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Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves

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Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves

Sahu SC1*, Suresh HS2, Murthy IK1 and Ravindranath NH1
1
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
2
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Abstract
Mangroves are extremely important bio-resources which are crucial to coastal environment. Mangroves are declining
rapidly as they are getting degraded for agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, urban development and over-exploitation. India
lost 40% of its mangrove area during the last century. Hence, it is highly necessary to assess the status and trends of
mangroves in India. We have assessed the trends of mangrove area in India during 1987-2013 and found that the mean
annual change during the period is 24.25 ± 82.57 km2. Most of the states are experiencing an increase in area except
Andhra Pradesh (-5.95 ± 15.70 km2) and Andaman and Nicobar (-3.41 ± 52.32 km2). The present review is focused on
assessing the status and trends of mangrove area in India including the causes of loss and its restoration and traditional
conservation. Implications of loss of mangroves have been discussed with respect to exposure to cyclones, hurricanes
and sea water intrusion, tsunami and climate change. Effective governance structures, better planning for rehabilitation
of degraded mangroves, education and awareness building in local communities are needed to conserve, protect and
restore the valuable mangrove wetland ecosystems. Further, mitigation and adaptation to climate change aspects are
considered.

Keywords: Mangrove area assessment; Threats; Loss of mangroves;
Implications; India
Introduction
Evolutionarily adapted to coastal environment, an ecologically
distinct group of halophytic plant communities found in tropical and
subtropical shores may be defined as mangroves. Some workers viewed
that plants growing in between the highest and the lowest tidal limits
may be considered as ‘mangrove’ [1-9]. Mangrove forests are among
the most productive and biologically important ecosystems of the world
[10,11]. It provides several important ecosystem services including the
maintenance of coastal water quality, reduction in severity of storm,
wave and flood damage, bio resources as well as breeding ground for
commercial fishery species [12,13].
Mangroves in India are unique in terms of their extent, variability
and biodiversity. However, there has been an overall continuous decline
in mangrove forests caused by conversion to agriculture, aquaculture,
tourism and urban development [14,15]. Reduced mangrove area
and health will increase the threat to human safety and shoreline
development from coastal hazards such as erosion, flooding, storm
waves, cyclones and tsunami, as recently observed during 1999 super
cyclone in Odisha and 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami [16-20]. Mangrove
loss will also reduce coastal water quality, reduce biodiversity, eliminate
fish and crustacean nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal
habitats and eliminate a major resource for human communities
that rely on mangroves for numerous products and services [21-23].
Further, decline in mangrove vegetation will release large quantities
of stored carbon exacerbating global warming and climate change.
According to the recent IPCC fifth assessment report [24], climate
change will contribute to the range of sea grasses, mangroves and kelp
in the northern hemisphere will expand pole ward. As a consequence,
important ecosystem goods and services (e.g. natural barrier, carbon
sequestration, biodiversity) provided by mangrove forests will be
diminished or lost.
According to the Government of India report [25], India lost
40% of its mangrove area during the last century [26]. Given the
importance of mangroves, it is highly necessary to assess the status and
trends of mangroves in India. Further, assessment of mangrove areas
at country level is a prerequisite for its restoration, management and
conservation. Although, Forest Survey of India reports are available
to get the information on mangrove area, it is urgent to analyze the
reports and draw conclusions on trends in area loss/gain including
annualized change during the last 25 years and the spatial variation.
Literatures are available on mangroves saving coastal areas from
cyclones, storms and tsunami [16-20]. However, potential of mangrove
biomass in India to offset carbon emission in the process of carbon
sequestration process is neglected. Therefore, review of mangrove
biomass carbon stocks is highly significant. We review implications
of loss of mangroves with respect to exposure to cyclones, hurricanes
and sea water intrusion, tsunami and climate change. Importance of
various threats is addressed specific to various regions.
Keeping view of the above perspectives on mangroves, the present
review is done mainly with two objectives-
1) An assessment of mangrove area in India
2) Threats to mangroves, its loss and implications of its decline
including restoration and traditional conservation.
Status, Extent and Trends in Area under Mangroves in
India
India with a long coastline of about 7516.6 km, including the island
territories [27], had a mangrove cover of about 6,749 km2, the fourth
largest mangrove area in the world [28]. However, a recent assessment
shows that India has a total mangrove cover of only 4,628 km² [29],
or 0.14% of the country’s land area, 3% of the global mangrove area,
*Corresponding author: Sahu SC, Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, Tel: +91 (80) 2293 2447; Email: sudam_
rrl@yahoo.co.in
Received March18, 2015; Accepted June 09, 2015; Published June 19, 2015
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove
Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth Sci Clim
Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280
Copyright: © 2015 Sahu SC, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
source are credited.

