Introduction.

Management practice is as old as human civilization, when people started living together in
groups, for every human group requires management and the history of human beings is full of
organizational activities. Even a smallest human group in our society i.e. family also needs
management. The head of the family acts as top management and the housewife acts as a
home manager. She plans about the work to be done, how the work has to be done, who is to
do the work and whether the work is done properly or not. She performs all the four functions
of management i.e. planning the budget and day to day activities, organizing the things and
activities of different people, directing the servants and different members of the family and
controlling activities of different members of the family. Family is a very informal type of human
group. Even if this informal human group is not managed properly it will lead to great fuse and
confusion. So, just imagine about large and complex institutions emerging these days.

During the last five decades, management as a discipline has attracted the attention of
academicians and practitioners to a very great extent. The basic reason behind this
phenomenon is the growing importance of management in day to day life of people. Today, the
society has large and complex institutions with many people working together. The relationship
between managers and managed has changed as compared to the older master servant
relationship making it more complex. People have greater expectations from their jobs. In order
to make all these things function properly, people have been trying to evolve some method and
techniques. Such attempts have given birth to management as a separate discipline. It has
grown over the period of time making itself one of the most respected disciplines. Today, the
study of management has become an important fact of human life.

Definition of Media Management

Although management as a discipline is more than 80 years old, there is no common agreement
among its experts and practitioners about its precise definition. Many management experts
have tried to define management. But, no definition of management has been universally
accepted. These are some of leading definitions:
Henry Fayol, "To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to compound, to co-ordinate and
to control."

Harold Koontz says, "Management is the art of getting things done through and within formally
organized group."

William Spriegal, "Management is that function of an enterprise which concerns itself with
direction and control of the various activities to attain business objectives. Management is
essentially an executive function; it deals with the active direction of the human effort."
James Lundy, "Management is principally a task of planning, coordinating, motivating and
controlling the efforts of other towards a specific objective. It involves the combining of the
traditional factors of production land, labour, capital in an optimum manner, paying due
attention, of course, to the particular goals of the organization."

J.N. Schulze, "Management is the force which leads guides and directs an organization in the
accomplishment of a pre-determined object."
Mary Parker Follett defines management as the "art of getting things done
through people".
To conclude, we can say that various definitions of management do not run contrary to one
another. Management is the sum-total of all those activities that (i) determine objectives, plans,
policies and programmes; (ii) secure men, material, machinery cheaply (iii) put all these
resources into operations through sound organization (iv) direct and motivate the men at work,
(v) supervises and control their performance and (iv) provide maximum prosperity and
happiness for both employer and employees and public at large.
Media Management Defined

A uniform definition of the term media management does not yet exist, and "the field of
media management in its present form is neither clearly defined nor cohesive."
Notwithstanding this fact, among existing definitions there is a shared base concerning
the business administrative character of media management and the functional
understanding of management.

Media management is seen as a business administration discipline that identifies and describes
strategic and operational phenomena and problems in the leadership of
media enterprises. Media management contains the functions strategic management,
procurement management, production management, organizational management and
marketing of media enterprises.

Media Management consists of (1) the ability to supervise and motivate employees and
(2) the ability to operate facilities and resources in a cost-effective (profitable) manner. The
core task of media management is to build a bridge between the general theoretical disciplines
of management and the specifities of the media industry.

The term media in this connection is restricted to one-to-many-communication with one sender
and a large number of consumers. More precisely, the focus is on newspapers, magazines,
books, music, television, films, internet and games.

Characteristics of Media Management

In order to understand management in media enterprises it is crucial to build a larger

picture of the media marketplace. The characteristics of media markets differ from
markets of other economic sectors in several ways.

One characteristic of media markets is the multidimensional competition. Media

enterprises operate in three different markets. They sell their services in form of content
like information and entertainment, as well as in form of advertising space. These
services are offered for different business markets. The content is offered to the
consumer markets which differ depending of the type of media and the way it is used by
consumers. The advertising spaces are traded on advertisement markets.

The third markets are procurement markets. They are needed as media enterprises
generally do not produce all their offered content themselves but buy service packages
of both, information and entertainment, from procurement markets. For example,
authors and artists contracts or license and copyright deals can be acquired. But
procurement markets can turn to business markets if, for example, complete rights to an
event are purchased and then resold by a media enterprise in the form of secondary
utilization rights.

Media enterprises operate in specific geographic markets. Some firms operate in a national
market while other companies, for example, local radio stations operate in a regional area. So
the marketplace of a media enterprise consists of the product media markets (consumer
market,
advertisement market and procurement market) and the geography.

Importance of Media Management

The right public connections is essential if you are into different kinds of marketing and
advertising programs that are developed towards improving the image of your business.
As it is, press release is entirely about building the right relationship to promote or
advance the reputation of the company, its management as well as employees.

In addition to this, you require the best insider marketing in order to communicate your
message to obtain supporters, advocates and allies in the institution and the entire
community. By means of the right press exposure, you can even seek the services of
people to help you in boosting the image of your company and in improving your
organization’s image in the unique internet.

However, if you will work with several funding organizations, you will know that you can
actually obtain the result that you have always wanted. True enough, it is not that easy
for anyone to build a company name especially in these modern times when several
organizations are currently improving their own reputation so as to convince the group
that they have the most popular and top quality offers.

True enough, the best press exposure can also help in the growth of any company and
getting it connected to the right establishments as well as economical aid from various
departments. The fact remains that press release is not simple advertising or marketing;
you also have to include exposing the company to various special events, community
relations, social networking, blogging, internal relations, and other important works that
are geared towards achieving the best media exposure.

Hence, what is the most excellent way for you to be sure that you are going to get the
best possible result?

Public or media connections is very essential especially for a new company; this is applicable to
an organization’s connection with several press websites and even professionals in the online
press release world.

The same as any other type of media consulting, the concept performs through
developing connection so as to link the organization’s objective, goals, ideas and other
newsworthy actions. Notwithstanding the fact that most organizations want to keep their
primary focus on creating more highly effective relationships with the group, it’s simply
essential for any organization to make sure that it has a powerful connection with the
press in order to obtain the best results.

True enough, there are times when information launch is seen or considered as a
device that is used for boosting certain information experiences, but if you truly evaluate
its significance, you will see that it will certainly increase the image of the organization
and persuade many people to use the products which are being marketed

External forces in management.

Media Managers must recognize and respond to all factors that affect their organizations. This
lesson describes how the internal and external environments of an organization drive change
within the company. Navigating in today's chaotic business environments is much like trying to
steer a tiny boat back to shore while caught in the center of a hurricane .

There are many forces at work that a person will need to respond to in order to make it
safely back to port. Just like this tiny ship, today's organizations and their media
managers are faced with a significant amount of factors that require an immediate
response, often in the form of organizational change. The forces that drive this change
in business are known as the internal and external environments.

An organization refers to events, factors, people, systems, structures and conditions

inside the organization that are generally under the control of the company. The
structure of the organization also influences the business decisions. The organizational
structure like the composition of board of directors influences the decisions of business
as they are internal factors. The structure and style of the organization may delay a decision
making or some other help in making quick decisions.

Those factors that occur outside of the company that cause change inside organizations and
are, for the most part, beyond the control of the company. Customers, competition ,the
economy, technology, political and social conditions and resources are common external
factors that influence the organization.

Sociological: Includes; the demographic status and trends, work ethics and personal
values, and general cultures. This factors influences differently on how management
accomplishes its jobs. The social environment presented by each country is unique and
as the business becomes international, management s ought to understand these
unique environments. This understanding assists the management to plan for the future
and design products for particular groups of people.

Economic and Political: Includes; all the essential factor such as competitors, suppliers
and customers in an open model of business the management must study the economy and
political environment for a continual and dynamic relationship. In this system the
management assumes that the business or company has both input and output. By
studying the companies’ suppliers’, competitors and customers as well as current
political factors, the management are capable of making effective managerial and
decisions. The products designed under this should possess place, form and time utility
to succeed in the mark place.

Technology: Technology has the most dramatic effect on business as changes in this
external environment are often quickly felt by firm. As the market can change overnight
the management should be in a position to make decisions that will put the company in
a flexible poison to adapt with the technological changes.

Management function/Process of Management

There is enough disagreement among management writers on the classification of managerial

functions. Newman and Summer recognize only four functions, namely, organizing, planning,
leading and controlling.

