herrero, 1990; Gutiérrez-Salmeán, Fabila-Castillo, & Chamorro-Cevallos, 2015; FAO, 1996; Jiang, Fan,
Raymond Tsz-Yeung Wong, & Chen, 2004; Ju, Deng, & Dominy, 2012; Kent, Welladsen, Mangott, & Li, 2015; Koyande et al., 2019; Kumar, Dasgupta, & Das, 2014; Li
et al., 2019; Matos, Cardoso, Bandarra, & Afonso, 2017; Molino et al., 2018; Pagels, Guedes, Amaro, Kijjoa, & Vasconcelos, 2019; Panis & Carreon, 2016; Patil,
Källqvist, Olsen, Vogt, & Gislerød, 2007; Safi, Charton, Pignolet, Pontalier, & Vaca-Garcia, 2013; Sarker et al., 2016; Sathasivam & Ki, 2018; Shah, Liang, Cheng, &
Daroch, 2016; Shi, Luo, Wu, & Yue, 2018; Stamm, 2015; Tokuşoglu & uunal, 2003; Tredici, Biondi, Ponis, Rodolfi, & Chini Zittelli, 2009; Uriarte, Farías, Hawkins, &
Bayne, 1993)
* mg per chlorophyll a.
#
g in 1000 g of dry weight; NP- Not present; ND- No data available.

2011; Khatoon, Sengupta, Homechaudhuri, & Pal, 2010; Komprda
et al., 2015; Milione & Zeng, 2008; Nunes, Pereira, Ferreira, &
Yasumaru, 2009). Microalgae feed in aquaculture serve by providing
nutrition, colour to the fishes and enhancing other biological activities.
Owing to its high and valuable content of proteins, carbohydrates, vi-
tamins, carotenoids and growth promoting fatty acids microalgae is
proving to be a successful alternate to fishmeal. Members of prokaryotic
cyanobacteria and eukaryotic microalgae contains essentials amino
acids, proteins, polysaccharides, omega 3 fatty acids like eicosa-
pentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), vitamins in-
cluding A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, E, niacin, nicotinate, biotin, folic acid and
pantothenic acid, minerals (calcium, magnesium, potassium) and pig-
ments (phycobiliproteins, carotenoids, chlorophylls) (Batista, Gouveia,
Bandarra, Franco, & Raymundo, 2013; Tokuşoglu & uunal, 2003). Mi-
croalgae apart from providing valuable nutrition to the aquatic or-
ganisms also render immunostimulant and disease resistant properties.
Microalgal species of the genus Isochrysis, Pavlova. Nannochloropsis,
Arthrospira, Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, and Schizochytrium are
proved strains for its use as feed in aquaculture (Madeira et al., 2017;
Yaakob et al., 2014). Microalgae feed are utilized in hatchery produc-
tion of zooplankton, molluscs, crustaceans, shrimp and fish farming
with significant results.
3.1. Zooplanktons
Zooplanktons are the primary source of food for the small fishes in
farmhouses and they have separate hatcheries for zooplanktons. The
hatcheries for zooplanktons have a distinct place for culturing micro-
algae, which is to be used as feed for the zooplanktons. Microalgae
function by providing nutrients such as protein, vitamins, pigments and
fatty acids. They are grown in ponds or tanks are harvested and fed to
the zooplanktons, which serve as live prey for fishes. Live prey is more
nutritious than dried feed as drying tends to denature some proteins
and other important nutrients. Alternatively, there is a technique called
greenwater aquaculture where zooplanktons are grown over the mi-
croalgae culture. For microalgae to be used as a feed, the specific spe-
cies should satisfy some criteria., i) smaller cell size enough to be en-
gulfed, ii) easily digestible cell wall, iii) no toxic substances, iv) high
nutritional values and should not vary abruptly during the culture, v)
easy to cultivate across platforms.
Rotifers (Brachionus), brine shrimps (Artemia), cladocerans and co-
pepods are most commonly used zooplanktons that are cultivated as
prey for fishes. Their size ranges from 0.1 to 2 mm and hence their prey
should be smaller so that it could be engulfed. Members of the genus
Nannochloropsis, Tetraselmis, Chlorella or Isochrysis, Dunaliella, ranges
around 25 µm or less and are most frequently used as feed for zoo-
planktons. Rotifers produce insignificant amount of PUFA, hence it has
to be fed along with the diet (Lubzens, Gibson, Zmora, & Sukenik,
1995). It has been recorded that baker’s yeast fed rotifers are deficient
in PUFA and ascorbic acid, while microalgae enhanced the fatty acid
content in the rotifers (Cahu, Infante, & Takeuchi, 2003; Seychelles,
Audet, Tremblay, Fournier, & Pernet, 2009). Artemia are particle filter
feeders and have been used as live prey for their high nutrition in
fisheries (Herawati, Hutabarat, & Radjasa, 2014). Isochrysis, Chaeto-
ceros, Arthrospira, Scenedesmus, Tetraselmis and Dunaliella are some
microalgae that are used for its culture (Le, Hoa, Sorgeloos, & Van
Stappen, 2018). Table 2 lists some of the microalgal species utilized as
aqua and animal feed, and their effect on the feeding animals.

4
 Table 2
Microalgal strains used as feed and their effect on the animals.
Animal Microalgal strain(s) Concentration Age of animal / Algae effected changes* References
in feed duration of feed
(%) (-/- days)
G. Dineshbabu, et al.

Aquaculture
Clams - Pecten maximus Isochrysis aff. Galbana -/21 Increased larvae growth; rapid metamorphosis; increased organic (Tremblay et al., 2007)
Pavlova lutheri matter and total lipids.
Rhodomonas salina
Sea-urchin -Lytechinus variegatus Dunaliella tertiolecta -/17 days No changes in larvae development chronology; larger larvae and (George, Lawrence, & Lawrence, 2004)
higher survival of the larvae.
Sea-urchin -Paracentrotus lividus Dunaliella tertiolecta No difference in survival and development rate; showed faster (Liu et al., 2007)
growth rate.
Goldfish- Carassius auratus Chlorella vulgaris -/35 Better colour parameters (Gouveia & Rema, 2005)
Shrimp- Penaeus monodon Dunaliella salina 0.02 Protection against white spot syndrome virus owing to betacarotene (Madhumathi & Rengasamy, 2011)
in the microalgae
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp. 50 -/90 Increased growth, feed conversion ratio and protein productive (Badwy, Ibrahim, & Zeinhom, 2008)
value; higher dry matter and crude protein in the carcass.
Poultry
Broiler chickens Spirulina sp. 4 21/16 The growth is not affected, the redness of fillets improved. (Toyomizu, Sato, Taroda, Kato, & Akiba,
2001)
White Leghorn hens Spirulina platensis 0.3 371/35 Increased omega 3 fatty acids, yolk colour and reduced cholesterol (Sujatha & Narahari, 2011)
levels.
Broiler chickens Spirulina 2 17/21 No significant difference in body weight; increased activity of (Mirzaie, Zirak-Khattab, Abdollah Hosseini,
antioxidative enzymes (SOD and Glutathione peroxidase) & Donyaei-Darian, 2018)
White Porphyridium sp 5 & 10 210/10 No significant difference in body weight; increased yolk colour, (Ginzberg et al., 2000)
Leghorn chickens decreased cholesterol in eggs etc.
Hens All-G-RichTM (Schizochytrium limacinum) 2 315/ 224 No significant difference in body weight; (Ao et al., 2015)

5
Enhanced DHA content in the egg yolk; colour also darker
Pekin ducks CBT®, Celltech (Chlorella vulgaris) 0.2 300/42 Feed intake increased; Body weight enhanced; no feed efficiency; (Oh et al., 2014)
meat colour improved.
Bovine
Holstein-Friesian cows Spirulina platensis 0.7 -/17 Low fat content in milk; (Póti et al., 2015)
Finnish Ayrshire cows Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris 230 g per day -/21 Enhanced milk yield; increased protein accumulation per day; (Lamminen et al., 2017)
reduced milk fat
Brown Swiss, Holsteins Schizochytrium sp. 3.97 -/42 Body weight, milk yield unaffected; Reduced yield of fats; reduced (Franklin et al., 2018)
saturated fatty acids in milk; higher DHA in milk
Bos indicus Spirulina platensis, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, -/12 Increased average daily gain; feed intake (Costa et al., 2016)
Dunaliella salina
Ovine
Lambs Spirulina platensis 10 42/42 Increased bodyweight (Holman, Kashani, & Malau-Aduli, 2012)
Lambs Schizochytrium sp 3.89 56/- Reduced daily gain in weight; DHA levels increased; higher lipid (Urrutia et al., 2016)
oxidation in meat, lower rating for meat odour and flavour.
Lambs 10 Higher PDF and ADF digestibility values; (Stokes, Van Emon, Loy, & Hansen, 2015)
Damascus goats Chlorella vulgaris 5 g per goat -/84 More milk yield; higher energy yield and protein in milk; marginally (Kholif et al., 2017)
increased omega 3 fatty acids
Hungarian native goats Chlorella kessleri 1 -/17 Increased protein yield in milk, lower fat (Póti et al., 2015)
Pigs
Weanling pigs Desmodesmus sp 10 -/28 Growth similar to the control, no significant changes; (Ekmay et al., 2014)
Landrace × Large White barrows Schizochytrium sp. 0.3 Higher DHA levels; (Sardi et al., 2006)
Weanling anemic pigs Defatted microalgae: Nannochloropsis 7.5 Enhanced Hb levels; increased ADG with higher ADFI; similar feed (Manor et al., 2017)
oceanica; Desmodesmus sp.) efficiency with control
Hypor pig Aurantiochytrium limacinum -/125 Increased DHA in pork loin and back fat; Increased EPA in pork loin (Moran, Morlacchini, Keegan, Delles, &
fat. Fusconi, 2018)
Weaning pigs Aurantiochytrium limacinum 3.2 21/42 No significant difference in growth; reduced cortisol response, (Lee et al., 2019)
increased cytokinin and chromogranin.

* Against the regular feed alone (control).

Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
3.2. Fishes
The main focus in fish production is increasing its unsaturated fatty
acid content without depending much on fish oils. Microalgae based
fish feed is gaining attention and will become an important industry in
the coming years. Many small fishes are being cultured with microalgae
as live prey or through greenwater aquaculture in hatcheries.
Seabream, seabass, turbot, striped mullet, flounders, Atlantic cod, ha-
libut and Senegalese sole are some of the fishes that uses microalgae
feed (Tredici, Biondi, Ponis, Rodolfi, & Chini Zittelli, 2009). Apart from
being used as a feed, certain microalgae are important in aquaculture
associated applications. Pinkening of the salmonids flesh has always
been a common practise associated with salmon fishes. Astaxanthin
provide pinkening and it helps improve nutrient profile and also the
selling price of the fishes (Raja, Hemaiswarya, Balasubramanyam, &
Rengasamy, 2007). Haematococcus pluvialis is one great source of as-
taxanthin and is produced commercially worldwide for their astax-
anthin content (Ambati et al., 2014; Spolaore et al., 2006). United
States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) has recently approved
the application of H. pluvialis algae meal in salmonid feed (FDA, 2018).
Ornamental fishes have a significantly important market and the pig-
mentation in fishes are commercially valuable as it enhances its market
value. Ornamental goldfish (Carassius auratus) when fed with micro-
algal diet showed improvements in their pigmentations (Gouveia &
Rema, 2005). Lobster, shrimp, seabream and koi carp are other aquatic
beings that need supplementation to enhance muscle colour (Gouveia,
Batista, Sousa, Raymundo, & Bandarra, 2008). Nannochloropsis sp. are
used in finfish hatcheries for its high EPA level. Pavlova sp. are used to
enhance the DHA/EPA levels in oysters, brood stock, clams and mussels
however, they are difficult to cultivate. Sometimes, rather than feeding
single species it is recommended to feed a consortium of two or three
microalgal species. In this way, one organism can make up for a re-
duced nutrition in another. A mixture of microalgae diet given to
shellfishes like oysters, clams, mussels and scallops enhanced their
nutrition, improved growth and survival rates (Brown, 2012).
Feeding fishes with live microalgae is preferable as none of the
nutrients is lost and readily available to the fishes. Dried microalgae
through spray drying or air-drying shrink in size, shrivel due to high
temperatures, and result in loss of quality. Comparatively, freeze dried
algae are better as it retains most of the nutrients and comparable to
live algae in nutrient composition (Cañavate & Fernández-Díaz, 2001;
Lubzens et al., 1995).
3.3. Shrimp
Shrimp feeds completely on microalgae in its second stage of larval
development and in combination with zooplankton in its third stage
(Tacon, 1987). Diets rich in DHA and arachidonic acid showed sig-
nificant improvement in haemocyte count, antioxidant properties
(higher phenol oxidase and superoxide dismutase activity) and bac-
tericidal properties (Nonwachai et al., 2010). Early stages of shrimp
larval development require a balanced diet which can be provided by
microalgae. It will contribute to its survival, growth, development and
maintain good quality of water (FAO, 2007). Carotenoids in micro-
algae, lutein, zeaxanthin and astaxanthin, reported to provide disease
resistance and increased survival to shrimps and fish (Merchie et al.,
1998). Black tiger shrimp fed with Dunaliella salina when challenged
with white spot syndrome virus reported 60% survival until 5 days
while the shrimps devoid of microalgal diet reached 100% mortality
within 48 h (Madhumathi & Rengasamy, 2011). Few microalgae like,
Chaetoceros, Skeletonema, Thalassiosira, Tetraselmis, Isochrysis and
Chlorella are considered favourable feed for shrimp larva.
Apart from the nutritional properties, larvae rearing ponds of fish
and shrimps grown with microalgae improve the water quality because
of the oxygen production and pH stabilization (Muller-Feuga, 2013).
6
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
3.4. Sea urchins
Microalgal mixture of I. galbana and Chaetoceros gracilis stimulates
larvae development and metamorphosis while C. gracilis helps in sur-
vival of sea urchin larvae (Cárcamo, Candia, & Chaparro, 2005; Qi
et al., 2018).
Mollusc hatcheries make use of microalgae as its feed during its
early larval, post larval stage, early life and for the broodstocks
(Kaparapu, 2018). Many varieties of mollusc like New Zealand green-
shell™ mussel (GSM, Perna canaliculus), the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis),
Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), flat oysters (Ostrea edulis, Ostrea chi-
lensis and others), geoduck, scallop, various species of clam, abalone
and snail all depend on algae for their feed (Packer et al., 2016).
Gene transformation in microalgae has seen some significant de-
velopments in the recent years. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is the most
studied organism for transformation of transgenes to nucleus and
chloroplast (El-Sheekh, 2000; Neupert, Shao, Lu, & Bock, 2012; Purton,
2007; Wittkopp, 2018). Microalgae genetically engineered to produce
biomolecules that can offer immunity, disease resistance and bacter-
icidal properties to aquatic animals are produced and being studied.
Microalgal strains engineered to produce bovine lactoferricin (broad
spectrum antimicrobial peptide), enhanced levels of PUFA, fatty acids
and anti-p57 antibodies (immunity for bacterial kidney disease in sal-
monid fish) are among some to be mentioned (Hamilton, Haslam,
Napier, & Sayanova, 2014; Li & Tsai, 2009; Siripornadulsil, Dabrowski,
& Sayre, 2007). However, introduction of these engineered algal strains
into open aquatic environment may lead to horizontal gene transfer to
the innate microbes and could make them resistant to antibiotics.
Rearing engineered strains in confined perimeters and proper disposal
of the used water could provide some improvement in producing
aquatic animals with improved yield and nutritious properties.
4. Animal feed
Meat production through livestock maintenance is another agri-
culture field that contributes significantly to global food production.
Industrialization caused human population to move to urban areas and
caused a change in food style that includes more of meat. Vegetarians
make only a small percentage of the global human population (21.8%)
and hence the meat market is expanding at a continuous rate (Chemnitz
& Becheva, 2014; Leahy, Lyons, & Tol, 2010). Global meat production
for the year 2018 is projected to rise by 1.5% from the previous year to
account for 335 million tonnes, while meat export is to increase by
2.6%. Among various meats, bovine meat is growing at a faster rate by
2%, followed by pig meat (1.6%) and ovine meat (0.8%) (FAO, 2018a).
Table 3 provides the meat production of 2017 and the projections for
2018 in different parts of the world. Recently, people adapting to a
complete vegetarian food style of vegan is on rise however, there is still
concern of increasing the meat production and its quality. Microalgal
biomass has proven potentials in animal feed enhancing the meat
quality and in rare reports increase quantity as well. In the year 2003,
Becker et al., reported that 30% of microalgae biomass produced is sold
as animal feed or for animal feed preparations (Becker, 2003). Since
then, there has been so much awareness on the importance of micro-
algae as human food supplement and more companies are now engaged
in producing algae-based food additives. Irrespective of that the mi-
croalgae still occupies importance in animal feed preparation. The rich
nutrient profile of most of the microalgae has been analysed and found
to be significantly suitable for use as a feed supplement for animals.
Microalgae could supplement the regular feed by providing PUFA,
pigments that enhance meat coloration and their antioxidant proper-
ties. Schizochytrium sp., Chlorella sp., Arthrospira sp., Isochrysis sp.,
Porphyridium sp., Pavlova sp., and Nannochloropsis sp., are some of the
important microalgal species utilized or supplemented in animal feed
(Madeira et al., 2017).
G. Dineshbabu, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545

Table 3
Amount of meat production (thousand tonnes) from animals, fish, and their forecast for the coming years in major contributors and in whole world. (FAO 2018a; FAO
2018b).
World China Europe US

Thousand tonnes 2017 2018 Forecast 2017 2018 Forecast 2017 2018 Forecast 2017 2018 Forecast

Poultry 119 943 121 646 17 466 17 583 14 587 14 907 21 998 22 482
Bovine 70 853 72 235 7 638 7 714 7 889 8 015 11 944 12 291
Pig meat 118 781 120 636 54 335 55 080 23 405 23 757 11 610 11 993
Ovine 14 833 14 954 4 691 4 748 887 876 741 739
Total meat 329 988 335 048 85 614 86 609 47 810 48 597 45 846 47 061

AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION*

2016 2030 Forecast 2016 2030 Forecast 2016 2030 Forecast 2016 2030 Forecast

FOOD FISH 80 031 109 391 49 244 64 572 2 945 3 953 444 495

* Only farmed fishes, not the ones captured from sea or water bodies.

4.1. Bovine
Milk is the most favoured beverage in the world and it is important
to keep the nutritional composition of the milk at levels necessary for
human consumption. Hence, feeds that can enhance the nutritional
profile of milk are necessary. Omega −3 fatty acid composition in milk
of Holsteins cows were found to increase without adversely affecting
the milk fat content. In another study, enhanced levels of linolenic acid
and DHA on rumen protected microalgae supplementation in the feed.
Microalgae are lipid encapsulated to prevent dehydrogenation in the
rumen of animals (Boeckaert et al., 2008a; Stamey, Shepherd, de Veth,
& Corl, 2012). Bos indicus feeding on low protein tropical grasses along
with Spirulina platensis and Chlorella pyrenoidosa showed higher mi-
crobial protein and branched fatty acids in rumen of the animals (Costa,
Quigley, Isherwood, McLennan, & Poppi, 2016). Supplementation of
the rapeseed feed with microalgae in lactating cows showed enhanced
milk yield and plasma metabolites. The energy content in the milk,
protein and lactose content also witnessed higher yield with microalgae
supplemented rapeseed feed (Lamminen et al., 2017). On the contrary,
in another study involving Holstein cows fed with microalgae supple-
mented feed showed reduced milk yield, protein, lactose and with al-
most unchanged fatty acid profile (Boeckaert et al., 2008b). There are
some cases where changes in neither milk yield nor milk quality are
reported but shown reduced feed intake. Microalgae feed supple-
mentation to bovine may decrease the feed intake, however milk yield
or its quality is not negatively affected because of the feed efficiency
(Franklin, Martin, Baer, Schingoethe, & Hippen, 2018). Wullepit et al.
analysed the effect of microalgal feed on enhancing the antioxidant
potentials of the cows in their periparturient period, however there was
no concrete evidence to prove their hypothesis (Wullepit et al., 2012).
4.2. Ovine
Loor, & Frutos, 2012; da Silva et al., 2016; Tsiplakou et al., 2018).
However, omega 3 fatty acids and PUFA content were found to increase
in goat and goats milk with microalgae feeding (Póti, Pajor, Bodnár,
Penksza, & Köles, 2015). Readers looking for more studies on this can
consider Altamonte et al., that provides a detailed table on the effect of
microalgae feed on cow and sheep (Altomonte, Salari, Licitra, &
Martini, 2018).
4.3. Poultry
Poultry produces large amount of meat in terms of volume when
compared to other meat and the second most sought-after pork. It in-
cludes chickens, ducks, turkeys and quail. It was earlier reported that
50 billion birds are farmed every year especially for meat production
(CIWF, 2019). Protein rich microalgae can be substituted for vegetable
proteins in feed, thus reducing the burden on agriculture for human
consumption. Feeding microalgae to chicken has been reported to be
fruitful in terms of body weight, and feed efficiency since 1950s (Grau
& Klein, 1957). Chickens reared with algal supplements showed higher
weight gain, feed efficiency and reduced feed intake (Ekmay, Gatrell,
Lum, Kim, & Lei, 2014). Reduced cholesterol, higher astaxanthin and
carotenoid pigmentation in egg yolk were observed in another study
with Haematococcus pluvialis based feed. It also enhanced the anti-
oxidant properties of the hen in its liver and eggs in an dose dependent
manner (Ginzberg et al., 2000). Nannochloropsis gaditana when fed to
chickens at 5% and 10%, increased the EPA and DHA content in egg at
wash out period (42nd day) (Bruneel et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2019).
Feeding chickens with Spirulina a week before slaughtering had pre-
ferable muscle pigmentation (Dismukes, Carrieri, Bennette, Ananyev, &
Posewitz, 2008). Defatted green microalgal biomass of Nannochloropsis
oceanica showed minor potentials of stimulating protein synthesis in
liver and muscles (S. K. Gatrell, Magnuson, Barcus, & Lei, 2018).