J Earth Sci Clim Change

ISSN:2157-7617 JESCC, an open access journal Volume 6 • Issue 5 • 1000280
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth
Sci Clim Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280

Page 2 of 7

and 8% of Asia’s mangroves., of which about 60% is along the east

coast (Bay of Bengal), 27% is along the west coast (Arabian Sea) and
the remaining 13% is in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
mangrove habitats (69°-89.5°E longitude and 7°-23°N latitude)
comprise three distinct zones: east coast habitats having a coast line of
about 2700 km, facing Bay of Bengal, west coast habitats with a coast
line of about 3000 km, facing Arabian sea, and Island Territories with
about 1816.6 km coastline. The state of West Bengal has the maximum
cover (2,097 km2), followed by Gujarat (1103 km2) and the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (604 km2) [29].
India’s mangroves can be broadly categorized into deltaic,
backwater-estuarine and insular types according to Thom’s
classification of estuary habitats. Deltaic mangroves are found along
the east coast within the deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi,
Figure 1: Mean annual change in mangrove area (km2) in different states/
Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery rivers. Estuarine mangroves are found Union Territories.
on the west coast in the estuaries of the Indus, Narmada and Tapti
Rivers. They are also growing in the backwaters, creeks and neritic inlets
of these areas. Insular type of mangroves is found in the Andaman and Category Type group
No. of % of total
species species
Nicobar Islands [30].
Mangroves 39 4.2
Assessment of Mangrove Area since 1987 Mangrove associates 86 9.3
Sea grass vegetation 11 1.2
The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, India Marine algae (Phytoplankton+sea weeds) 557 60.1
recorded a decline of 59.18 sq. km of mangrove between 1972-75 and Flora
Bacteria 69 7.5
1980-82 [31]. According to the Government of India report [25], India Fungi 103 11.2
lost 40% of its mangrove area during the last century [26]. Of this, east Actinomycetes 23 2.5
coast has lost about 26%; west coast area about 44%; and Andaman and Lichens 32 3.4
Nicobar Islands about 32% [32,33]. At present, we have assessed the Prawns and lobsters 55 1.8
state wise mangrove area since 1987 to 2013 (Data adapted from Forest Crabs 138 4.4
Survey of India). There was a net increase of 582 km2 area during this Insects 707 22.3
period with a maximum area increment in Gujarat (676 km2) followed Molluscs 305 9.9
by Maharashtra (46 km2), Goa (22 km2), West Bengal (21 km2) and Other invertebrates 745 24.1
Odisha (14 km2). On the other hand, there was also decline in the Fauna Fish parasites 7 0.2
areas of mangroves. There was a decline of 143 km2 in Andhra Pradesh Finfish 543 17.6
followed by Andaman and Nicobar (82 km2). It has been found that the Amphibians 13 0.4
mean annual change in mangrove area during the period 1987-2013 is Reptiles 84 2.7
24.25 ± 82.57 km2. Most states showed mean annual increment in area Birds 426 13.8
except Andhra Pradesh (-5.95 ± 15.70 km2) and Andaman and Nicobar Mammals 68 2.2
(-3.41 ± 52.32 km2) (Figure 1). This change can be attributed to tsunami Total 4,011 100
that swept the Andaman and Nicobar coast during 2004 and agriculture Table 1: Total number of species in mangrove ecosystems of India [34].
and other developmental activities in Andhra Pradesh. Mean annual
increase in area was maximum in Gujarat (28.16 ± 50.58 km2) followed mangrove ecosystems, which is highest in the world. Among flora,
by Maharashtra (1.91 ± 11.14) and Goa (0.91 ± 1.57 km2). Overall, marine algae had highest number of species (557 species) i.e. 60.1%
the mangroves in India are well protected. This is largely because of followed by fungi 11.2%, mangrove associates 9.3%, bacteria 7.5% and
the efforts of state Forest Departments and Ministry Of Environment mangroves 4.2% etc. Heritiera fomes and Sonneratia griffth are two
and Forests, Government of India for initiating plantation as well as globally threatened mangroves found in India. Among fauna, other
restoration and conservation of mangroves. invertebrates had highest number of species (745) i.e. 24.1% followed
Data from SFR published biennially from 1987 to 2013, by insects 22.3%, finfish 17.6%, birds 13.8%, molluscs 9.9% etc. Olive
ridley turtle, one of the most threatened and endemic fauna is found in
Annual change=(A2-A1)/t2-t1 Odisha coast.
Where, A1, A2 mangrove areas at two different time periods t1 and
Major Threats to Mangroves
t2 respectively
The main causes of mangrove forest destruction in India are given
Biodiversity below:
Mangrove ecosystems are one of the most biodiversity rich areas Aquaculture and agriculture expansion
inhabited by diverse groups of aquatic and terrestrial organisms. It
occupies a diversified habitat like core forests, litter-forest floors, mud A large fraction of the mangroves in India was destroyed due to
flats, water bodies (rivers, bays, creeks, etc.), coral reefs and sea grass aquaculture and agriculture expansion. In India and Bangladesh, about
ecosystems. A total of 4,011 species including 920 plants (23%) and 1,50,000 ha of mangroves were destroyed for agricultural purposes
3,091 animals (77%) species (Table 1) have been recorded from Indian during the past 100 years. Mangroves are destroyed and reclaimed with