Henri Fayol identifies five functions of management, viz. planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating and controlling. Luther Gulickstates seven such functions under the catch word
"POSDCORB' which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting
and budgeting. Warren Haynes and Joseph Massie classify management functions into decision-
making, organizing, staffing, planning, controlling, communicating and directing. Koontz and
O'Donnell divide these functions into planning organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. For
our purpose, we shall designate the following six as the functions of a manager: planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling.

Planning: Planning is the most fundamental and the most pervasive of all management
functions. If people working in groups have to perform effectively, they should know in advance
what is to be done, what activities they have to perform in order to do what is to be done, and
when it is to be done. Planning is concerned with 'what',' how, and 'when' of performance. It is
deciding in the present about the future objectives and the courses of action for their
achievement. It thus involves:

a) determination of long and short-range objectives;

 b) development of strategies and courses of actions to be followed for the achievement of
these objectives; and
c) formulation of policies, procedures, and rules, etc., for the implementation of strategies,
and plans.

The organizational objectives are set by top management in the context of its basic purpose
and mission, environmental factors, business forecasts, and available and potential resources.
These objectives are both long-range as well as short-range. They are divided into divisional,
departmental, sectional and individual objectives or goals. This is followed by the development
of strategies and courses of action to be followed at various levels of management and in
various segments of the organization. Policies, procedures and rules provide the framework of
decision making, and the method and order for the making and implementation of these
decisions.

Every manager performs all these planning functions, or contributes to their performance. In
some organizations, particularly those which are traditionally managed and the small ones,
planning are often not done deliberately and systematically but it is still done. The plans may be
in the minds of their managers rather than explicitly andprecisely spelt out: they may be fuzzy
rather than clear but they arealways there. Planning is thus the most basic function of
management. It is performed in all kinds of organizations by all managers at all levels of
hierarchy.

Organizing : Organizing involves identification of activities required for the achievement of

enterprise objectives and implementation of plans; grouping of activities into jobs; assignment
of these jobs and activities to departments and individuals; delegation of responsibility and
authority for performance, and provision for vertical and horizontal coordination of activities.
Every manager has to decide what activities have to be undertaken in his department or section
for the achievement of the goals entrusted to him. Having identified the activities, he has to
group identical or similar activities in order to make jobs, assign these jobs or groups of
activities to his subordinates, delegate authority to them so as to enable them to make
decisions and initiate action for undertaking these activities, and provide for coordination
between himself and his subordinates, and among his subordinates. Organizing thus involves
the following sub-functions :

a) Identification of activities required for the achievement of

objectives and implementation of plans.
b) Grouping the activities so as to create self-contained jobs.
c) Assignment of jobs to employees.
d) Delegation of authority so as to enable them to perform their
jobs and to command the resources needed for their performance.
e) Establishment of a network of coordinating relationships.

Organizing process results in a structure of the organization. It comprises organizational

positions, accompanying tasks and responsibilities, and a network of roles and authority-
responsibility relationships.

Organizing is thus the basic process of combining and integrating human, physical and financial
resources in productive interrelationships for the achievement of enterprise objectives. It aims
at combining employees and interrelated tasks in an orderly manner so that organizational
work is performed in a coordinated manner, and all efforts and activities pull together in the
direction of goals.

The following departments are found most frequently in commercial broadcast stations.

Sales Department

The sale of time to advertisers is the principal source of revenue for commercial radio and
television stations and is the responsibility of a sales department, headed by a sales manager.
Many stations subdivide the department into national sales and local/regional sales. Sales to
national advertisers are entrusted to the national sales manager and the station’s sales
representative company, or station rep. Local and regional sales are the responsibility of the
station’s salespersons, typically called account executives.

Program Department
Under the direction of a program manager or director, the program department plans, selects,
schedules, and monitors programs. The department also provides relevant content for the
station’s Web site.

Promotion and Marketing Department

This function involves both program and sales promotion. The former seeks to attract and
maintain audiences, while the latter is aimed at attracting advertisers. Both functions may be
the responsibility of a promotion and marketing department. Some stations assign program
promotion to the program department and sales promotion to the sales department.

News Department

In many stations, the information function is kept separate from the entertainment function
and is supervised by a news director. The department is responsible for regularly scheduled
newscasts, news and sports specials, documentary and public affairs programs, and for Web
site news content.

Production Department

In radio, this department is headed by a production director or creative director and is charged
with writing and producing commercials. Commercial production is a responsibility of its
television counterpart. In many TV stations, the department also includes technical support
personnel for newscast production and for master control operations. A production manager
supervises the department’s activities.

Engineering Department

A chief engineer or technical manager heads this department. It selects, operates, and
maintains studio, control room, and transmitting equipment, and often oversees the station’s
computers. Engineering staff are also responsible for technical monitoring in accordance with
the requirements of the FCC. In some stations, studio production personnel are located in the
department.
Business Department

The business department carries out a variety of tasks necessary to the functioning of the
station as a business. They include secretarial, billing, bookkeeping, payroll and, in many
stations, personnel responsibilities.

Broadcast stations engage in other functions, which may be assigned to separate departments
or sub departments, or may be included in the duties of departments already identified. The
following additional functions are among the most common:

Traffic- Traffic often is carried out by a sub department of the sales department. It is called the
traffic department and is headed by a traffic manager. The function includes the daily
scheduling on a program log of all content to be aired by the station, the compilation of an
availabilities sheet showing times available for purchase by advertisers, and the monitoring of
all advertising content to ensure compliance with commercial contracts.

Continuity -Continuity is concerned chiefly with the writing of commercial copy and, in many
stations, constitutes a sub department within the sales department. The continuity director
supervises its work and reports to the sales manager. In stations where the writing of program
material and public service announcements is included, the continuity director may answer to
the heads of both the sales and program departments.

The general manager’s success in organizing rests heavily on the selection of employees. Of
particular importance is the selection of department heads, to whom the GM delegates
responsibility for the conduct and accomplishments of the various departments. The GM also
must strive to ensure that the organizational structure enables the station to meet its
objectives, and that problems arising from over- lapping or nonexistent responsibility are
corrected. The structure is influenced by many factors. They include the number of employees,
the size of the market, and the preferences of the GM. As a result, there is no “typical”
organization.The figure below contains an example of the structure of a medium- market
television/radio station.

General Manager
Network Administrator

Assistant to General Manager

News Director Marketing Director

Editor Art Director

Chief Engineer

Promotions Assistant

Custodian

Business Manager

Accounting Clerk

Accounting Assistant

Receptionist

Assistant

Anchors & Meteorologist

News Director

Community Affairs Director

General Sales Manager National Sales Assistant

Sales Promotion Coordinator

Local Sales Manager

Traffic Manager

Traffic Clerk Local Sales Assistant

Production Manager

Senior Director

Account Executives

Producer/ Director

Producer/ Editor

Production Assistant

Directors

Production Assistants

Assignment Manager

Reporters

Senior Producer

Producers

Chief Photographer

Graphics Director

Photographers Graphics Assistants

Assistant Engineer

Maintenance Engineers

Switchers/ Engineers

Staffing: Staffing is a continuous and vital function of management. After the objectives have
been determined, strategies, policies, programmes, procedures and rules formulated for their
achievement, activities for the implementation of strategies, policies, programmes, etc.
identified and grouped into jobs, the next logical step in the management process is to procure
suitable personnel for manning the jobs. Since the efficiency and effectiveness of an
organization significantly depends on the quality of its personnel and since it is one of the
primary functions of management to achieve qualified and trained people to fill various
positions, staffing has been recognized as a distinct function of management. It comprises
several sub functions:

a) Manpower planning involving determination of the number

and the kind of personnel required.
b) Recruitment for attracting adequate number of potential
employees to seek jobs in the enterprise.
c) Selection of the most suitable persons for the jobs under
consideration.
d) Placement, induction and orientation.
e) Transfers, promotions, termination and layoff.
f) Training and development of employees

As the importance of human factor in organizational effectiveness is being increasingly

recognized, staffing is gaining acceptance as a distinct function of management. It need hardly
any emphasize that no organization can ever be better than its people, and managers must
perform the staffing function with as much concern as any other function.