Sheep are reared for their meat and milk. They feed on pasture, hay,
chopped corn, grass or small grain silage and grains. Sheep fed on
Spirulina sp. supplementation showed increased body weight, growth
and conformations (Holman, 2014). Extracts of Dunaliella tertiolecta
when given to sheep showed significant and dose dependent anti-in-
flammatory properties (Caroprese, Albenzio, Ciliberti, Francavilla, &
Sevi, 2012). Lactating Damascus goats when fed with algae in their diet
provided enhanced milk yield, with slightly higher energy content,
more digestible proteins, lactose with normal rumen pH (Kholif et al.,
2017). Pregnant ewes receiving Spirulina supplementation gave birth to
4.07% heavier lambs and higher average daily gain (ADG) than the
control group (Shimkiene et al., 2010). Milk yield from sheep and goats
are found to be not affected positively by microalgae feed, there were
reports which recorded decrease in milk yield (Bichi, Hervás, Toral,
4.4. Pig
Microalgae effected higher feed efficiency and lower average daily
feed intake (ADFI) in pigs however it showed a 7% and 13% decrease in
body weight and overall daily weight gain at 28th day (Ekmay et al.,
2014). Landrace × large white pigs when given soybean/maize based
feed supplemented with microalgal biomass showed no differences in
the body weight, physiology or pH values in stomach. However, the
pigs had higher ADG and enhanced DHA levels in loin and sub-
cutaneous meat (Sardi, Martelli, Lambertini, Parisini, & Mordenti,
2006). Spirulina, Desmodesmus, Nannochloropsis oceanica supplemented
fattening pigs showed no significant differences between the control
pigs in growth, metabolic (liver and cardiac performance) and phy-
siological parameters (Gatrell, Lum, Kim, & Lei, 2014; Saeid,

7
G. Dineshbabu, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545

Chojnacka, Korczyński, Korniewicz, & Dobrzański, 2013). Defatted
green microalgae biomass of Nannochloropsis oceanica when fed to
anaemic pigs elevated the blood haemoglobin, haematocrit apart from
other improved growth performances (Manor et al., 2017).
Microalgae feed doesn’t always have to provide enhanced yield,
improved meat or both. Absence of negative effects of microalgal feed
on animals is more than satisfactory. It will reduce the feed cost, burden
on crops for feed and balanced diet in low quantities. However, a
concern with using eukaryotic microalgae for feed is its thick re-
calcitrant cell wall with polysaccharides or cellulose (Buono et al.,
2014). This composition of the cell wall is difficult for certain animals
to break down the algae and digest. Hence, feed producers have to
come up with a procedure to process the biomass so that the internal
components/nutrients of the algae are readily available for the animals
to adsorb. Proteases, Carbohydrate-Active enZymes (CAZymes) are
used as feed additives and it helped in enhancing adsorption of the

Table 4
Companies producing microalgal feed for aquatic organisms. Data retrieved from their respective webpages or associated documents.
Company and Country Product and Organisms Application Reference

Algaenergy, Spain Nannochloropsis gaditana PREMIUM Aquafeed (Algaenergy 2019a)

Isochrysis galbana
Tetraselmis suecica
Chlorella vulgaris
Algaspring, Nannostar BLUE For rotifers and Artemia in hatcheries (AlgaSpring, , 2019)
The Netherlands Nannostar GREEN
Nannostar RED
(Nannochloropsis sp.)
Aquafauna Biomarine Inc, USA AlgaMac 3050 flake (Schizochytrium) (Aquafauna, , 2018)
Red Algamac (for Rotifers)
AlgaMac ProteinPlus
AlgaMac Enrich (DHA and Astaxanthin rich)
BernAqua, Belgium Spirulina sp. For Fish and Shrimps (BernAqua, , 2019)
Thalassiosira weissflogii, Thalassiosira pseudonana and Tetraselmis
sp.
BioMar, Norway Feed with AlgaPrime DHA (Biomar, , 2019)
Blue Biotech, Germany Nannochloropsis (BlueBiotech, , 2019)
Isochrysis
Astaxanthin for fish coloration ; Haematococcus pluvialis
Cellana Inc, USA ReNew TM (Cellana, , 2019)
Corbion, USA AlgaPrimeTM DHA (Schizochytrium sp.) Aquafeed (AlgaPrime, , 2019)
Cyanotech, USA Haematococcus pluvialis spent biomass after astaxanthin extraction Feed (Cyanotech, , 2019)
Fitoplancton Marino, Spain easy algae® (Fitoplancton, , 2018)
Heliae, USA Nymega Aquafeed (Aquafeed, , 2017)
Innovative aquaculture, Canada IAP Algae Paste (InnovativeAlgae, , 2019)
• Tahitian isochrysis
• Isochrysis galbana,
• Pavlova lutheri

June Spirulina, Myanmar

• Nannochloropsis oculata
Spirulina sp. (June, , 2018)
Mera Pharmaceuticals, USA AquaXan® Astaxanthin for Shrimp and Salmon (NELHA 2018)
Ocean Nutrition, USA Spirulina flakes (OceanNutrition, , 2018)
Optimal Aquafeed Feed with algae (OptimalAquafeed, , 2019)
Pacific Bio, Australia ReefAsta™ H. pluvialis (biomass with astaxanthin) (PacificBio, , 2018)
Pacific Co Ltd, Japan Fresh Chlorella V12 (Rotifers) (PacificTrading 2018)
Super Fresh Chlorella V12 (DHA enriched for Rotifers)
Super Capsule A1 Powder (For Artemia and Rotifers)
Chilean Astaxanthin (Haematococcus pluvialis)
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems, Florida USA. Hikari® Algae Wafers Aqua feed (Pentair, , 2018)
Spirulina Flake
Phyto Feast® Fish Food (Pavlova, Isochrysis, Thalassiosira,
Tetraselmis and Nannochloropsis)
Phycotransgenics, USA Vaccines for fishes Current status of the company
couldn’t be traced.
Phytobloom, Portugal Nannochloropsis (Phytobloom, , 2019)
Isochrysis
Phaeodactylum
Tetraselmis [Pulz]
Pond Technologies Aquafeed (Spirulina sp, and Chlorella sp.) (Pondtech 2019)
Reed Mariculture, USA Instant algae (Mariculture, 2019)
• Nannochloropsis
• Tetraselmis
• Isochrysis
• Pavlova
• Thalassiosira weissflogii

Skretting, Norway
• Thalassiosira pseudonana
ORI N3 (for Artemia) (Skretting, , 2019)
NEPTUNE (for Green water culture)
CLEAN Start (for fish larvae)
TaiwanChlorella, Taiwan Chlorella sp. Biomass
Tomalgae, Belgium Thalapure TM (for Shrimp, Oysters, Artemia, Rotifers) and Frozen and live aqua feed (TomAlgae, , 2019)
Phylavive
Veramaris, The Netherlands Aqua feed rich in DHA and EPA (Veramaris, , 2019b)