J Earth Sci Clim Change

ISSN:2157-7617 JESCC, an open access journal Volume 6 • Issue 5 • 1000280
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth
Sci Clim Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280
rain water for reducing the salinity of the soil. Then, these areas were
protected from soil water intrusion by forming embankments. After
salt is leached from soil, these areas are used for raising plantation of
coconut or paddy. These activities are very common in South Indian
states of Goa, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh [34-36]. Aquaculture
in mangrove areas is another pressure on regeneration and survival of
mangrove seedlings [37]. Sometimes for aquaculture expansion people
destroyed whole patches.
Cutting of mangroves for timber, fuel and charcoal
Because of high calorific value of mangrove wood and high
strength, people are destroying mangroves for firewood, charcoal and
timber collection [36]. Mangrove wood is highly suitable for chipboard
and paper industry. So due to its industrial value, forests were cleared
annually for these purposes.
Pollution
Mangrove patches in cities such as Mumbai and Kolkata are
affected by discharge of large amounts of solid wastes and effluents
from various sources. Pollution has made the habitats difficult for
mangrove survival and growth [38].
Natural calamities
Frequent occurrences of tropical cyclones, storms and tsunamis,
have damaged the mangroves of India. To cite an example, in the east
coast of Odisha during the year 1999, a major cyclone devastated a large
area of mangroves [20].It has been estimated that the total mangrove
area fell from 30,766 ha to 17,900 ha during the super cyclone. The
tsunami that occurred in 2004 caused extensive damage of mangroves
in the south coast of India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands [18,39-
41].
Reduction of fresh water and tidal water flows
Mangroves are well established in areas where there is good
amount of fresh water inflow. Dam and barricade construction on
upper portion of rivers reduces fresh water flow into mangrove
swamps. Embankment construction and siltation at the river mouth
obstruct tidal water flow in to mangrove swamps. Reduction in fresh
water and tidal water inflow increases the salinity of these areas,
resulting in poor germination, growth and regeneration of mangroves.
For example, at Pichavaram, South India, mangroves are largely dying
due to hyper salinity and other associated factors such as increasing
temperature, poor precipitation and poor flushing of mangrove soil by
tidal waters [42,43]. In Sundarbans, due to reduction in fresh water
inputs, species such as Heritiera fomes and Nypa fruticans are reducing
in their population [34]. According to Duke [44], this may lead to the
population at greater risk of local extinction.
Invasive species
Most mangrove regions in India are suffering from invasive species
which disrupt the ecological balance and dynamics of the mangrove
ecosystem. For example, in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the rapid
invasion of Prosopis species [45] can be considered for Invasive species.
In Sundarbans, colonization of the twiner Derris trifoliate and other
aquatic weeds Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia in mangrove water
negatively affecting the natural flora of mangrove ecosystems [34].
Climate change
Climate change is one of the most important environmental issues
impacting mangroves in India. It results in increase in temperatures,
J Earth Sci Clim Change
ISSN:2157-7617 JESCC, an open access journal