Directing: Directing is the function of leading the employees to perform efficiently, and
contribute their optimum to the achievement of organizational objectives. Jobs assigned to
subordinates have to be explained and clarified, they have to be provided guidance in job
performance and they are to be motivated to contribute their optimum performance with zeal
and enthusiasm. The function of directing thus involves the following sub-functions:

a) Communication
b) Motivation
c) Leadership

Coordination: Coordinating is the function of establishing such relationships among various

parts of the organization that they all together pull in the direction of organizational objectives.
It is thus the process of tying together all the organizational decisions, operations, activities and
efforts so as to achieve unity of action for the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
Coordination, as a management function, involves the following sub-functions:
 a) Clear definition of authority-responsibility relationships
b) Unity of direction
c) Unity of command
d) Effective communication
e) Effective leadership

Controlling: Controlling is the function of ensuring that the divisional, departmental,

sectional and individual performances are consistent with the predetermined objectives and
goals. Deviations from objectives and plans have to be identified and investigated, and
correction action taken. Deviations from plans and objectives provide feedback to
managers, and all other management processes including planning, organizing, staffing,
directing and coordinating are continuously reviewed and modified, where necessary.

Controlling implies that objectives, goals and standards of performance exist and are known
to employees and their superiors. It also implies a flexible and dynamic organization which
will permit changes in objectives, plans, programmes, strategies, policies, organizational
design, staffing policies and practices, leadership style, communication system, etc., for it is
not uncommon that employees failure to achieve predetermined standards is due to
defects or shortcomings in any one or more of the above dimensions of management.

Influencing or Directing

Influencing – guiding the activities of the organization’s members. Over the years, influencing
has been referred to as motivating, directing, or leading. Regardless of the term you use, they
all mean the same as applied to the management process. The ultimate goal for influencing
people is to achieve the organization’s goals. Whether those goals are to increase productivity,
or to make more money, or to save lives, a manager must influence employees to accomplish
the goals and missions of the organization.

The influencing or directing function centers on the stimulation of employees to carry out their
responsibilities with enthusiasm and effectiveness. It involves motivation, communication,
training, and personal influence

Motivation

The major theories of motivation were discussed earlier in this chapter. For the general
manager, motivation is a practical issue, since the success of the station is tied closely to the
degree to which employees are able to satisfy their needs. The greater their satisfaction, the
more likely it is that they will contribute fully to the attainment of the station’s objectives.
Accordingly, the General Manager must be aware of the needs of individual employees and
must create an environment in which they want to be productive. Basic needs include adequate
compensation and fringe benefit programs, safe and healthy working conditions, friendly
colleagues, and competent and fair supervision. For most employees, such needs are met
adequately and do not serve as powerful motivators. Satisfaction of other needs may have a
more significant impact on how employees feel about themselves and the station and on their
efforts to con- tribute to the station’s success. Included in these higher-level needs are factors
such as job title and responsibility, praise and recognition for accomplishments, opportunities
for promotion, and the challenge of the job. Once basic needs are satisfied, therefore, the GM
must respond to those higher-level needs if motivation is to be successful.

Communication

Communication is vital to the effective discharge of the management function. It is the means
by which employees are made aware of the station’s objectives and plans and are encouraged
to play a full and effective part in their attainment. As a result, the general manager must
communicate to employees information they need and want. They need information on what is
expected of them. The job description sets forth general guidelines, but they must have
specifics on their role in carrying out current plans. If they are to shoulder their duties willingly
and effectively, they want to know about matters influencing their economic status and their
authority to carry out responsibilities. This downward flow of communication is important, but
it must be accompanied by management’s willingness to listen to and understand employees.
Accordingly, it is necessary to provide mechanisms for an upward flow of communication from
employees to supervisors, department heads, and the GM. Departmental or staff meetings,
suggestion boxes, and an open- door policy by management permit such a flow. Lateral flow, or
communication among individuals on the same organizational level, also is important in
coordinating the activities of the various departments in pursuit of the station’s plans and
objectives. A method used by many stations to ensure such a flow is the establishment of a
management team that meets on a regular basis. Usually, it comprises the general manager
and all department heads.

Training

Most employees are selected because they possess the background and skills necessary to carry
out specific responsibilities. However, they may have to be trained in the use of new equipment
or the application of new procedures. Occasionally, employees are hired with little experience
and have to be trained on the job. Whenever training is necessary, the general manager must
make certain that it is provided and that it is supervised by competent personnel. One of the
major benefits of training programs is the provision of opportunities for existing employees to
prepare themselves for advancement in the station. As a result, employee morale is
heightened, and the station enjoys the advantage of creating its own pool of qualified
personnel. Some stations encourage employees to advance their knowledge and skills by paying
for their participation in workshops, seminars, and college courses, as well as their attendance
at meetings of state and national broadcasting associations. In all such cases, the general
manager should be sure that the experiences will contribute to the employee’s ability to carry
out responsibilities more effectively, thereby assisting the station in meeting its objectives.

Personal Influence

Stimulating employees to produce their best efforts requires that the general manager and
others in managerial or supervisory positions command respect, loyalty, and cooperation.
Among the factors that con- tribute to such a climate are management competence, fairness in
dealings with employees, willingness to listen to and act on employee observations and
complaints, honesty, integrity, and similar personal characteristics. In effect, personal influence
includes all those behaviors and attitudes that contribute to employees’ perceptions of their
importance in the station’s efforts and achievements and the worthiness of the enterprise of
which they are a part.
Controlling

Controlling – in the context of management, controlling is making things happen as planned.

Controlling is the continuing process of monitoring the progress being made by your workers.
Managers must make sure that the organization is performing as planned and will accomplish
its goals. Controlling involves gathering information and measuring performance. The
performance must be measured against some standard and then managers must be willing and
ready to take corrective action as necessary to get back on track. When thinking about
controlling managers must realize that there are many, many different activities within their
responsibility. A manager not only has employees, but also a physical plant or building,
inventory, and finances to consider. There are many variables involved with controlling. And,
of course controlling is certainly a continuing process.

In today’s world, controlling is a vital part of being an effective manager. Circumstances seem
to change more frequently than ever before. Today’s world is more complex and turbulent and
that impacts on organizations. Good managers will have planned and be ready when changes
occur. However, sometimes circumstances are beyond a manager’s control and the manager
must still be ready to make quick, good decisions.

If a manager has established standards and has measured performance then that manager is
ready to evaluate and act. One area where managers must have strength of conviction is in the
area of taking corrective action. These changing circumstances are going to happen and a
manager must control what must be done. Indecision can ruin an organization. Flexibility and
objectivity are important here. A manager must look at his or her resources objectively and
then realize that the control system must be flexible enough to handle the changes.

Through planning, the station establishes its objectives and plans for accomplishing them. The
control process determines the degree to which objectives and plans are being realized by the
station, departments, and employees. Periodic evaluation of individuals and departments
allows the general manager to compare actual performance to planned performance. If the two
do not coincide, corrective action may be necessary. To be effective, controlling must be based
on measurable performance. The size and composition of the station’s audience can be
measured through ratings. If the audience attracted to the station or to certain programs does
not match projections, the control process permits the recognition of that fact and leads to
discussions about possible solutions. The result may be a change in the plan, such as a revision
downward of expectations, or actions to try to attain the original objectives. Similarly, sales
revenues can be measured. An analysis may reveal that projected revenues were unrealistic
and that an adjustment is necessary. On the other hand, if the projections are realizable,
discussions may lead to a decision to hire additional account executives, make changes in the
rate card, or adjust commission levels. The costs of operation are measurable too.

Importance of Management

1. It helps in Achieving Group Goals - It arranges the factors of production, assembles and
organizes the resources, integrates the resources in effective manner to achieve goals. It
directs group efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals. By defining
objective of organization clearly there would be no wastage of time, money and effort.
Management converts disorganized resources of men, machines, money etc. into useful
enterprise. These resources are coordinated, directed and controlled in such a manner
that enterprise work towards attainment of goals.
2. Optimum Utilization of Resources - Management utilizes all the physical & human
resources productively. This leads to efficacy in management. Management provides
maximum utilization of scarce resources by selecting its best possible alternate use in
industry from out of various uses. It makes use of experts, professional and these
services leads to use of their skills, knowledge, and proper utilization and avoids
wastage. If employees and machines are producing its maximum there is no under
employment of any resources.