8
G. Dineshbabu, et al. Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545

nutrients and its digestion (Ekmay et al., 2014; Madeira et al., 2017).
Cyanobacterial biomass (eg. Spirulina) is easy to digest as its cell wall
lacks polysaccharides that makes it easy for degradation and presents
much more nitrogen before being absorbed (DM & LV, 1983; Richmond
& Preiss, 1980).
5. Market of microalgal feed
Market value of livestock meat for the year 2018 is around USD
1000 billion while that of aquaculture or the farmed fishing in 2016
was estimated to be USD 232 billion (FAO, 2018b, 2019). As of 2017,
commercial worldwide production of feed (inclusive of animal and
aqua feed) generates an annual turnover of over USD 400 billion (FAO,
2017). Search for an alternate feed types to fish oil in aquafeed and to
agro food products in animal feed resulted in algal feed market. There
are two important reasons that hastened the rise and expansion of algal
food and feed industry. First, fast depleting fossil fuel reserves and in-
creasing crude oil prices stimulated the boom in algal companies that
aimed to produce biocrude/biodiesel from algae. However, the tech-
nology available at present and the achievable productivity is still not
feasible for a commercially viable biofuel. This forced many companies
to shut down. While others to keep their footprint in the market until
the technology or the economy is viable for algal fuel, shifted their
focus to food and feed products from algae. Secondly, consumers
nowadays are classifying foods with their merits and demerits. Their
awareness on how the food is cultivated processed and its nutritional
information has increased. Such consumers are on the rise and it opens
up a new door in food industry to provide a healthy supplement or food.
It not only applies to algal food supplement but also to algal feed. The
healthier and nutritious the feed is, the nourishing the farmed animal
will be. Hence, the market is expanding for algal food and feed. Earth is
also in need of an alternative food source to feed the ever-increasing
human and other farmed animal populations.
Even though most of the microalgal companies are focussing on
human food supplement, a handful of them also produce biomass or
other algal products for animal or fish feed. They produce whole bio-
mass, defatted biomass, omega-3-fatty acids, algal oils and pigments
like carotenoids specific for feed applications. The microalgae compa-
nies deliver live algae, powdered algae, pigments from algae in a fixed
concentration for feed purposes. Companies like Blue Biotech, Algatech,
Algafeed, Reed Mariculture, Mera Pharmaceuticals are some of the
most important algae feed companies. Tables 4 and 5 lists a handful of
companies involved in microalgal aqua and animal feed production.
Information on some of the companies which were mentioned in some
reviews 5 years back (Betadene, Western Biotechnology, Aqua carotene,
Phycotransgenics, GNE India, Prime Inc.,) were not available on the
web and hence not listed. It could be because the companies are closed
or that they do not maintain a website.
In a survey by Enzing et al., carried out in the year 2014, many
companies responded on developing microalgae-based feed products.
Seven companies commercialized animal feed, 10 companies are in
early/advanced development of aquaculture feed and company re-
sponded that they are developing an alga based oil for feed. However, it
is not known what were those companies and five years down the line it
is difficult to discover their status.
DSM (Netherlands) and Evonik Industries (Germany) launched a
joint venture Veramis in 2018 to produce omega-3 rich oils for aqua-
culture using an algal-based heterotrophic fermentation process
(Veramaris, 2019a). AlgaPrime, a product from Corbion (Netherlands)
claims that one metric ton of their trademarked DHA is equivalent to
saving 40 metric tonnes of forage fishes (AlgaPrime, , 2019). Moreover,
the remaining biomass after the DHA extraction could be used in feed
production. The specific properties of such omega 3 fatty acid rich oils
can create or improve the market of other products. For example,
chickens fed with microalgal oil rich in DHA and EPA will lay eggs with
enhanced fatty acids that could yield better price in the market. Now,
there are so many players in the algal feed market that simple web
search returns so many companies with their products. The potentials of
algae are so enormous that there are many cottage industries/ or small
companies that operate to reap benefits from the blooming algae
market. However, there are still some concerns need to be addressed.
6. Challenges ahead and recommendations
Microalgae production has improved significantly in the recent
years; however, it is still not meeting the desired biomass productivity
to reap huge commercial benefits. Microalgal feed has to be of nominal
price in order to be used along with/ or in place of regular feed to be
successful. Higher biomass productivity brings down the cost of pro-
duction and hence most of the research and development is on en-
hancing the productivity of the algal strains. New cultivation systems,
aeration and agitation strategies, lighting provisions, medium en-
gineering are some of the few measures attempted to achieve better
productivity. Optimization might be necessary for every strain, every

Table 5
Companies producing microalgal feed for animals. Data retrieved from their respective webpages or associated documents.
Company, Country Organisms/Products Purpose/application References

Algae to Omega, USA Spent algae after astaxanthin Animal feed (Algaetoomega, , 2019)
extraction
Algaenergy, Spain Chlorella vulgaris Feed (Algaenergy 2019b)
Spirulina platensis
AlgaeTech, Malaysia Haematococcus Astaxanthin for pets (AlgaeTech, , 2019)
AlgalR, India Omega 3–226 Poultry specific (AlgalR, , 2019)
Omega 3-Pro
Algea, Norway Ascophyllum nodosum (Algea, , 2018)
Alltech, USA All-G Rich® (Alltech, , 2019)
Astareal, Sweden Haematococcus pluvialis Astaxanthin for animals (Astareal, , 2019)
BioprocessAlgae, USA Animal feed (BioprocessAlgae, , 2019)
Cellana Inc, USA Staurosira sp. Defatted algal biomass as animal feed- In advance (Austic, Mustafa, Jung, Gatrell, & Lei, 2013)
development
Corbion, USA AlgaPrimeTM DHA (Schizochytrium sp.) (AlgaPrime, , 2019)
MiAlgae, United Kingdom Animal feed In advance development and proposed commercialization in (Climate-KIC, , 2018)
five years
Monzon Biotech, Spain Dunaliella salina (Monzon, , 2019)
Nannochloropsis sp.
Muradel, Australia Animal feed (Muradel, , 2019)
TransAlgae, Israel Animal feed (TransAlgae, , 2019)
Zivo Biosciences, USA Animal feed In advance development and commercialization (Zivo, , 2019)