Page 3 of 7
rising sea level, increasing the frequency of tropical storms and
tsunamis. Due to sea level rise mangroves tend to move landward, but
human encroachment prevents this and consequently, the width of the
mangroves decreases. A recent observation reveals that as a consequence
of sea level rise two islands in Indian Sundarbans-Suparibhanga and
Lohacharra have submerged and a dozen of other islands are also
facing the same problem (http://www.thedailystar.net/2006/12/22/
d61222011611.htm). Further research is recommended to record
plant species with details of their flowering, germination, propagation,
growth as well as the behaviour of animals as related to changing
climatic conditions [46] to determine climate change induced effects
on plant and animal species (Table 2).
Implications of Loss of Mangroves
Exposure to cyclones, hurricanes and sea water intrusion
The ability of mangroves to provide protection against tropical
storm surges has been debated since 1970 [47-49]. Theoretical models
indicate that mangroves attenuate shorter waves more than longer
waves [50], and field experiments confirm that relatively narrow strips
of mangrove can substantially reduce the energy of wind-driven waves
[51,52]. Extensive tracts of mangroves can protect adjacent land and
human populations from storm surges of water caused by high intensity
coastal storms and hurricanes [53,54]. A healthy mangrove forest can
also prevent salt water intrusion preventing damage of freshwater
ecosystems and agricultural areas. Mangrove forests reduce the fury of
cyclonic storms and gales and minimize the effect of the rising of sea
level due to global warming [20]. The physical stability of mangroves
helps to prevent shoreline erosion, shielding inland areas from severe
damage during hurricanes and tidal waves. Mangroves can be damaged
by storms or freezes but usually recover. The roots of mangrove trees
are physically very strongly attached to the substratum and supports
against the ocean’s wave and tide.
Case of Bhitarkanika, East Coast of India
Badola and Hussain [21] evaluated the protective function of
mangroves in Bhitarkanika in the eastern state of Odisha, India. This
mangrove forest and the associated coast house the highest diversity of
Indian mangrove flora and fauna. The mangrove forests of Bhitarkanika
differ considerably from other mangroves because of the dominant
Mangrove area Major Threats References
Agriculture, prawn seed collection, reduction in
West Bengal
fresh water flow and pollution
[34,38]
Natural calamities, prawn farming, encroachment
Odisha [15,20]
and rehabilitation
Reduction in fresh water flow, invasion of alien
Tamil Nadu [45,42,43]
species and over-exploitation of mangroves
Agriculture, grazing, developmental activities,
Andhra Pradesh [35,36,37,45]
invasion of alien species and aquaculture
Over-exploitation of mangroves, developmental
Gujarat activities, natural calamities and coral reef [14,47]
degradation
Maharashtra Urbanization and pollution [38]
Karnataka Agriculture, tree felling and pollution [35]
Unsustainable mode of aquaculture practices,
Kerala mangrove wood for fuel, industrialization and [14,48]
urbanization, bio-pollution
Agriculture, exploitations for wood and wood
Andaman and products, tourism development-encroachment
Nicobar Islands and natural calamities such as cyclone, storm
[18,39,40,41]
and tsunami
Table 2: Mangrove area and major threats (Compilation study).
Volume 6 • Issue 5 • 1000280
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth
Sci Clim Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280