3. Reduces Costs - It gets maximum results through minimum input by proper planning
and by using minimum input & getting maximum output. Management uses physical,
 human and financial resources in such a manner which results in best combination. This
helps in cost reduction.
4. Establishes Sound Organization - No overlapping of efforts (smooth and coordinated
functions). To establish sound organizational structure is one of the objective of
management which is in tune with objective of organization and for fulfillment of this, it
establishes effective authority & responsibility relationship i.e. who is accountable to
whom, who can give instructions to whom, who are superiors & who are subordinates.
Management fills up various positions with right persons, having right skills, training and
qualification. All jobs should be cleared to everyone.
5. Establishes Equilibrium - It enables the organization to survive in changing
environment. It keeps in touch with the changing environment. With the change is
external environment, the initial co-ordination of organization must be changed. So it
adapts organization to changing demand of market / changing needs of societies. It is
responsible for growth and survival of organization.
6. Essentials for Prosperity of Society - Efficient management leads to better economical
production which helps in turn to increase the welfare of people. Good management
makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastage of scarce resource. It improves
standard of living. It increases the profit which is beneficial to business and society will
get maximum output at minimum cost by creating employment opportunities which
generate income in hands. Organization comes with new products and researches
beneficial for society.

MEDIA MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES

The Pyramid

For much of the twentieth century, most organizations – particularly big organizations– were
structured on the lines of the classic pyramid. Such a structure defines management as a ‘top-
down’ process: communication and movement within the organisation happen vertically, in
columns. There’s a strong hierarchy and rigid demarcation between functions. Divisions,
departments and units develop their own ‘tribal’ cultures and are fiercely defensive of their
territory. The organisation is dominated by systems, procedures and regulations. Indeed,
anyone
who has worked in such an organisation will recognize the feeling that results sometimes seem
less important than a safe following of the rules: process takes precedence over outcome

Pyramid structures are not without their strengths: they are, for instance, both stable and
predictable. But they are also by nature conservative and achieving change within them can be
desperately slow. They are like the giant aircraft-carrier which can take miles to alter course,
when what the modern media world requires is a fleet of fast, highly maneuverable patrol-
boats – preferably commanded by captains with a touch of the buccaneer about them. That’s
why many organisations, in many industries, have abandoned the pyramid.

Matrix Management

There’s a third approach to management which is particularly relevant to the media industries
and which many broadcasters– particularly publisher-broadcasters – are adopting. Matrix
management doesn’t depend on big establishments of staff and facilities; indeed, publisher-
broadcasters have no production capacity of their own at all. Rather, it makes every product a
one-off task, bringing together people and resources for its realization, purely on a project
basis. So the starting-point is a task – in our case the processes involved in making a
programme.

What the matrix manager does is to put together the team of people and there sources to
deliver the project and to ‘overlay’ them on the task so the actual management activity takes
place where the lines intersect. Control is exercised through the control of resources It’s
immediately clear that such a system is highly flexible and potentially economical, because the
overheads associated with big in-house resource pools are reduced. It’s equally clear that it’s
challenging to manage , as the ground is constantly shifting and the target moving. So the
matrix manager is all the time dealing in relationships, influences and expertise. It’s a dynamic
process– not at all like being an administrator in a pyramid – and requires a major culture-shift
for managers with a more traditional ‘civil service’ proceduralist mentality. That won’t be
achieved without serious professional training
Yet, if we think about it, matrix management is exactly how feature films are made. The
producer raises the money, mounts the production and brings together the realization team:
director, cast, director of photography, production designer, technicians and so on. They all
work together to make the film and then, when they’ve finished, they all go off to do something
else with a different team. The organisation lasts only for the duration of the project

Management of Creativity

Management of media organisations is something of a special case because it involves the

management of creativity. The making of programmes isn’t like running a mass-production
factory. If you’re a company which makes widgets, you need to design the best widget you can
and then set up a system which will reproduce it consistently, efficiently and cost-effectively,
time and time again, in very large numbers.

Producing for television and radio isn’t like that because every product is, in effect, a one-off
prototype. As one scholar once put it, what we’re asking our staff to do is to innovate,
continuously and successfully, often to a demanding deadline. That makes working in the media
stressful, not least because there’s such a degree of personal exposure: if a programme fails,
the on-screen credits spell out exactly who’s responsible for it.

Managing this kind of activity can therefore be difficult; so can managing the kind of people
who are attracted to this kind of work. It is observed that some of them may well be cleverer
than those who manage them – and may also be well aware of the fact. When they’re not, they
may behave aggressively to conceal their insecurity. They may be resistant to organizational
discipline (which is why so many of them prefer to work as freelances rather than staffers) and
are likely to defend their brain-children ferociously.

Encouraging such people is easy; controlling them can be problematical. So how can we keep
the operation on the road without inhibiting the creativity which is essential to success?

As we’ve seen, much depends on management style and mutual respect. But it’s not
unreasonable to define quite clearly, for instance, the limits of time and effort within which the
development stage of a programme must work. (In fact, deadlines can often be a spur to
creativity.) When it comes to the production stage, monitoring is even more vital. Programme-
making is not a mechanical, linear process (think widgets again) but is subject to a degree of
volatility which is inevitable and may well be productive. Nevertheless, there has to be a price-
limit to continuous change and revision.

Management Levels

It is often assumed that management is concentrated at the top of an organization. In reality,

anyone who directs the efforts of others in the attainment of goals is a manager. In most
companies, including broadcast stations, managers are found at three levels:

Lower: Managers at this level closely supervise the routine work of employees under their
charge and are accountable to the next level of management. A radio station local sales
manager who reports to the general sales manager is an example. So is a television control
room supervisor who answers to the production manager.

The lower level management performs following activities:-

a. Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers.

b. They guide and instruct workers for day to day activities.
c. They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production.
d. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation in the
organization.
e. They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc to
the higher level and higher level goals and objectives to the workers.
f. They help to solve the grievances of the workers.
g. They supervise & guide the sub-ordinates.
h. They are responsible for providing training to the workers.
i. They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools etc for getting the things done.
j. They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers.
k. They ensure discipline in the enterprise.
 l. They motivate workers.
m. They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct contact with the
workers.

Middle: Managers who are responsible for carrying out particular activities in furtherance of the
overall goals of the company are in this category. In broad- cast stations, the heads of the sales,
program, news, promotion and marketing, production, engineering, and business departments
are middle managers.

The middle level management emphasizes more on following tasks:-

1. Middle level management gives recommendations (advice) to the top level

management.
2. It executes (implements) the policies and plans which are made by the top level
management.
3. It co-ordinate the activities of all the departments.
4. They also have to communicate with the top level Management and the lower level
management.
5. They spend more time in coordinating and communicating.
6. They prepare short-term plans of their departments which are generally made for 1 to 5
years.
7. The middle Level Management has limited authority and responsibility. They are
intermediary between top and lower management. They are directly responsible to the
chief executive officer and board of directors.
8. Require more managerial and technical skills and less conceptual skills.

Top: Managers who coordinate the company’s activities and provide the overall direction for
the accomplishment of its goals operate at this level. The general manager of a broadcast
station is a top manager. Even though the contents of the remainder of this chapter apply in
varying degrees to all three levels, the focus will be on the top level, that occupied by the
general manager.
The main role of the top level management is summarized as follows:-

1. The top level management determines the objectives, policies and plans of the
organization.
2. They mobilizes (assemble and bring together) available resources.
3. The top level management does mostly the work of thinking, planning and deciding.
Therefore, they are also called as the Administrators and the Brain of the organization.
4. They spend more time in planning and organizing.
5. They prepare long-term plans of the organization which are generally made for 5 to 20
years.
6. The top level management has maximum authority and responsibility. They are the top
or final authority in the organization. They are directly responsible to the Shareholders,
Government and the General Public. The success or failure of the organization largely
depends on their efficiency and decision making.
7. They require more conceptual skills and less technical Skills.
Styles of Management

Management style is one of the critical antecedents to organizational effectiveness.

Management style is simply construed as a way to manage an organization. It is the general
approach of a manager in dealing with people at work and exercising of authority over
subordinates in an effort to reach organizational goals. Organizational effectiveness is largely
determined by the manner of work co-ordination, level of workers commitment to the entity
and the extent to which workers co-operate with one another, management and the
community.

Style of leadership is a construct that can have different definitions based on the theoretical
concepts represented. We can say that this is a special way of conducting leadership. According
to some interpretations, leadership style encompasses a wider range of terms, as some authors
claim that “a leadership style is a combination of traits, skills and behaviors that leaders use
while they interact with subordinates". We can also say that the interpretation of leadership in
the context of leadership styles implies that "this is leadership focused exclusively on what
leaders do and how they behave”. If the central topic chosen for explaining leadership is the
leader’s behavior, his impact on employees and his forms of action, an adequate definition
would be that ''the leadership style is the behavior of a leader in a group that is characteristic
for him and is manifested not only in the same but also in different situations' .According to
Lewin (Lewin, Lippit & White, 1939), leadership style is the way in which leaders influence and
stimulate the activities of the group members.