9
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
place and water utilized. However, according to Beal et al., even the
promising strategies yield lower selling price that were higher than the
market prices of the petroleum and/or animal feeds (Beal et al., 2015).
Another challenge associated with feed production especially with
aquafeed is biomass processing and preservation after harvesting.
Aquaculture demands and prefers live biomass than dried algal powder.
Harvested algae have to be concentrated and stored in freezers or cold
rooms, thus considerably increasing the cost of the production. Storage
of biomass for longer duration may also cause changes in its nutritional
constitution. Hence, it is advised that the biomass is instantly dis-
charged for delivery to the concerned aquaculture farms for immediate
use.
To achieve a positive energy ratio and high economic returns it is
recommended the following,
1. Production of secondary products along with the targeted product
2. Utilization of wastewater and flue gas instead of medium and CO2
gas for growth of the algae. However, it should be taken care that
there are no harmful substances in the biomass accumulated from
the wastewater or flue gas.
3. Enhancing biomass productivity through optimization of nutrients
and culture conditions.
4. The larger the cultivated area the lesser the cost of production of
algal biomass.
7. Conclusions
Increased demand for fish and livestock meat equates to higher
necessity for feed as well. Moreover, consumers now are looking for
food that is not just tastier but also nutritious/healthier and hence it is
imperative of the food industries to provide fishes and meat with en-
hanced nutrition. Microalgae as feed and feed supplement can sig-
nificantly offer the desired nutritional enhancements. Consumption of
microalgae fed animal meat will provide above said nutrients, anti-
oxidants, disease resisting agents and other minerals to humans. These
mighty microbes are strongly established for its importance as a future
food and/or feed and there is no questioning its significance. With
foolproof technology and improvements in cultivation and harvesting,
microalgae and its related products will be economically viable, prof-
itable and globally available. A larger algal production facility with
nearby provisions for wastewater and/or flue gas, provided that there
are no harmful agents passed through to the algal biomass, will yield
biomass at a reasonable and a profitable cost. The microalgal species
used for feed production may vary according to the target animal and
the type of nutrition required; i.e., Spirulina sp. for protein supple-
mentation and Haematococcus sp. for carotenoid enhancement and so
on. Certain microalgae feed need preparation before administered to
animals.
Microalgae feed, apart from being nutritionally superior are also
faster to grow, uses lesser land, no arable land needed and can be grown
using sea water. It also avoids sacrificing substantial amount of fishes
and agricultural crops, grains for aqua and animal feed respectively. In
the coming years, microalgae will be significant source of food or food
supplement for the ever-increasing population. Microalgae can also
provide a feed with significant nutrients, antioxidative, disease pre-
venting properties and more importantly, it is environmentally sus-
tainable.
8. Ethics statements
In this study, we certify that there were NO experiments on human
subjects or animals.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
10
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
Acknowledgement
GD wish to express his gratitude to Science and Engineering
Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Government
of India, for funding his research through National Postdoctoral fel-
lowship (PDF/2017/000897).
References
Adarme-Vega, T. C., Lim, D. K. Y., Timmins, M., Vernen, F., Li, Y., & Schenk, P. M. (2012).
Microalgal biofactories: A promising approach towards sustainable omega-3 fatty
acid production. Microbial Cell Factories. 11(1), https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-
11-96.
Alexandratos, N., & Bruinsma, J. (2012). World Agriculture towards 2030/2050: the 2012
revision. World Agriculture. Retrieved from www.fao.org/economic/esa.
Algaefactory. (2019). Spirulina Products | The Algae Factory. Retrieved March 6, 2019,
from https://thealgaefactory.com/spirulina-algae/.
Algaenergy. (2019.-a). Aquaculture – AlgaePiscis® | Algaenergy. Retrieved April 22,
2019, from http://www.algaenergy.es/en/sectors-products/aquaculture-
algaepiscis/.
Algaenergy. (2019.-b). Human & Animal Nutrition- AlgaeFood® | Algaenergy. Retrieved
April 22, 2019, from http://www.algaenergy.es/en/sectors-products/human-animal-
nutrition-algaefood/.
AlgaeTech (2019). Upcoming Products. Retrieved April 22, 2019, from https://algaetech.
com.my/upcoming-product/.
Algaetoomega (2019). Animal Feed | Algae to Omega. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from
https://algae2omega.com/ingredients/animal-feed/.
AlgalR (2019). Algal DHA Animal Feed | Welcome to AlgalR. Retrieved April 29, 2019,
from http://algalr.com/algal-dha-animal-feed/.
AlgaPrime (2019). AlgaPrime DHA. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from http://algaprime.
com/.
AlgaSpring (2019). NannoStar: Micro-algae rotifer and Artemia diets - AlgaSpring.
Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.algaspring.nl/aquaculture/.
Algea (2018). Algea - AlgeaFeed seaweed meals contain such nourishment in this natural,
balanced and top quality recipe. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from https://www.algea.
com/index.php/cattle-wellbeing.
Alltech (2019). All-G Rich | Alltech. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.alltech.
com/all-g-rich.
Altomonte, I., Salari, F., Licitra, R., & Martini, M. (2018). Use of microalgae in ruminant
nutrition and implications on milk quality – A review. Livestock Science, 214, 25–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LIVSCI.2018.05.006.
Ambati, R., Phang, S.-M., Ravi, S., Aswathanarayana, R., Ambati, R. R., Phang, S.-M., ...
Aswathanarayana, R. G. (2014). Astaxanthin: Sources, extraction, stability, biological
activities and its commercial applications—A review. Marine Drugs, 12(1), 128–152.
https://doi.org/10.3390/md12010128.
Ao, T., Macalintal, L. M., Paul, M. A., Pescatore, A. J., Cantor, A. H., Ford, M. J., ...
Dawson, K. A. (2015). Effects of supplementing microalgae in laying hen diets on
productive performance, fatty-acid profile, and oxidative stability of eggs. The Journal
of Applied Poultry Research, 24(3), 394–400. https://doi.org/10.3382/japr/pfv042.
Aquafauna (2018). Algae Diets/Feeds. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from http://www.
aquafauna.com/Diets&Feeds.htm.
Aquafeed (2017). Heliae and Syndel announce partnership to produce NymegaTM DHA
Aquaculture Feed Ingredient. Retrieved April 22, 2019, from http://www.aquafeed.
com/buyers-guide/suppliers-news-article/7179/Heliae-and-Syndel-announce-
partnership-to-produce-Nymega-DHA-Aquaculture-Feed-Ingredient/.
Astareal (2019). NOVASTA® - AstaReal. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from http://www.
astareal.se/products/products-for-animals/novasta.
Austic, R. E., Mustafa, A., Jung, B., Gatrell, S., & Lei, X. G. (2013). Potential and limitation
of a new defatted diatom microalgal biomass in replacing soybean meal and corn in
diets for broiler chickens. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 61(30),
7341–7348. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401957z.
Batista, A. P., Gouveia, L., Bandarra, N. M., Franco, J. M., & Raymundo, A. (2013).
Comparison of microalgal biomass profiles as novel functional ingredient for food
products. Algal Research, 2(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ALGAL.2013.01.
004.
Badwy, T. M., Ibrahim, E. M., & Zeinhom, M. M. (2008). Partial replacement of fish meal
with dried microalga (Chlorella spp and Scenedesmus spp) in Nile Tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) diets. In 8th International Symposium on Tilapia in
Aquacultur (pp. 801–811). Retrieved from https://cals.arizona.edu/azaqua/ista/
ISTA8/FinalPapers/11 Nutrition/PDF/8. TARTIEL.pdf.
Beal, C. M., Gerber, L. N., Sills, D. L., Huntley, M. E., Machesky, S. C., Walsh, M. J., ...
Greene, C. H. (2015). Algal biofuel production for fuels and feed in a 100-ha facility:
A comprehensive techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment. Algal Research,
10, 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2015.04.017.
Becker, E. W. (2013). Micro-algae for human and animal consumption. In A. E. Richmond
& Q. Hu (Eds.), Handbook of Microalgal Culture: Applied Phycology and
Biotechnology (Second, pp. 461–503).
Becker, W. (2003). Microalgae in Human and Animal Nutrition. In Handbook of
Microalgal Culture (pp. 312–351). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.
org/10.1002/9780470995280.ch18.
Ben-Amotz, A., Gressel, J., & Avron, M. (1987). Massive accumulation of phytoene in-
duced by norflurazon in Dunaliella bardawil (chlorophyceae) prevents recovery from
photoinhibition. Journal of Phycology. 23(1), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
0022-3646.1987.00176.x.
BernAqua (2019). Shrimp Feeding Regime - discover our products I BernAqua. Retrieved
April 29, 2019, from https://www.bernaqua.com/shrimp-feeding-regime/.
Bhosale, P. (2004). Environmental and cultural stimulants in the production of car-
otenoids from microorganisms. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 63(4),
351–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-003-1441-1.
Bichi, E., Hervás, G., Toral, P. G., Loor, J. J., & Frutos, P. (2012). Milk fat depression
induced by dietary marine algae in dairy ewes: Persistency of milk fatty acid com-
position and animal performance responses. Journal of Dairy Science. 96(1), 524–532.
https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-5875.
Biomar (2019). Algae as a replacement for marine resources is gaining market acceptance
| BioMar. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.biomar.com/en/global/
articles/news/algae-as-a-replacement-for-marine-resources-is-gaining-market-
acceptance/.
BioprocessAlgae (2019). About BioProcess Algae | Bioprocess Algae. Retrieved April 29,
2019, from http://www.bioprocessalgae.com/about/.
BlueBiotech (2019). Aquaculture - BlueBioTech. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from https://
www.bluebiotech.de/com/produkte/aquakulturen.htm.
Boeckaert, C., Vlaeminck, B., Dijkstra, J., Issa-Zacharia, A., Van Nespen, T., Van Straalen,
W., & Fievez, V. (2008). Effect of dietary starch or micro algae supplementation on
rumen fermentation and milk fatty acid composition of dairy cows. Journal of Dairy
Science, 91(12), 4714–4727. https://doi.org/10.3168/JDS.2008-1178.
Borowitzka, M. A. (1988). Vitamins and fine chemicals from micro-algae. In M.
Borowitzka, & L. Borowitzka (Eds.). Micro-algal Biotechnology (pp. 153–196).
Cambridge University Press Retrieved from http://researchrepositor-
y.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/36188/.
Brown, M. R., Mular, M., Miller, I., Farmer, C., & Trenerry, C. (1999). The vitamin content
of microalgae used in aquaculture. Journal of Applied Phycology. 11(3), 247–255.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008075903578.
Brown, M. R. (2012). Nutritional value and uses of microalgae in aquaculture. In Avances
en Nutrición Acuícola VI. Memorias del VI Simposium Internacional de Nutrición
Acuícola. 3. 281-292. https://doi.org/10.5772/30576.
Bruneel, C., Lemahieu, C., Fraeye, I., Ryckebosch, E., Muylaert, K., Buyse, J., & Foubert, I.
(2013). Impact of microalgal feed supplementation on omega-3 fatty acid enrichment
of hen eggs. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(2), 897–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
JFF.2013.01.039.
Buono, S., Langellotti, A. L., Martello, A., Rinna, F., & Fogliano, V. (2014). Functional
ingredients from microalgae. Food and Function, 5(8), 1669–1685. https://doi.org/
10.1039/c4fo00125g.
Cahu, C., Infante, J. Z., & Takeuchi, T. (2003). Nutritional components affecting skeletal
development in fish larvae. Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(03)
00507-6.
Cañavate, J. P., & Fernández-Díaz, C. (2001). Pilot evaluation of freeze-dried microalgae
in the mass rearing of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) larvae. Aquaculture,
193(3–4), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(00)00492-0.
Cárcamo, P. F., Candia, A. I., & Chaparro, O. R. (2005). Larval development and meta-
morphosis in the sea urchin Loxechinus albus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea): Effects of
diet type and feeding frequency. Aquaculture, 249(1–4), 375–386. https://doi.org/10.