Page 4 of 7

tree species — Sonneratia apetala, Heritiera fomes, H. Littoralis and

several Avicennia species. They have measured the economic losses
attributed to the 1999 super cyclone relative to the prevailing socio-
economic conditions of the study villages. It evaluated the extent of
damage caused in areas that were under the umbrella of mangrove
forests and areas that were not, in the wake of this super cyclone. In
the mangrove-protected village, variables had either the lowest values
for adverse factors (such as damage to houses), or the highest values for
positive factors (such as crop yield). The loss incurred per household
was greatest (US $153.74) in the village that was not sheltered by
mangroves but had an embankment, followed by the village that was
neither in the shadow of mangroves or the embankment (US $44.02)
and the village that was protected by mangrove forests (US $33.31). The
local people were aware of and appreciated the functions performed
by the mangrove forests in protecting their lives and property from
cyclones and were willing to cooperate with the forest department with
regard to mangrove restoration. The case study revealed the important
role of mangroves in protecting the coastal areas from furious effects of
cyclones and hurricanes.
Figure 2: Differences in the effect of wave reduction (a) with and (b) without
A similar study was carried out by Das and Vincent [20] on mangroves. Source: [51].
mangrove protection against 1991 super cyclone that struck badly
on east coast of Odisha. They have found that villages with wider
buffer against tsunami. The role of mangroves as living barriers was
mangroves between them and the coast experienced significantly
neglected prior to the tsunami event of December 2004, and many
fewer deaths than ones with narrower or no mangroves. Their findings
were robust to the inclusion of a wide range of other variables to the mangrove forests had already been destroyed or damaged. Scientists
statistical model following regression analysis (Table 3). They have also who have studied coastal vegetation have shown that coastal vegetation,
revealed that beneficial effect is mainly due to mangrove vegetation, both mangrove and beach forests, provide protection from “extreme”
not physical characteristics of mangrove habitat. events such as tsunamis [16,17,19] as well as “during less energetic but
more frequent events, such as tropical storms” [57]. The tsunami that
Koteswaram [55] had reported about 346 cyclones in the Bay of occurred in 2004 caused extensive damage in Andaman and Nicobar
Bengal including 133 severe ones, whereas the Arabian Sea had only Islands and coastal districts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
98 cyclones including 55 severe ones between the years 1891 and 1970. and Pondicherry. A Government of India report says that, about
Tropical cyclones and storms are more common in the Bay of Bengal 10,880 people lost their lives and 1,54,000 houses were either destroyed
thus severely affecting the east and south Indian coast as compared or damaged resulting in a loss of about Rs. 994 crores. The tsunami
to the Arabian Sea. However, mangroves reduce the fury of cyclones also affected nearly 75,300 fishing crafts leading to loss of livelihood
and act as protective barrier towards this natural calamity [56]. for thousands of fishing families. However, post-tsunami observations
Observations revealed that the role of Rhizophora and Avicennia spp.
revealed that the damage in the form of lives and other property loss in
are more significant than other species.
villages which were behind mangrove wetlands were less [17]. This is
Tsunami due to the intensity of tsunami being reduced by these natural protective
barriers. It has been seen that several villages of Pichavaram mangrove
Mangrove forest protects the coastal zone against the influences of region of Tamil Nadu which are under direct physical coverage of
ocean as it is located in the edge of sea and land. Mangroves act as the mangroves were protected from fury of the tsunami, though
they are close to sea. The mangrove trees bore the furious impact of
Regressors in model, in addition to village Coefficient estimate:
population 1999 mangrove width
the tsunami waves and the friction created by these trees reduced the
Only 1999 mangrove width -0.631***
speed of the water and hence saving the villages. It clearly indicates
Add to above: 1944 mangrove width -0.515*** that mangrove forests played a crucial role in mitigating the impact
Add to above: Height of storm surge at coast -0.524*** of tsunami. Mangrove sites in East Africa, Thailand, Indonesia, India,
Add to above: Topography (three 0-1 dummy variables: and Sri Lanka areas were badly affected by the tsunami tragedy. Out
-0.519***
low elevation, casuarinas buffer, seawater dike) of the 418 villages hit by the tsunami along the Andaman coast, only
Add to above: Distances to: coast, minor rivers, major
-0.507***
30 were severely devastated and in areas where mangroves have been
rivers, nearest road degraded by the aquaculture or the tourist industries, this percentage
Add to above: Socioeconomic characteristics: literacy was estimated to be 80 to 100%.
rate,-population share in scheduled castes, population -0.505***
shares in 5 occupations The role of mangroves in mitigating tsunami waves has been proved
Add to above: Government administration scientifically and it depends on the water depth, the wave period, the
-0.485***
(0-1 dummy variable for each tahasil)
wave height, the species of mangrove trees, the density of mangrove
Estimates are from zero-inflated negative binomial models of number of deaths forest and diameter of mangrove roots and trunks (Figure 2). For
in villages in Kendrapada District, Orissa, India, during October 1999 cyclone.
Variables were progressively added to those in preceding rows. ***P<0.01 (two- example, a six-year-old mangrove forest of 1.5 km width will reduce
tailed z tests). Source: Das and Vincent (2009) 1 m high waves at the open sea and 0.05 m at the coast [51]. It has
Table 3: Estimates of regression coefficient on 1999 mangrove width: Full sample been observed that Rhizophora species are more suitable for plantation
(409 villages). in seaward as compared to Avicennia species. This is because the stilt