Few leaders understand the full significance of how influential their leadership style is on the
performance and satisfaction of their employees. Leaders control both interpersonal and
material rewards and punishments that often shape employee behavior and influence an
employee’s performance, motivation, and attitude. They can affect an employee’s self-image
and resulting potential in either a positive or negative way by being supportive, fair, and
encouraging, or unsupportive, inconsistent, and critical. In addition, they can even affect an
employee’s health and energy level by creating a stimulating work climate or one filled with
tension and fear. The influence of a leader’s style reaches greater proportions as the effects on
individuals begin to have a cumulative effect on group performance. There are no doubt
variables other than a leader’s style that affect employee performance and satisfaction.
Certainly, job challenge and interest, organizational working conditions and work climate,
opportunities for growth and advancement, and peer relations among other factors should be
considered. However, the potential consequences of a leader’s style should be understood and
not be underestimated. Key to successful management is understanding the organization and
the balance between strategy and operations and power that managers wield. Scholars have
identified five categories of power:

Referent Power -The desire for a feeling of oneness and acceptance in a valued relationship.

Referent power is based upon identification with, attraction to, or respect for the leader. Group
members gain a sense of intrinsic personal satisfaction from identification with a referent
leader. This kind of power relationship is dependent upon the inclination to work harder for
someone who is liked or admired. To gain and maintain a leader’s approval and acceptance, a
follower is likely to do what the leader asks, develop a similar attitude, and even imitate the
leader’s behavior.
Leaders who are charming and trustworthy tend to possess and use referent power more often
than those less personable. By showing genuine concern and demonstrating a general level of
respect for others, referent power tends to increase early in the relationship between leader
and follower. However, if the charisma of a leader is never connected to genuine integrity and
strength of character, referent power is easily lost.

In organizations, referent power is most easily seen in the charismatic leader who excels in
making others feel comfortable in his or her presence. Staff typically express their excitement
about work in terms of their attraction to their leader’s personal characteristics and charisma.
The reason they commit to their work is because of the leader’s likeability, and they base their
self-esteem and sense of accomplishment on their leader’s approval. Charismatic leaders who
lack the integrity and depth of character to match their charm and charisma often leave
organizations within a few years, and frequently leave a path of destruction in their wake. Their
insecurities eventually manifest themselves in the form of erratic decision-making and
defensiveness that can alienate the leader from their staff and their colleagues. If left
unchecked or used as an exclusive source of influence, referent power’s benefits quickly
decrease and destructively give way to its liabilities.

Expert power-The extent of specialized skills or knowledge followers attribute to a leader.

Expert power derives from group members’ assumptions that the leader possesses superior
skills, knowledge, and abilities. This expertise enables leaders to perform tasks and provides
them with a better understanding of the world around them. However, expertise is only a
source of power if others are dependent upon the leader for the skill, knowledge or ability the
leader possesses. The more important a problem is to the follower, and the more the leader is
perceived to be an expert in that area, the greater power the expert leader will have.

Like referent power, expert power may come more easily in the short term yet prove
troublesome in the long term. Initial perceived expertise is typically strong, but a leader must
balance expertise with wisdom and not to exaggerate the extent of his or her expertise. As time
progresses, followers learn more and a leader’s expertise is questioned and challenged -the
power of expertise can diminish.

While expertise can be maintained through continual formal study and training, research
suggests that a convincing way to demonstrate expertise is by solving problems important to
followers and providing sound advice on a consistent basis. When a leader has a lot of expert
power and is trusted by followers as a reliable resource for wisdom and information, the leader
can have tremendous influence over the long-term.

Leaders are generally granted expert power in the fields in which they have reputable
experience and education. While the ability to understand and effectively communicate
educational content might be an obvious example, the ability to communicate experience and
wisdom about interpersonal problem solving and life skills also serve as areas in which a leader
may influence due to expertise.

Legitimate power -The authority granted to someone stemming from a position in a group or
organization.

Legitimate power stems from an authority’s legitimate right to require and demand
compliance. Legitimate power stems from a leader’s formal authority over activities. This type
of power is dependent upon the official position held by the person exercising it. Legitimate
power may be derived from prevailing cultural values that assign legitimate power to some
individuals (i.e., respect for one’s elders), accepted social structure that grant legitimate power
to some people (i.e., British royalty), or through one’s position in a hierarchy.

While referent and expert power are tied to the individual, legitimate power is tied to position.
In this context, the amount of legitimate power a leader might have is likely related to one’s
scope of authority. For example, managers typically have more authority than staff, and a staff
member typically has more authority in relation to relation to community members. Yet it is not
uncommon for a leader to make requests of someone who may technically fall outside their
scope of authority, and for that person to willingly comply.

A leader’s scope of authority is usually defined in the work environment by documents such as
organizational charts, contracts, and job descriptions. Ambiguity about the scope of a leader’s
authority is, however, common. If managers, staff members, and the community define the
boundaries of legitimate power differently, then conflict is likely to develop. This conflict can
interfere with the accomplishment of an organizational or educational purpose.

Legitimate power can easily lead to tension because of its close association with position and
not the person. In addition, the power of the position itself may grant power to uncooperative
and difficult people. However, over time legitimate power becomes less useful if it is not
practiced in a manner consistent with agreed upon norms of behavior and in an environment
where communication is clear. While the position of leader holds respect and authority, the
personal nature of the position frequently does not allow a leader to wield a great deal of
legitimate power. Leaders generally have the authority to ask much their staffs, but must do so
in a way perceived to be fair and respectful, which often involves the use of referent and expert
power. So, while the position itself grants the leader some legitimate power, exercising
legitimate power exclusively is not likely to be useful over time.

Reward power-The ability to reward

Reward power is based on the belief that a leader controls important resources and rewards
that the follower wants. Reward power not only depends on a leader’s actual control over
rewards, but also on the follower’s perceived value of those rewards. Reward power has been
shown to be most effective when followers see a direct connection between performance and
reward. Leaders most commonly use reward power with a promise to give staff something in
exchange for carrying out an assigned task, e.g. a grade, a special privilege, a form of
recognition, etc. Precisely how this is carried out can significantly affect the outcome.

When leaders offer the right rewards, that is -rewards that are valued, fair, and in line with
what they can deliver -reward power is effective. In addition, being true to one’s word and
using rewards in a non-manipulative fashion is also essential. The over use of reward power by
a leader may drive followers to view the relationship in purely transactional terms (e.g. “I will
do X because you will give me Y.”) Rather than using rewards in an impersonal way, the most
effective way leaders can use rewards is to recognize accomplishments within the context of
referent power.
Coercive power-The ability to punish if expectations are not met.

Coercive power is the capacity to dispense punishments to those who do not comply with
requests or demands. People exercise coercive power through reliance upon physical strength,
verbal faculty, or the ability to grant or withhold emotional support or tangible resources from
others. Coercive power provides a leader with the means to physically harm, bully, humiliate, or
deny love, affection or resources to others. Examples of coercive power in the workplace
include the ability (implied or real) to fire, demote or transfer to undesirable positions. Coercive
power can be useful for deterring behavior detrimental and at times when compliance is
absolutely
necessary, such as in a crisis situation. However, in most situations coercive power should be
used predominantly as a last resort as it has significant negative side effects. Coercive methods
have been linked to a number of dysfunctional group processes, including dislike, anger,
resentment, rejection, conflict, and decreases in motivation, and self-esteem

Styles of Management

Autocratic style.

Authoritarian leaders employ coercive tactics to enforce rules, use Machiavellian cunning to
manipulate people and decision making, and reward loyalty over merit. Control is the primary
management strategy employed by authoritarian leaders. This form of leadership emphasizes
objectivity in the workplace, tends to be impervious to human problems, is insensitive to race
and gender, and displays little emotion or affection toward employees. Douglas McGregor's
Theory X becomes the authoritarian's motif, believing that people must be forced to work,
closely supervised, and rewarded or punished based on individual productivity. They believe in
a top-down, line-and-staff organizational chart with clear levels of authority and reporting
processes. Fred Fiedler found that authoritarian leaders can be viewed as successful in certain
task situations—allowing for the extremes of consideration and ruthlessness, depending on the
situation.
An Autocratic leader places a low emphasis on people and a high emphasis on performance.
Assumes that people are lazy, irresponsible, and untrustworthy and that planning, organizing,
controlling, and decision making should be accomplished by the leader with minimal
involvement of employee. Relies on authority, control, power, manipulation and hard work to
get the job done.