1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2005.03.026.
Caroprese, M., Albenzio, M., Ciliberti, M. G., Francavilla, M., & Sevi, A. (2012). A mixture
of phytosterols from Dunaliella tertiolecta affects proliferation of peripheral blood
mononuclear cells and cytokine production in sheep. Veterinary Immunology and
Immunopathology, 150(1–2), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.VETIMM.2012.08.
002.
Cellana (2019). Algae enhance the nutritional value of animal feed and provide an al-
ternative protein feed source. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from http://cellana.com/
products/renew-feed/.
Černá, M. (2011). Seaweed Proteins and Amino Acids as Nutraceuticals. Advances in food
and nutrition research. 64, 297–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387669-0.
00024-7.
Chacón-Lee, T. L., & González-Mariño, G. E. (2010). Microalgae for “Healthy” Foods-
Possibilities and Challenges. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety,
9(6), 655–675. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00132.x.
Chemnitz, C., & Becheva, S. (2014). MEAT ATLAS - Facts and figures about the animals
we eat. Heinrich Böll Foundation, Berlin, Germany, Friends of the Earth Europe,
Brussels, Belgium.
Chisti, Y. (2000). Marine biotechnology – A neglected resource. Biotechnology Advances.
18(7), 547. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-9750(00)00056-2.
CIWF (2019). Learn more about chickens and their behaviours | Compassion in World
Farming. Retrieved April 16, 2019, from https://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm-animals/
chickens/.
Climate-KIC (2018). Business is blooming for microalgae start-up MiAlgae - Climate-KIC.
Retrieved April 30, 2019, from https://www.climate-kic.org/innovation-spotlight/
business-is-blooming-for-microalgae-start-up-mialgae/.
Costa, D. F. A., Quigley, S. P., Isherwood, P., McLennan, S. R., & Poppi, D. P. (2016).
Supplementation of cattle fed tropical grasses with microalgae increases microbial
protein production and average daily gain. Journal of Animal Science, 94(5),
2047–2058. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2016-0292.
Cyanotech (2019). Astaxanthin Process – Cyanotech. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from
https://www.cyanotech.com/astaxanthin/astaxanthin-process/.
da Silva, G. G., Ferreira de Jesus, E., Takiya, C. S., Del Valle, T. A., da Silva, T. H.,
Vendramini, T. H. A., ... Rennó, F. P. (2016). Partial replacement of ground corn with
algae meal in a dairy cow diet: Milk yield and composition, nutrient digestibility, and
metabolic profile. Journal of Dairy Science, 99(11), 8880–8884. https://doi.org/10.
3168/jds.2016-11542.
Da Silva Vaz, B., Botelho Moreira, J., Greque de Morais, M., & Vieira Costa, J. (2016).
11
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
Microalgae as a new source of bioactive compounds in food supplements. Current
Opinion in Food Science, 7, 73–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.12.006.
De Andrade, C. J. (2018). Chlorella and Spirulina Microalgae as Sources of Functional
Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Food Supplements; an Overview. MedCrave, 6(2)https://
doi.org/10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144.
de Carvalho, C. C. C. R., & Caramujo, M. J. (2017). Carotenoids in aquatic ecosystems and
aquaculture: A colorful business with implications for human health. Frontiers in
Marine Science, 4, 93. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00093.
de Jesus Raposo, M. F., de Morais, R. M. S. C., & de Morais, A. M. M. B. (2013). Health
applications of bioactive compounds from marine microalgae. Life Sciences, 93(15),
479–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LFS.2013.08.002.
Del Campo, J. A., Rodriguez, H., Moreno, J., Vargas, M. A., Rivas, J., & Guerrero, M. G.
(2004). Accumulation of astaxanthin and lutein in Chlorella zofingiensis
(Chlorophyta). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 64(6), 848–854. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00253-003-1510-5.
Dismukes, G. C., Carrieri, D., Bennette, N., Ananyev, G. M., & Posewitz, M. C. (2008).
Aquatic phototrophs: Efficient alternatives to land-based crops for biofuels. Current
Opinion in Biotechnology. 19(3), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.05.
007.
Devi, M. A., & Venkataraman, L. V. (1983). Supplementary value of the proteins of blue
green algae Spirulina platensis to rice and wheat proteins. Nutrition Reports
International, 28(5), 1029–1036 Retrieved from https://eurekamag.com/research/
006/543/006543406.php.
Ekmay, R., Gatrell, S., Lum, K., Kim, J., & Lei, X. G. (2014). Nutritional and metabolic
impacts of a defatted green marine microalgal (Desmodesmus sp.) Biomass in diets for
weanling pigs and broiler chickens. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62,
9783–9791. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf501155n.
El-Sheekh, M. M. (2000). Stable chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
using microprojectile bombardment. Folia Microbiologica, 45(6), 496–504. https://
doi.org/10.1007/BF02818717.
Enzing, C., Ploeg, M., Barbosa, M., & Sijtsma, L. (2014). Microalgae-based products for
the food and feed sector: An outlook for Europe. Retrieved from JRC Scientific and
policy reports, 19–37. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/default/files/final_version_
online_ipts_jrc_85709.pdf.
Fabregas, J., & Herrero, C. (1990). Vitamin content of four marine microalgae. Potential
use as source of vitamins in nutrition. Journal of Industrial Microbiology. 5(4),
259–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01569683.
FAO. (1996). 2.4. Nutritional value of micro-algae. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from http://
www.fao.org/3/W3732E/w3732e07.htm.
FAO. (2007). Improving Penaeus monodon hatchery practices. Manual based on experi-
ence in India. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a1152e/a1152e00.htm#
Contents.
FAO (2017). FAO and the feed industry. Retrieved April 23, 2019, from http://www.fao.
org/ag/againfo/home/en/news_archive/2017_FAO_and_the_feed_industry.html.
FAO. (2018a). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the sus-
tainable development goals. THE STATE OF THE WORLD series of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.uaculture (Vol. 35). https://doi.org/
issn 10.
FAO. (2018b). Meat Market Review.
FAO. (2019). Meat Market Review. Meat Market Review, (April), 1–11. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/3/I9286EN/i9286en.pdf.
FDA (2018). CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Retrieved May 2, 2019, from
https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=73.
185.
Fitoplancton (2018). Fitoplancton Marino - Aquaculture Section. Retrieved April 26,
2019, from http://www.fitoplanctonmarino.com/en/aquaculture.html.
Fox, J. M., & Zimba, P. V. (2018). Minerals and Trace Elements in Microalgae. Microalgae
in Health and Disease Prevention, 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
811405-6.00008-6.
Franklin, S. T., Martin, K. R., Baer, R. J., Schingoethe, D. J., & Hippen, A. R. (2018).
Dietary marine algae (Schizochytrium sp.) increases concentrations of conjugated li-
noleic, docosahexaenoic and transvaccenic acids in milk of dairy cows. The Journal of
Nutrition, 129(11), 2048–2054. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/129.11.2048.
Gantar, M., Simović, D., Djilas, S., Gonzalez, W. W., & Miksovska, J. (2012). Isolation,
characterization and antioxidative activity of C-phycocyanin from Limnothrix sp.
strain 37–2-1. Journal of Biotechnology, 159(1–2), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jbiotec.2012.02.004.
Gatrell, S. K., Magnuson, A. D., Barcus, M., & Lei, X. G. (2018). Graded levels of a defatted
green microalgae inclusion in diets for broiler chicks led to moderate up-regulation of
protein synthesis pathway in the muscle and liver. Algal Research, 29, 290–296.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ALGAL.2017.11.039.
Gatrell, S., Lum, K., Kim, J., & Lei, X. G. (2014). Nonruminant Nutrition Symposium:
Potential of defatted microalgae from the biofuel industry as an ingredient to replace
corn and soybean meal in swine and poultry diets. Journal of Animal Science, 92(4),
1306–1314. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-7250.
George, S. B., Lawrence, J. M., & Lawrence, A. L. (2004). Complete larval development of
the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus fed an artificial feed. Aquaculture, 242(1–4),
217–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2004.06.024.
Ghaeni, M., Matinfar, A., Soltani, M., Rabbani, M., & Vosoughi, A. (2011). Comparative
effects of pure spirulina powder and other diets on larval growth and survival of
green tiger shrimp, Peneaus semisulcatus. Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences. 10(2),
208–217.
Ginzberg, A., Cohen, M., Sod-Moriah, U. A., Shany, S., Rosenshtrauch, A., & Arad (Malis),
S. (2000). Chickens fed with biomass of the red microalga Porphyridium sp. have
reduced blood cholesterol level and modified fatty acid composition in egg yolk.
Journal of Applied Phycology, 12(3/5), 325–330. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
1008102622276.
Gouveia, L. (2011). Microalgae as a Feedstock for Biofuels. SpringerBriefs in
Microbiology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-
17997-6.
Gouveia, L., Batista, A. P., Sousa, I., Raymundo, A., & Bandarra, N. M. (2008). Microalgae
in Novel Food Products. Food Chemistry Research Developments. Nova Science
Publishers Inc.
Gouveia, L., & Rema, P. (2005). Effect of microalgal biomass concentration and tem-
perature on ornamental goldfish (Carassius auratus) skin pigmentation. Aquaculture
Nutrition, 11(1), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2004.00319.x.
Grau, C. R., & Klein, N. W. (1957). Sewage-grown algae as a feedstuff for chicks. Poultry
Science, 36(5), 1046–1051. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0361046.
Grossman, A. R., Lohr, M., & Im, C. S. (2004). Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in the landscape
of pigments. Annual Review of Genetics, 38(1), 119–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/
annurev.genet.38.072902.092328.
Gutiérrez-Salmeán, G., Fabila-Castillo, L., & Chamorro-Cevallos, G. (2015). Nutritional
and toxicological aspects of Spirulina (Arthrospira). Nutricion Hospitalaria, 32(1),
34–40. https://doi.org/10.3305/nh.2015.32.1.9001.
Hamilton, M. L., Haslam, R. P., Napier, J. A., & Sayanova, O. (2014). Metabolic en-
gineering of Phaeodactylum tricornutum for the enhanced accumulation of omega-3
long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Metabolic Engineering, 22, 3–9. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ymben.2013.12.003.
Hasan, M. R. (2017). Keynote presentation: Status of world aquaculture and global
aquafeed requirement with special notes on Artemia. In In Report of the FAO Expert
Workshop on Sustainable Use and Management of Artemia Resources in Asia (pp.
16–17). FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No. 1198.
Hasan, M. R., & Soto, S. (2017). Improving feed conversion ratio and its impact on re-
ducing greenhouse gas emissions in aquaculture.
Heap, T. (2008). BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Meat in a low-carbon world. Retrieved
March 1, 2019, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7389678.stm?
wwparam=1349466442.
Herawati, V. E., Hutabarat, J., & Radjasa, O. K. (2014). Nutritional Content of Artemia sp.
Fed with Chaetoceros calcitrans and Skeletonema costatum. HAYATI. Journal of
Biosciences, 21(4), 166–172. https://doi.org/10.4308/HJB.21.4.166.
Holman, B. (2012). Growth and body conformation responses of genetically divergent
australian sheep to Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) supplementation. American Journal
of Experimental Agriculture, 2(2), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajea/2012/992.
Hoseini, S. M., Khosravi-Darani, K., & Mozafari, M. R. (2013). Nutritional and medical
applications of Spirulina microalgae. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 13(8),
1231–1237. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557511313080009.
Hunter, M. C., Smith, R. G., Schipanski, M. E., Atwood, L. W., & Mortensen, D. A. (2017).
Agriculture in 2050: Recalibrating targets for sustainable intensification. BioScience,
67(4), 386–391. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix010.
Innis, S. M. (2008). Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and the developing brain. Brain Research,
1237, 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.078.
InnovativeAlgae (2019). IAP Algae Paste. Retrieved April 18, 2019, from https://www.