J Earth Sci Clim Change

ISSN:2157-7617 JESCC, an open access journal Volume 6 • Issue 5 • 1000280
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth
Sci Clim Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280
Location Dominant species
West Bengal S. apetala, E. agallocha and A. alba
Andaman Island Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Ceriops forests
Gujarat Avicennia marina
Tamil Nadu R. mucronata and A. marina
Karnataka R. mucronata, A. Officinalis and S. alba
*Note: Above Ground Biomass to Below Ground Biomass (T/R) ratio is in between 2 to 3 [72]. Here we have taken the value of 2.5
Table 4: Biomass carbon stock (t/ha) in mangrove forests of different states in India.
roots of Rhizophora are more tolerant than pneumatophores of the
latter to long period of submergence by flood water [58].
Carbon sequestration in mangroves and climate change
Carbon sequestration is the process through which plant life
removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores it as biomass.
Mangrove forests play a major role in carbon cycle in removing CO2
from the atmosphere and storing it as carbon in plant materials.
They also have important roles in sustaining tropical and subtropical
coastal productivity [22] and sequester large amounts of carbon below
ground [59,60]. Mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests
in the tropics and their carbon sequestration potential is estimated
to be up to 50 times greater than tropical terrestrial forests. A recent
assessment of carbon stored in various mangrove forest domains
found that Indo-Pacific are among the most carbon-rich forests in the
tropics containing, on average, 1023 tC ha-1, most of which is stored
in soils>30 cm deep [61]. Globally, mangroves accumulate up to 25.5
million tonnes of carbon annually [62] and provide more than 10%
of the organic carbon essential to the world’s oceans [63]. Mangroves
account for approximately 3% of carbon sequestered by the world
tropical forests, although they account for <1% of the total area of
tropical forests [64].
Loss of mangroves by clearing, conversion for aquaculture and other
anthropogenic activities lead to changes in soil chemistry resulting in
rapid emission rates of GHGs, especially CO2. Lovelock et al. [65] have
mea­sured CO2 emissions from cleared mangrove peat soils in Belize
on the order` of 2900 tC/km2/year; this value compares well with
CO2 emissions measured from hurricane-damaged and aquaculture-
impacted mangroves (1500–1750 tC/km2/year), rain­forests drained for
agriculture (3200 tC/km2/year) and thawed Arctic tundra (150–430 tC/
km2/year). Globally, mangrove deforestation generates emissions of
0.02–0.12 pico grams of carbon per year, up to 10% of total emissions
from deforestation. Thus, failing to preserve mangrove forests can
cause considerable carbon emissions and lead to climate change
[61,66]. Although the contribution of mangroves to global carbon
sequestration is very low, their contribution to carbon burial in global
coastal ocean is high. Mangrove contributes an average of 14% to the
carbon sequestration in the world ocean though occupying only 0.5%
of the total coastal ocean areas.
Compilation of studies in India revealed that Andaman Island
possessed the highest carbon stocks in biomass (118.3 tC/ha) followed
by Tamil Nadu (62.81 tC/ha), Karnataka (50.40 tC/ha) and Gujarat
(24.57 tC/ha) (Table 4). Covering 2,118 km², the mangroves of the
Indian Sundarbans are thought to absorb over 41.5 million tonnes
State Areas in ha
Andhra Pradesh 1,978
Tamil Nadu 840
Karnataka 1,244.5
Kerala 134.78
Table 5: Detail of areas under restored mangroves in South India.
J Earth Sci Clim Change
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Page 5 of 7
AGB (t/ha) BGB (t/ha)T/R= 2.5 Total biomass (t/ha) C-Stocks (tC/ha) Reference
54.41 21.76 76.17 38.05 [68]
169.0 67.60 236.6 118.3 [69]
- - 49.14 24.57 [47]
88.8 36.82 125.62 62.81 [70]
72.00 28.8 100.80 50.40 [71]
of carbon dioxide daily, valued at around US$79 billion in the
international market [67].Therefore, mangrove restoration could be a
novel mitigation option against climate change.
Achievement in conservation and restoration of mangroves
A total of 4195.28 ha area has been restored under mangroves
in South India from 2002 to 2006 (Table 5). Mangrove conservation