The autocratic style of leadership is characterized by the following features:

• Subordinates do not participate in the decision-making process,

• All decisions are made without the agreement of the subordinates,

• Managers rule “with a heavy hand”,

• Managers are uncompromising,

• They refuse to explain they behavior,

• Managers change subordinates’ obligations, with a previous agreement,

• Managers meticulously set the tasks and methods and do not leave the flexible space for the
employees’ decisions and initiative.

Democratic style

Participative leaders strive to move away from the authoritarian boss-led mode of leadership to
the human side of the enterprise espoused in the 1930s by Mary Parker Follett, Elton Mayo,
Frederick Roethlisberger, and others. They found that productivity and human relationships
were closely linked, and opened inquiry into informal structures and social systems. Follett's
vision guided her to challenge the grip of scientific management on early twentieth-century
industry. She believed managers should treat workers with dignity and change the workplace
from strict authoritarian control over workers to a more collegial team concept. Chester I.
Barnard in1938 viewed successful organizations as humans working together to reach goals
rather than impersonal structures to force productivity.

These and other pioneers espousing participative leadership viewed organizations as social
systems in which people's social needs were the most important factors in motivating workers
to higher productivity. Later, Douglas McGregor, Rosabeth Kanter, Tom Sergiovanni, Terry Deal,
and many others stressed shared decision making and group participation in building
productive organizations centered on people and their needs. These writers greatly influenced
the creation of site-based decision making in public education. Without a site based approach
to problem solving, organizations become tightly controlled by rules and policies that are not
conducive to effective teamwork. When the communication pattern is top to bottom and ruled
by the chain of command, teams become guided missiles for management. These missiles are
told when to fire, how to fly, and where to strike. If the team missiles hit the wrong target,
management blames the teams for the failures.

Participative leadership, however, leads to delegation and communication about goals,

processes of goal accomplishment, respect for diversity in team members, and a collective
effort to seek quality in each task and final product. This collaborative process brings a family
atmosphere to the workplace and creates respect for the contributions by each member. The X
generation believes in the participative leadership style, provided they have the support and
opportunities from upper management to contribute to and influence team outcomes.

A Democratic leader places a high emphasis on both people and performance. They are
genuinely interested in their people but also expect a high level of performance in terms of
both quality and quantity. They approach management as a professional and take the time to
establish clear objectives, define responsibility and provide the necessary leadership, planning,
organizing, controlling and communicating, motivating, and developing to reach a high level of
both productivity and satisfaction.
The democratic style of leadership is determined by the following features:

• Subordinates are involved in the decision-making process,

• Managers are constantly trying to obtain the consent of subordinates before implementing
changes,

• Managers assemble subordinates to discuss work-related problems,

• Managers inform the group about relevant issues, progress, relationships with other groups
and so on,

• Managers explain their intentions and current situation,

• Managers take time to listen to the group members,

• Managers inquire about the feelings and ideas of the group members,

• Critique of the own procedures are welcome,

• Group members are encouraged to speak freely,

• Subordinates are encouraged to produce their own ideas and express their own opinions,

• Managers try to put into practice suggestions submitted by the subordinates,

• Subordinates are allowed to work in a way they considers to be the best,

• Interpersonal relationships within the group are encouraged and reinforced.

Laissez Faire style

A Laissez Faire leader places a low emphasis on people and performance. They do just enough
to get by being vague about the task and exercise ground rules and by offering information
primarily as a result of being asked. Provide little if any direction and let your employees do
whatever they want. Take occasional breaks and upon your return check with the employees to
find out what is going on. Try to be as non-committal as possible and show little concern for
your people or their performance. Your main purpose as a leader is to let the organization take
care of itself.

Human Relations Style

A Human Relations leader places a high emphasis on people and a low emphasis on
performance. They feel that happy people are productive people and that a leader’s job is to
promote good relations, seek quality rather than quantity, involve people at every opportunity,
and allow people as much individual freedom as possible. In the leadership exercise, you should
begin by saying that you really care about your people and that you intend to involve them as
much as possible so it will be their team, and that you will do everything you can to make their
work enjoyable. Then explain the ground rules (task, number of trademarks and time) and
explain that your goal is to produce only high quality and creative trademarks. Push for
everyone working together on each trademark or for a few small teams but ask the group what
they think is best. Stop the group occasionally for a group meeting to make sure everyone is
satisfied and likes what they are doing. Continuously compliment people, never chastise or
push them, and avoid confrontations or conflicts at all costs. Your main purpose as a leader is to
keep people happy and to use a participative style that encourages involvement

Situational Leadership

In situational leadership, three factors affect the leader's decisions: the situation, the capability
of the followers and the capability of the leader. The leader adjusts to whatever limitation is
laid out in front of him by his subordinates and the situation itself. Adaptability is key here. The
leaders need to be as dynamic as the different situations they are faced with.

Transactional leaders attempt to balance initiating structure in order to get things done with
meeting the needs of the people while things are getting done. This type of leadership requires
the integration of organizational goals and expectations with the needs of the people doing the
work. This style of leadership is based in the dual organization where the bureaucratic side
conflicts with the professional one. James Macgregor Burns explains that transactional leaders
motivate workers by offering rewards for what the leaders need done

Transformational leaders demonstrate the elixir of human understanding. If applied with

integrity, transformational leadership can reform organizations in magic ways. Leaders using
this style create an environment where every person is empowered to fulfill his or her highest
needs and becomes a member of a productive learning community. Transformational leaders
are servants to others and guide them in creating and embracing a vision for the organization
that inspires and brings forth top performance and creates a belief system of integrity, a cause
beyond oneself, diversity of thought, and inclusiveness for all races and gender.

Subsumed in this style is moral leadership, leading with love, and spiritual leadership. Moral
leadership is based on dignity and respect for the rights of others to self determination within
moral bounds of the organization.
Rather than an arbitrary set of rules to follow, moral leadership is a covenant to do the right
things for others and live that covenant in all human interactions.

Also linked to transformational leadership is leading with love. This leadership style reaches
beyond leading with heart, soul, and morality and moves on to the concept of love in an
attempt to re teach the lesson of history's great leaders. The most powerful leaders in history
are remembered not for their positions, wealth, and number of publications or position but for
their unconditional love for others. Leading with love revisits ideas that guide human kindness,
social justice, and servant leadership and rediscovers ways to replace anger, mistrust, and
hatred with love. This type of love is unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the good of
another.
The Greeks used the work agape as the highest form of love. Agape is unselfish love, love of
unlovable people, and love that overwhelms animosity in organizations. Perhaps the capstone
of transformational leadership is spirituality.
Servant Leadership
Assumptions
 The leader has responsibility for the followers.
 Leaders have a responsibility towards society and those who are disadvantaged.
 People who want to help others best do this by leading them.

Style

The servant leader serves others, rather than others serving the leader. Serving others thus
comes by helping them to achieve and improve.

An excellent example of a servant leader is Ernest Shackleton, the early 20th century explorer
who, after his ship became frozen in the Antarctic life, brought every one of his 27 crew home
alive, including an 800 mile journey in open boats across the winter Antarctic seas. It took two
years, but Shackleton's sense of responsibility towards his men never wavered.

Servant leadership is a very moral position, putting the well-being of the followers before other
goals. It is easy to dismiss servant leadership as soft and easy, though this is not necessarily so,
as individual followers may be expected to make sacrifices for the good of the whole, in the
way of the servant leader.

The focus on the less privileged in society shows the servant leader as serving not just their
followers but also the whole of society. Servant leadership is a natural model for working in the
public sector. It requires more careful interpretation in the private sector lest the needs of the
shareholders and customers and the rigors of market competition are lost. A challenge to
servant leadership is in the assumption of the leader that the followers want to change. There is
also the question of what 'better' is and who decides this. Servant leadership aligns closely with
religious morals and has been adopted by several Christian organizations.
Charismatic Leadership

A charismatic leadership style can resemble transformational leadership because these leaders
inspire enthusiasm in their teams and are energetic in motivating others to move forward. This
excitement and commitment from teams is an enormous benefit. The difference between
charismatic leaders and transformational leaders lies in their intention. Transformational
leaders want to transform their teams and organizations. Charismatic leaders are often focused
on themselves, and may not want to change anything. The downside to charismatic leaders is
that they can believe more in themselves than in their teams. This can create the risk that a
project or even an entire organization might collapse if the leader leaves. A charismatic leader
might believe that she can do no wrong, even when others are warning her about the path
she's on; this feeling of invincibility can ruin a team or an organization. Also, in the followers'
eyes, success is directly connected to the presence of the charismatic leader. As such,
charismatic leadership carries great responsibility, and it needs a long-term commitment from
the leader

Task-Oriented Leadership style

Task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done and can be autocratic. They actively
define the work and the roles required, put structures in place, and plan, organize, and monitor
work. These leaders also perform other key tasks, such as creating and maintaining standards
for performance.
The benefit of task-oriented leadership is that it ensures that deadlines are met, and it's
especially useful for team members who don't manage their time well.
However, because task-oriented leaders don't tend to think much about their team's well-
being, this approach can suffer many of the flaws of autocratic leadership, including causing
motivation and retention problems
People-Oriented/Relations-Oriented Leadership

With people-oriented leadership, leaders are totally focused on organizing, supporting, and
developing the people on their teams. This is a participatory style and tends to encourage good
teamwork and creative collaboration. This is the opposite of task-oriented leadership.