innovativeaqua.com/.
Iwamoto, H. (2007). Industrial production of microalgal cell-mass and secondary pro-
ducts – Major Industrial Species: Chlorella. Handbook of Microalgal Culture. https://
doi.org/10.1002/9780470995280.ch11.
Jiang, Y., Fan, K.-W., Raymond Tsz-Yeung Wong, A., & Chen, F. (2004). Fatty acid
composition and squalene content of the marine microalga Schizochytrium mangrovei.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52(5), 1196–1200. https://doi.org/10.
1021/JF035004C.
Ju, Z. Y., Deng, D. F., & Dominy, W. (2012). A defatted microalgae (Haematococcus plu-
vialis) meal as a protein ingredient to partially replace fishmeal in diets of Pacific
white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei, Boone, 1931). Aquaculture, 354, 50–55. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.028.
June (2018). Superfeed. Retrieved April 21, 2019, from https://www.junemyanmar.com/
superfeed.htm#.
Kaparapu, J. (2018). Application of microalgae in aquaculture. Retrieved from Phykos,
48(1), 21–26. http://phykosindia.com/paper4vol48no1.pdf.
Kent, M., Welladsen, H. M., Mangott, A., & Li, Y. (2015). Nutritional evaluation of
Australian microalgae as potential human health supplements. PLoS ONE, 10(2),
e0118985. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118985.
Khatoon, N., Sengupta, P., Homechaudhuri, S., & Pal, R. (2010). Evaluation of algae based
feed in Goldfish (Carassius auratus) nutrition. Proceedings of the Zoological Society,
63(2), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12595-010-0015-3.
Kholif, A. E., Morsy, T. A., Matloup, O. H., Anele, U. Y., Mohamed, A. G., & El-Sayed, A. B.
(2017). Dietary Chlorella vulgaris microalgae improves feed utilization, milk pro-
duction and concentrations of conjugated linoleic acids in the milk of Damascus goats.
The Journal of Agricultural Science, 155(03), 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0021859616000824.
Komprda, T., Škultéty, O., Křížková, S., Zorníková, G., Rozíková, V., & Krobot, R. (2015).
Effect of dietary Schizochytrium microalga oil and fish oil on plasma cholesterol level
in rats. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 99(2), 308–316. https://
doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12221.
Koyande, A. K., Chew, K. W., Rambabu, K., Tao, Y., Chu, D.-T., & Show, P.-L. (2019).
Microalgae: A potential alternative to health supplementation for humans. Food
Science and Human Wellness, 8(1), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSHW.2019.03.
001.
Kumar, K., Dasgupta, C. N., & Das, D. (2014). Cell growth kinetics of Chlorella sorokiniana
and nutritional values of its biomass. Bioresource Technology, 167, 358–366. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2014.05.118.
Lamminen, M., Halmemies-Beauchet-Filleau, A., Kokkonen, T., Simpura, I., Jaakkola, S.,
& Vanhatalo, A. (2017). Comparison of microalgae and rapeseed meal as
12
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
supplementary protein in the grass silage based nutrition of dairy cows. Animal Feed
Science and Technology, 234, 295–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ANIFEEDSCI.2017.
10.002.
Le, T. H., Hoa, N Van, Sorgeloos, P., & Van Stappen, G. (2018). Artemia feeds: a review of
brine shrimp production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Reviews in Aquaculture.
https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12285.
Leahy, E., Lyons, S., & Tol, R. S. J. (2010). An Estimate of the Number of Vegetarians in
the World. ESRI Working Papers, 340, 1–44.
Lee, A., You, L., Oh, S.-Y., Li, Z., Code, A., Zhu, C., ... Karrow, N. (2019). Health benefits of
supplementing nursery pig diets with microalgae or fish oil. Animals, 9(3), 80.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9030080.
Li, S.-S., & Tsai, H.-J. (2009). Transgenic microalgae as a non-antibiotic bactericide
producer to defend against bacterial pathogen infection in the fish digestive tract. Fish
& Shellfish Immunology, 26(2), 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2008.07.004.
Li, T., Xu, J., Wu, H., Jiang, P., Chen, Z., & Xiang, W. (2019). Growth and biochemical
composition of Porphyridium purpureum SCS-02 under different nitrogen concentra-
tions. Marine Drugs. https://doi.org/10.3390/md17020124.
Liu, H., Kelly, M. S., Cook, E. J., Black, K., Orr, H., Zhu, J. X., & Dong, S. L. (2007). The
effect of diet type on growth and fatty-acid composition of sea urchin larvae, I.
Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) (Echinodermata). Aquaculture, 264(1–4),
247–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2006.12.021.
Lubzens, E., Gibson, O., Zmora, O., & Sukenik, A. (1995). Potential advantages of frozen
algae (Nannochloropsis sp.) for rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) culture. Aquaculture,
133(3–4), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(95)00010-Y.
Madeira, M. S., Cardoso, C., Lopes, P. A., Coelho, D., Afonso, C., Bandarra, N. M., &
Prates, J. A. M. (2017). Microalgae as feed ingredients for livestock production and
meat quality: A review. Livestock Science, 205(June), 111–121. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.livsci.2017.09.020.
Madhumathi, M., & Rengasamy, R. (2011). Antioxidant status of Penaeus monodon fed
with Dunaliella salina supplemented diet and resistance against WSSV. Retrieved from
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 3(10)http://www.ijest.
info/docs/IJEST11-03-10-182.pdf.
Malcata, F. X. (2011). Microalgae and biofuels: A promising partnership? Trends in
Biotechnology, 29(11), 542–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.05.005.
Manor, M. L., Kim, J., Derksen, T. J., Schwartz, R. L., Roneker, C. A., Bhatnagar, R. S., &
Lei, X. G. (2017). Defatted microalgae serve as a dual dietary source of highly
bioavailable iron and protein in an anemic pig model. Algal Research, 26, 409–414.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ALGAL.2017.07.018.
Mariculture, R. (2019). Instant Algae® Products | Reed Mariculture. Retrieved April 18,
2019, from https://reedmariculture.com/product_instant_algae.php#tab_info.
Matos, J., Cardoso, C., Bandarra, N. M., & Afonso, C. (2017). Microalgae as healthy in-
gredients for functional food: A review. Food and Function, 8(8), 2672–2685. https://
doi.org/10.1039/c7fo00409e.
Merchie, G., Kontara, E., Lavens, P., Robles, R., Kurmaly, K., & Sorgeloos, P. (1998). Effect
of vitamin C and astaxanthin on stress and disease resistance of postlarval tiger
shrimp, Penaeus monodon (Fabricius). Aquaculture Research, 29(8), 579–585. https://
doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2109.1998.00245.x.
Miles, R., & Chapman, F. (2015). The Benefits of Fish Meal in Aquaculture Diets.
Retrieved March 18, 2019, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fa122.
Milione, M., & Zeng, C. (2008). The effects of temperature and salinity on population
growth and egg hatching success of the tropical calanoid copepod, Acartia sinjiensis.
Aquaculture, 275(1–4), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.12.
010.
Mirzaie, S., Zirak-Khattab, F., Abdollah Hosseini, S., & Donyaei-Darian, H. (2018). Effects
of dietary Spirulina on antioxidant status, lipid profile, immune response and per-
formance characteristics of broiler chickens reared under high ambient temperature.
Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 31(4), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.
5713/ajas.17.0483.
Molino, A., Iovine, A., Casella, P., Mehariya, S., Chianese, S., Cerbone, A., ... Musmarra, D.
(2018). Microalgae characterization for consolidated and new application in human
food, animal feed and nutraceuticals. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health, 15(11), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112436.
Monzon (2019). Animal nutrition | Monzón Biotech. Retrieved April 29, 2019, from
https://mznbiotech.com/animal-nutrition/.
Moran, C. A., Morlacchini, M., Keegan, J. D., Delles, R., & Fusconi, G. (2018). Effects of a
DHA-rich unextracted microalgae as a dietary supplement on performance, carcass
traits and meat fatty acid profile in growing-finishing pigs. Journal of Animal
Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 102(4), 1026–1038. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.
12911.
Muller-Feuga, A. (2013). Microalgae for Aquaculture: The Current Global Situation and
Future Trends. In Handbook of Microalgal Culture (pp. 613–627). Oxford, UK: John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118567166.ch33.
Muradel (2019). Muradel - Biocrude-oil production company based in Australia.
Retrieved April 25, 2019, from https://muradel.com.au/products/.
Nations, U (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-
the-2017-revision.html.
NELHA (2018). Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority | Mera Pharmaceuticals
Inc. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from http://nelha.hawaii.gov/our-clients/mera-
pharmaceuticals-inc/.
Neupert, J., Shao, N., Lu, Y., & Bock, R. (2012). Genetic transformation of the model
green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Methods in Molecular Biology, 847, 35–47.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-558-9_4.
Nonwachai, T., Purivirojkul, W., Limsuwan, C., Chuchird, N., Velasco, M., & Dhar, A. K.
(2010). Growth, nonspecific immune characteristics, and survival upon challenge
with Vibrio harveyi in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) raised on diets
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
containing algal meal. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 29(2), 298–304. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.fsi.2010.04.009.
Nunes, M., Pereira, A., Ferreira, J. F., & Yasumaru, F. (2009). Evaluation of the micro-
algae paste viability produced in a mollusk hatchery in Southern Brazil. Journal of the
World Aquaculture Society. 40(1), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2008.
00226.x.
OceanNutrition (2018). Spirulina Flakes, Fish Nutritious Food, Aquarium Food, Aqua
Marine, San Diego. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.oceannutrition.com/
dry-foods-detail/spirulina-flakes.
Odjadjare, E. C., Mutanda, T., & Olaniran, A. O. (2017). Potential biotechnological ap-
plication of microalgae: A critical review. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 37(1),
37–52. https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2015.1108956.
Oh, S. T., Zheng, L., Kwon, H. J., Choo, Y. K., Lee, K. W., Kang, C. W., & An, B. K. (2014).
Effects of dietary fermented Chlorella vulgaris (CBT®) on growth performance, relative
organ weights, cecal microflora, tibia bone characteristics, and meat qualities in
pekin ducks. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 28(1), 95–101. https://doi.
org/10.5713/ajas.14.0473.
OptimalAquafeed (2019). Optimal Aquafeed – The Right Angle in Aquaculture. Retrieved
April 26, 2019, from http://optimalaquafeed.com/#contact.
PacificBio (2018). Animal Nutrition | Pacific Bio. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from https://
www.pacificbio.com.au/animal-nutrition/.
PacificTrading. (2018). Post list for Aquaculture | Pacific Trading Co.,Ltd. Fishery
Materials/Equipment. Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.pacific-trading.
co.jp/en/type/aquaculture/.
Packer, M. A., Harris, G. C., & Adams, S. L. (2016). Food and Feed Applications of Algae.
In F. Bux, & Y. Chisti (Eds.). Algae Biotechnology (pp. 217–247). Cham: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12334-9_12.
Pagels, F., Guedes, A. C., Amaro, H. M., Kijjoa, A., & Vasconcelos, V. (2019).
Phycobiliproteins from cyanobacteria: Chemistry and biotechnological applications.
Biotechnology Advances, 37(3), 422–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.
02.010.
Panis, G., & Carreon, J. R. (2016). Commercial astaxanthin production derived by green
alga Haematococcus pluvialis: A microalgae process model and a techno-economic
assessment all through production line. Algal Research, 18, 175–190. https://doi.org/
10.1016/J.ALGAL.2016.06.007.
Patil, V., Källqvist, T., Olsen, E., Vogt, G., & Gislerød, H. R. (2007). Fatty acid composition
of 12 microalgae for possible use in aquaculture feed. Aquaculture International, 15(1),
1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-006-9060-3.
Pentair (2018). Planktonic | Aquatic Feeds and Live Feed | Pentair Aquatic Ecosystems.
Retrieved April 25, 2019, from https://pentairaes.com/products/aquatic-feed-
feeders/feed/planktonic-flake-feed.
Phytobloom (2019). Phytobloom By Necton Ideal Green Water solution Ready-to-use
microalgae. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from http://phytobloom.com/aquaculture/.
Pondtech (2019). Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.4141/CJSS2013-044.