with the involvement of local people is highly significant in India.
The best example is Soonabai Pirojsha Godrej Marine Ecology Centre
(SPGMEC) of Godrej Private Sector. The centre protects the mangrove
forests in Vikhroli, a suburb of Mumbai through research, education
and awareness building, regular monitoring and restoration. Another
example is mangrove conservation by a tea producing group AVT
in Kerala. A Mangrove Interpretation Centre has been established to
disseminate information regarding the importance of mangroves and
their conservation through film and slide shows, seminars, nature
trails, camps, poster exhibition and lectures. Around 20,000 visitors are
educated every year about the importance of mangrove conservation
by using various innovative methods [70-73].
Mangrove sacred groves: Traditional conservation
Traditional conservation of forests through sacred groves in
India has been practised since very long. Sacred groves are the forest
patches protected by a community for their religious beliefs. These
forest patches are restricted for logging and hunting. Such groves are
associated with the sacred deities which may be local Hindu, Islam and
Buddhist origins, and some are based on smaller local religions and folk
religions. There are more than 13,900 sacred groves recorded in India
(C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre of the Government of India).
However, mangrove sacred groves are very rare in India. Among the
inland mangrove communities, Avicennia marina represents the only
sacred grove species of the world’s inland mangroves [74]. The inland
mangrove in Shravan Kavadia, Kachchh is one of the most important
sacred groves of Gujarat for the local inhabitants. Fire, harvesting,
logging or collection of fire wood have been totally prohibited and
considered religiously inauspicious by the local inhabitants for
sustainable development of the area. Similarly, Kagekanu forest
patch which is dominated by species such as Rhizophora mucronata,
Avicennia officinalis and Kandelia candel off the coast of Karwar in
Karnataka is one of the examples of traditional conservation through
sacred groves. The reigning deity is Shiva. There is a strict regulation
in exploitation of the patch except for temple purposes and only dry
woods are removed and the patch is protected by the local villagers. The
temple committee manages the regulation of this forest patch.
Conclusions
The present review not only provides an overview of mangroves
in India but also emphasizes the importance of services both
qualitatively and quantitatively. Review of case studies, comparing the
loss of damage in presence of mangroves and absence of mangroves
indicates importance of mangroves in coastal and marine ecosystems.
Volume 6 • Issue 5 • 1000280
Citation: Sahu SC, Suresh HS, Murthy IK, Ravindranath NH (2015) Mangrove Area Assessment in India: Implications of Loss of Mangroves. J Earth
Sci Clim Change 6: 280. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000280
Assessment of mangrove area since 1987 to 2013 reveals that mean
annual change during the period is 24.25 ± 82.57 km2. Most of the
states are experiencing an increase in area except Andhra Pradesh
(-5.95 ± 15.70 km2) and Andaman and Nicobar (-3.41 ± 52.32 km2).
Predicted mangrove loss will reduce biodiversity, eliminate fish nursery
habitat, adversely affecting adjacent coastal habitats and eliminate
a major resource for human communities that traditionally rely on
mangroves for numerous products and services. Effective governance,
adaptation and mitigation options for climate change, better planning
for rehabilitation of degraded mangroves and creation of awareness to
local communities are need of the hour to conserve, protect and restore
the valuable mangrove wetland ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
The first author would like to thanks SERB, Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India for funding the project “Carbon sequestration in
mangroves of Odisha” (Project file No- SB/FT/LS-122/2012) in Fast Track Young
Scientist Scheme. The authors would also like to thank Centre for Sustainable
Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, where the project is underway.
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