Póti, P., Pajor, F., Bodnár, Á., Penksza, K., & Köles, P. (2015). Effect of micro-alga sup-
plementation on goat and cow milk fatty acid composition. Chilean Journal of
Agricultural Research, 75(2), 259–263. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-
58392015000200017.
Purton, S. (2007). Tools and techniques for chloroplast transformation of Chlamydomonas.
In Transgenic microalgae as green cell factories, 616, 34–45. New York, NY: Springer
New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-75532-8_4.
Qi, S., Zhao, X., Zhang, W., Wang, C., He, M., Chang, Y., & Ding, J. (2018). The effects of 3
different microalgae species on the growth, metamorphosis and MYP gene expression
of two sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus intermedius and S. nudus. Aquaculture, 492,
123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2018.02.007.
Raja, R., Hemaiswarya, S., Balasubramanyam, D., & Rengasamy, R. (2007). Protective
effect of Dunaliella salina (Volvocales, Chlorophyta) against experimentally induced
fibrosarcoma on wistar rats. Microbiological Research, 162(2), 177–184. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.micres.2006.03.009.
Richmond, A., & Preiss, K. (1980). The biotechnology of algaculture. Interdisciplinary
Science Reviews, 5(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1179/030801880789767891.
Rosenberg, J. N., Oyler, G. A., Wilkinson, L., & Betenbaugh, M. J. (2008). A green light for
engineered algae: Redirecting metabolism to fuel a biotechnology revolution. Current
Opinion in Biotechnology, 19(5), 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.07.
008.
Saeid, A., Chojnacka, K., Korczyński, M., Korniewicz, D., & Dobrzański, Z. (2013). Effect
on supplementation of Spirulina maxima enriched with Cu on production perfor-
mance, metabolical and physiological parameters in fattening pigs. Journal of Applied
Phycology, 25(5), 1607–1617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-9984-8.
Safi, C., Charton, M., Pignolet, O., Pontalier, P. Y., & Vaca-Garcia, C. (2013). Evaluation of
the protein quality of Porphyridium cruentum. Journal of Applied Phycology, 25(2),
497–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-012-9883-4.
Sahoo, P. K., & Mukherjee, S. C. (2001). Effect of dietary β-1,3 glucan on immune re-
sponses and disease resistance of healthy and aflatoxin B1-induced im-
munocompromised rohu (Labeo rohita Hamilton). Fish and Shellfish Immunology, 11(8),
683–695. https://doi.org/10.1006/fsim.2001.0345.
Sardi, L., Martelli, G., Lambertini, L., Parisini, P., & Mordenti, A. (2006). Effects of a
dietary supplement of DHA-rich marine algae on Italian heavy pig production
parameters. Livestock Science, 103(1–2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LIVSCI.
2006.01.009.
Sarker, P. K., Kapuscinski, A. R., Lanois, A. J., Livesey, E. D., Bernhard, K. P., & Coley, M.
L. (2016). Towards sustainable aquafeeds: Complete substitution of fish oil with
marine microalga Schizochytrium sp. improves growth and fatty acid deposition in
juvenile nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). PloS one, 11(6), e0156684. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156684.
Sathasivam, R., & Ki, J.-S. (2018). A review of the biological activities of microalgal
13
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
carotenoids and their potential use in healthcare and cosmetic industries. Marine
Drugs, 16(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/md16010026.
Sekar, S., & Chandramohan, M. (2008). Phycobiliproteins as a commodity: Trends in
applied research, patents and commercialization. Journal of Applied Phycology. 20(2),
113–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-007-9188-1.
Seychelles, L. H., Audet, C., Tremblay, R., Fournier, R., & Pernet, F. (2009). Essential fatty
acid enrichment of cultured rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis, Müller) using frozen-con-
centrated microalgae. Aquaculture Nutrition, 15(4), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.
1111/j.1365-2095.2008.00608.x.
Shah, M. M. R., Liang, Y., Cheng, J. J., & Daroch, M. (2016). Astaxanthin-producing green
microalga Haematococcus pluvialis: From single cell to high value commercial pro-
ducts. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7, 531. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00531.
Shi, H., Luo, X., Wu, R., & Yue, X. (2018). Production of eicosapentaenoic acid by ap-
plication of a delta-6 desaturase with the highest ALA catalytic activity in algae.
Microbial Cell Factories, 17, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-018-0857-3.
Shimkiene, A., Bartkevichiute, Z., Chernauskiene, J., Shimkus, A., Chernauskas, A.,
Ostapchuk, A., & Nevitov, M. (2010). The influence of Spirulina platensis and con-
centrates on lambs’ growth. Zhivotnov’dni Nauk, 47(1), 9–14.
Siripornadulsil, S., Dabrowski, K., & Sayre, R. (2007). Microalgal Vaccines. Transgenic
Microalgae as Green Cell Factories (pp. 122–128). New York, NY: Springer New York.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-75532-8_11.
Skretting (2019). Innovative and nutritional fish and shrimp feed products - Skretting.
Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://www.skretting.com/en/products/.
Spolaore, P., Joannis-Cassan, C., Duran, E., & Isambert, A. (2006). Commercial applica-
tions of microalgae. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 101(2), 87–96. https://
doi.org/10.1263/jbb.101.87.
Stamey, J. A., Shepherd, D. M., de Veth, M. J., & Corl, B. A. (2012). Use of algae or algal
oil rich in n-3 fatty acids as a feed supplement for dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy
Science, 95(9), 5269–5275. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-5412.
Stamm, M. (2015). Effects of different microalgae supplements on fatty acid composition,
oxidation stability, milk fat globule size and phospholipid content of bovine milk. Helsingin
yliopisto: Retrieved from https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/157470.
Stokes, R. S., Van Emon, M. L., Loy, D. D., & Hansen, S. L. (2015). Assessment of algae
meal as a ruminant feedstuff: Nutrient digestibility in sheep as a model species1.
Journal of Animal Science, 93(11), 5386–5394. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2015-
9583.
Sujatha, T., & Narahari, D. (2011). Effect of designer diets on egg yolk composition of
“White Leghorn” hens. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 48(4), 494–497.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0132-z.
Tacon, A. G. J. (1987). Larval Shrimp Feeding-Crustacean tissue suspension: A practical
alternative for shrimp culture. Retrieved from. http://www.fao.org/3/s0721e/
S0721E00.htm#TOC.
Tacon, Albert G. J., Hasan, M. R., & Metian, M. (2011). Demand and supply of feed
ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans : Trends and prospects. FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9546.1000234.
Techsciresearch (2018). Global Animal Feed Additive Market Trends, Analysis, Regions,
By Livestock, Forecast 2023 |Techsci Research. Retrieved March 4, 2019, from
https://www.techsciresearch.com/report/global-animal-feed-additive-market/3063.
html.
Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., & Befort, B. L. (2011). Global food demand and the sus-
tainable intensification of agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America, 108(50), 20260–20264. https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.1116437108.
Tokuşoglu, O., & uunal, M. K. (2003). Biomass nutrient profiles of three microalgae:
Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana. Journal of Food Science,
68(4), 1144–1148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x.
TomAlgae (2019). Tom Algae. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from http://www.tomalgae.
com/.
Toyomizu, M., Sato, K., Taroda, H., Kato, T., & Akiba, Y. (2001). Effects of dietary
Spirulina on meat colour in muscle of broiler chickens Effects of dietary Spirulina on
meat colour in muscle of broiler chickens. British Poultry Science, 42, 197–202.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660120048447.
TransAlgae (2019). TransAlgae - Wildtype algae feed. Retrieved April 30, 2019, from
https://www.transalgae.com/feed.
Tredici, M. R., Biondi, N., Ponis, E., Rodolfi, L., & Chini Zittelli, G. (2009). Advances in
microalgal culture for aquaculture feed and other uses. New Technologies in
Aquaculture: Improving Production Efficiency, Quality and Environmental
ManagementWoodhead Publishing Limitedhttps://doi.org/10.1533/9781845696474.
3.610.
Tremblay, R., Cartier, S., Miner, P., Pernet, F., Quéré, C., Moal, J., ... Samain, J.-F. (2007).
Effect of Rhodomonas salina addition to a standard hatchery diet during the early
ontogeny of the scallop Pecten maximus. Aquaculture, 262(2–4), 410–418. https://doi.
org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2006.10.009.
Tsiplakou, E., Abdullah, M. A. M., Mavrommatis, A., Chatzikonstantinou, M., Skliros, D.,
Sotirakoglou, K., ... Zervas, G. (2018). The effect of dietary Chlorella vulgaris inclusion
on goat’s milk chemical composition, fatty acids profile and enzymes activities re-
lated to oxidation. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 102(1),
142–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12671.
Uriarte, I., Farías, A., Hawkins, A. J. S., & Bayne, B. L. (1993). Cell characteristics and
biochemical composition of Dunaliella primolecta Butcher conditioned at different
concentrations of dissolved nitrogen. Journal of Applied Phycology. 5(4), 447–453.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182737.
Urrutia, O., Mendizabal, J. A., Insausti, K., Soret, B., Purroy, A., & Arana, A. (2016).
Effects of addition of linseed and marine algae to the diet on adipose tissue devel-
opment, fatty acid profile, lipogenic gene expression, and meat quality in lambs. PloS
One, 11(6), e0156765. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156765.
G. Dineshbabu, et al.
Veramaris (2019a). Microalgal Oil - Veramaris. Retrieved April 23, 2019, from https://
www.veramaris.com/what-we-do-detail.html#innovation.
Veramaris (2019b). Why we do it detail - Veramaris. Retrieved April 25, 2019, from
https://www.veramaris.com/why-we-do-it-detail.html#humanhealth.
Wijffels, R. H. (2008). Potential of sponges and microalgae for marine biotechnology.
Trends in Biotechnology, 26(1), 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.10.
002.
Wittkopp, T. (2018). Nuclear Transformation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by
Electroporation. BIO-PROTOCOL, 8(9), https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc. 2837.
Wu, Y. B., Li, L., Wen, Z. G., Yan, H. J., Yang, P. L., Tang, J., ... Hou, S. S. (2019). Dual
functions of eicosapentaenoic acid-rich microalgae: Enrichment of yolk with n-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids and partial replacement for soybean meal in diet of laying
hens. Poultry Science, 98(1), 350–357. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pey372.
Wullepit, N., Hostens, M., Ginneberge, C., Fievez, V., Opsomer, G., Fremaut, D., & De
Smet, S. (2012). Influence of a marine algae supplementation on the oxidative status
of plasma in dairy cows during the periparturient period. Preventive Veterinary
Medicine, 103(4), 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PREVETMED.2011.09.007.
14
Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103545
Wysoczański, T., Sokoła-Wysoczańska, E., Pękala, J., Lochyński, S., Czyż, K., Bodkowski,
R., ... Librowski, T. (2016). Omega-3 fatty acids and their role in central nervous
system – A review. Retrieved from Current Medicinal Chemistry, 23(8), 816–831.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26795198.
Yaakob, Z., Ali, E., Zainal, A., Mohamad, M., & Takriff, M. S. (2014). An overview:
Biomolecules from microalgae for animal feed and aquaculture. Journal of Biological
Research (Greece), 21(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2241-5793-21-6.
Young, S. (2017). UK’s first algae-based eggs allow vegans to make cakes, omlettes and
scrambled eggs | The Independent. Retrieved March 6, 2019, from https://www.
independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/first-algae-based-vegan-eggs-holland-
and-barrett-caked-omlettes-scrambled-eggs-plant-based-a7543901.html.
Yucetepe, A., Saroglu, O., Bildik, F., Ozcelik, B., & Daskaya-Dikmen, C. (2018).
Optimisation of ultrasound-assisted extraction of protein from Spirulina platensis using
RSM. Czech J Food Sci, 36(1), 98–108. https://doi.org/10.17221/64/2017-cjfs.
Zivo. (2019). Animal Applications :: Zivo Bioscience, Inc. (ZIVO). Retrieved April 29,
2019, from https://www.zivobioscience.com/applications/animal-applications.