People-oriented leaders treat everyone on the team equally. They're friendly and
approachable, they pay attention to the welfare of everyone in the group, and they make
themselves available whenever team members need help or advice.

The benefit of this leadership style is that people-oriented leaders create teams that everyone
wants to be part of. Team members are often more productive and willing to take risks,
because they know that the leader will provide support if they need it.

The downside is that some leaders can take this approach too far; they may put the
development of their team above tasks or project directives.
Management Roles

Management functions reflect the major responsibilities of the general manager. However,
they provide little insight into the diverse and complex activities the general manager
undertakes on a daily basis. Henry Mintzberg found that managerial activity is characterized by
brevity, variety, and fragmentation. Managers spend short periods of time attending to
different tasks and are interrupted frequently before a specific task is accomplished. Writing
memoranda, reading and writing letters, faxes, and email messages, receiving and making
telephone calls, attending meetings, and visiting employees and persons outside the
organization are examples of activities that consume a great deal of a manager’s time and
energy. There are others as well. Mintzberg identified ten roles and grouped them in three
categories: (1) interpersonal, (2) informational, and (3) decisional.

Interpersonal roles

As the symbolic head of the organization, the manager serves as a

Figurehead: The manager carries out duties of a legal or ceremonial nature. For the broadcast
station general manager, this role is discharged through the signing of documents and by
representing the station at community events, for instance.

Leader: Establishing the workplace atmosphere and guiding and motivating employees are
examples of ways in which the general manager carries out the leadership role.

Liaison: The general manager is the liaison between the station’s owners and its employees.
Dealings with peers and other individuals and groups outside the station link the organization
with the environment. Accordingly, the GM’s relationships with other general managers,
program suppliers, and community groups reflect this role.

Information Roles

The manager is the organization’s “nerve center” and, as such, seeks and receives a large
volume of internal and external information, both oral and written. In these roles, the manager
acts as a
Monitor: Information permits the manager to understand what is happening in the organization
and its environment. Receipt of the latest sales report or threats of a demonstration to protest
the planned airing of a program enable the GM to exercise this role.

Disseminator: The manager distributes external information to members of the organization

and internal information from one subordinate to another.

Spokesperson: In this role, the manager speaks on behalf of the organization. An example
would be a news conference at which the GM reveals plans for a new broadcast facility

Decision Roles

These roles grow out of the manager’s responsibility for the organization’s strategy-making
process and involve the manager as

Entrepreneur: The manager is the initiator and designer of controlled change. For example, the
GM of a TV station may set in motion procedures aimed at attaining first place in local news
ratings.

Disturbance handler: In this role, managers deal with involuntary situations and change that is
partially beyond their control. An example would be resolving a dispute between the program
manager and the sales manager on the advisability of carrying a particular program.

Resource allocator: The manager determines priorities for the expenditure of money and
employee effort.

Negotiator: The manager represents the organization in negotiating activity. Working out a
contract with a program supplier or union would place the GM in this role.

Management Skills

To carry out their functions and roles effectively, managers require many skills. Robert L. Katz
identifies three basic skills that every manager must have in varying degrees, according to the
managerial level For the general manager of a broadcast station, all are important:
Technical: Knowledge, analytical ability, and facility in the use of the tools and techniques of a
specific kind of activity. For the general manager, that activity is managing. While it does not
demand the ability to perform all the tasks that characterize a broadcast station, it does require
sufficient knowledge to ask pertinent questions and evaluate the worth of the responses.
Accordingly, the GM should have knowledge of

• the objectives of the station’s owners

• management and the management functions of planning, organizing, influencing or directing,

and controlling

• Business practices, especially sales and marketing, budgeting, cost controls, and public
relations

• The market, including the interests and needs of the audience and the business potential
afforded by area retail and service establishments

• Competing media, the sources and amounts of their revenues

• Broadcasting and allied professions, including advertising agencies, station representative

companies, and program and news services

• The station and the activities of its departments and personnel

• Broadcast laws, rules, and regulations, and other applicable laws, rules, and regulations

• Contracts, particularly those dealing with network affiliation, station representation,

programming, talent, music licensing, and labor unions

Human: The ability to work with people and to build a cooperative effort. The general manager
should have the capacity to influence the behavior of employees toward the accomplishment of
the station’s objectives by motivating them, creating job satisfaction, and encouraging loyalty
and mutual respect. An appreciation of the differing skills and aspirations of employees and
departments also is essential if the station’s activities are to be combined in a successful team
effort.
Conceptual: The ability to see the enterprise as a whole and the dependence of one part on the
others. To coordinate successfully the station’s efforts, the GM must recognize the
interdependence of programming and promotion, sales and programming, and production and
engineering, for example. Equally important is the ability to comprehend the relationship of the
station to the rest of the broadcast industry, to the community, and to prevailing economic,
political, and social forces, all of which contribute to decisions on directions that the station will
take and the subsequent formulation of objectives and policies.

To these skills, the successful general manager should add desirable personal qualities. They
include:

• foresight, the ability to anticipate events and make appropriate preparations

• wisdom in choosing among alternative courses of action and courage in carrying out the
selected action

• flexibility in adapting to change

• honesty and integrity in dealings with employees and persons outside the station

• responsiveness and responsibility to the station’s owners, employees, and advertisers

The GM also must be responsive and display responsibility to the community by leading the
station in its community relations endeavors and by setting an example for other employees to
follow.
THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Classical approach to management is a set of homogeneous ideas on the management of
organizations that evolved in the late 19thcentury and early 20 th century. This perspective
emerges from the industrial revolution and centers on theories of efficiency .As at the end of
the 19th century, when factory production became pervasive and large scale organizations
raised, people were looking for ways to motivate employees and improve productivity. A need
for management ideas came to pass which directed to classical contributors such as Frederick
Taylor Henri Fayol and Max generating management theories such as Taylor‟ Scientific
Management, Fayol‟ Administrative Management and Weber’s Bureaucratic management. As a
reaction to approaches of classical theory which over-emphasized the mechanical and
physiological characters of management, came up the schools of neoclassical theory with a
more human-oriented approach and emphasis on time needs, drives, behaviors and attitudes of
individuals. Two important groups, namely, human relations school and behavioral schools
emerged during1920s and 1930s under the neoclassical theory. As in the late 1920‟s and early
1930‟s the Hawthorne experiments were conducted by Elton Mayo and his associate lead to
the Behavioral viewpoint. This brought about a Human Relations Movement which included
Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y approach

Scientific Management Theory

The Principles of Scientific Management are an ever living monograph which has been at the
center of the focus of students and scholars of management sciences since it was published in
1911.Frederick W. Taylor was a mechanical engineer whose writings on efficiency and scientific
management are widely read. His published work, The Principles of Scientific Management,
describes how application of the scientific method to the management of workers could
improve productivity. Scientific management methods called for optimizing the way that tasks
were performed and simplifying the jobs enough so that workers could be trained to perform
their specialized sequence of motions in the one "best" way.
Prior to scientific management, work was performed by skilled craftsmen who had learned their
jobs in lengthy apprenticeships. They made their own decisions about how their job was to be
performed. Scientific management took away much of this autonomy and converted skilled
crafts into a series of simplified jobs that could be performed by unskilled workers who easily
could be trained for the tasks.

Taylor became interested in improving worker productivity early in his career when he
observed gross inefficiencies during his contact with steel workers. There is no denying the fact
that seeds of scientific management were grown with the Industrial Revolution. Introduction of
steam power and the creation of large factories posed new challenges to organization and
management that had not been confronted before. Administering these new factories busy in
mass production, railroads managing large flows of material, people, and information over large
distances called for a new science of management based on scientific techniques that could
change the old rule of thumb.

Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze human behavior at work.
Therefore, the title of “The Father of Scientific Management. He attempted to make individuals
equivalent of machine parts: no resentment, passive, easily interchangeable, cheap, and
emotion free. The underlining idea and the fundamental principle of the scientific management
was to design a production system that would involve both men and machines and that would
be as efficient as a well- designed, well-oiled machine.

Principles of Scientific Management

After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposed the
following four principles of scientific management:

i) Each person’s job should be broken down into elements and a scientific way to perform each
clement should be determined.

ii) Workers should be scientifically selected and trained to do the work in the designed and
trained manner.
iii) There should be good cooperation between management and workers so that tasks are
performed in the designed manner.

iv) There should be a division of labour between managers and workers. Managers should take
over the work of supervising and setting up instructions and designing the work and the
workers should be free to perform the work himself.

Thus, the scientific method provides a logical framework for the analysis of problems. It
basically consists of defining the problem, gathering data, analyzing the data, developing
alternatives, and selecting the best alternative. Taylor believed that following the scientific
method would provide a way to determine the most efficient way to perform work. Instead of
abdicating responsibility for establishing standards, the management would scientifically study
all facets of an operation and carefully set a logical and rational standard. Instead of guessing or
relying solely on trial and error, the management should go through the time consuming
process of logical study and scientific research to develop answers to business problems. Taylor
believed sincerely that scientific management practices would benefit both the employee and
the employer through the creation of larger surplus and hence the organization would receive
more income. He believed that management and labour had a common interest in increasing
productivity. Taylor did a lot of work on improving management of production operations.

Analysis

Scientific Management concept gave a new drive to managerial pursuit of searching for
efficiency and systemization. It advocated breaking down of each task to its smallest unit,
finding the one best way to do each job by eliminating those motions not essential to the task.
It also evolved a separation of planning from operations. This new method of management
was acknowledged with rising productivity, reducing operation cost and introduction of new
echelons / departments specialized in dealing with quality control and personnel recruitment
and training tucked in the ladder of organizational hierarchy.

However, this was not at all a happy journey rather an uphill struggle with numerous
obstructions and resistance that some considered the "dehumanization of work." Lasch quotes
Taylor himself writing that, his attempt to redesign the work process "immediately started a
war...which as time went on grew more and more bitter" .It was found very difficult to believe
that management was a science to be studied not something one was born with. “Worker
soldiering” also resisted Taylor’s pursuit to his goal. Taylor spent a considerable time in
describing "soldiering", the act of 'loafing' both at an individual level and “systematic
soldiering”. Taylor believed that the objective of workers when stalled was to keep "their
employers ignorant of how fast work can be done". He described main reasons of the soldiering
that workers were not performing their work at their optimum level as: ƒ The belief that
increased output would lead to firing and de-hiring of workers resulting into fewer workers at
work place.

He believed that equity at work place doesn’t exist as the management control system such as
poorly designed incentive schemes and hourly pay rates were not linked to productivity. Every
worker irrespective of his output or individual hard work was paid on equal term. Science was
not being used to design new method of work process and culture of encouraging worker’s
initiative was non-existing. Rather the only design of the performance of the work was by using
old rule-of-thumb. ƒ He strongly advocated for the worker training and development to
transform and enhance his workability through skills development. He believed that training
and development of each at the work place would enable the worker to work at his fastest pace
and with the maximum of efficiency. He was of the opinion that future work environment
would no longer tolerate the type of employer who only cares for dividends alone, and who
drives for harder work and labour for low pay rate.

It is a proven fact that Scientific Management did improve the productivity manifold and
substantial impact on the industry and industrial engineering, however, the concept has
number of drawbacks:

The core job dimensions like skill variety, meaningful task identity, autonomy and feedback
were the most serious missing links in the concept.
It did not cater for the “individuality”- most important aspect of the human behavior by
ignoring individual differences and treating their work similar to machines pattern. It forgets to
realize that the most efficient way of working for one person may be inefficient for another.

The main criticism against Taylor is that his approach has dehumanized the work place.
Specifying not only what is to be done but how it is to done and the exact time allowed for
doing it, is seen as leaving no scope for the individual worker to excel or put his own mind &
soul into work. The element of time and motion study introduced to maximize efficiency and
productivity by removing unnecessary or wasted effort. Little heed was paid to the potential
influence or importance of human factors upon work performance

It ignored that workers are essentially human: personal needs, interpersonal difficulties, and
the very real difficulties introduced by making jobs so efficient that workers have no time to
relax. As a result, workers worked harder, but became dissatisfied with the automated work
environment.

Limitation of Scientific Management

The scientific management school is criticized on the following grounds. No man is entirely an
‘economic man’ and man’s behaviour is dictated not only by financial needs, but by other needs
like social needs, security needs and esteem needs. Hence, it may not always be true that
economic incentives are strong enough to motivate workers. Secondly, there is no such thing as
‘one best way’ of doing a job so far as the component motions are concerned and hence time
and motion study may not be entirely scientific. Two studies done by two different persons
may time the same job entirely differently. Thirdly, separation of planning and doing a job and
the greater specialization inherent in the system tend to reduce the need for skill and produce
greater monotony of work. Lastly, advances in methods and better tools amid machines
eliminated some workers, causing resentment from them.

Elton Mayo and the human relations theory

Elton Mayo has been considered as the father of the human relations movement, which later
became organizational behaviour. He believed that organizations always involve
interrelationships among members and that it is the manager’s role to see that relationships
are as conflict free as possible, in order to accomplish the organization’s objectives. He believed
that the human aspects in organizations had been largely ignored. Mayo felt that satisfaction of
psychological needs should be the primary concern of the management.

The human relations movement arose at the time when scientific management, with its
associated rational approaches to managing work in organizations, was the most widely
accepted organizational theory. It was against this backdrop that some research was initiated in
1927 into the influence that various levels of light in the workplace had on the performance of
production workers in General Electric’s plant in Hawthorne, America. In one group, light levels
were raised, while in a separate control group they were kept as they were.

Production in the experimental group increased clearly, but to the amazement of the
researchers, it also increased by approximately the same level in the control group. Then, when
the lights were dimmed to a minimum level, the results showed an additional surprise, as
productivity continued to rise! There was clearly a riddle here, and Elton Mayo (1880–1949) of
Harvard University, was invited to find an explanation for the phenomenon.

Between 1927 and 1947 he carried out a series of experiments in order to examine the
connection between improvements in working conditions (for example, shortening of the
working day, increasing the number and duration of breaks, providing free soup or coffee in the
morning break etc) and productivity. Each change led to an increase in production and
reduction in employee fatigue.

In the illumination experiments, the underlying cause for increased productivity appeared to be
the increased attention that the staff were given during the experiment. Mayo proved his
theory with this, and concluded that in addition to objective aspects, subjective factors such as
attention, a feeling of security, belonging to a group, and appreciation had an effect on results.
These subjective factors seemed even more important. According to Mayo, shared group
determination exerted the greatest influence.

These thoughts – thoughts which have had a big influence on the development of
organizational behaviour – were explored in his book The Human Problems of an Industrial
Civilization (1933)

The Hawthorne experiments generated a lot of research. A new form of management had been
propagated, based on the social needs of workers in small groups. This went against the ideas
of scientific management, which was strictly rational and directed exclusively towards the
individual production worker. The human relations movement is based on the assumption that
happy and satisfied employees are more likely to reach their maximum potential level of
performance. Management must therefore ensure good interpersonal relationships within
relatively small groups. They must also give adequate attention to groups and individuals,
demonstrate their appreciation, and provide sufficient responsibility and freedom to
individuals. Cooperation is the key, so the possession of social skills by managers is very
important. The movement’s most significant contribution is the discovery of the link between
human factors and organizational effectiveness.

Limitation of Human relation school

Human relations school has several limitations as well. It is considered to be a swing in the
opposite direction of classical theory. In other words, they saw only human variables as critical
and ignored other variables. Every organization is made up of a number of diverse social
groups with incompatible values and interests. These groups might cooperate in some spheres
and compete and clash in others. It is practically impossible to satisfy everybody and turn the
organization into a big happy family.
This approach over-emphasizes the importance of symbolic rewards which may not be
appreciated by recipient’s ‘significant others’ and underplays the role of material rewards.
Further, the assumption about formation of informal groups in unrealistic and not very
common. Informal groups can only make the worker’s day more pleasant and not his
repetitive, monotonous and uncreative task. Workers do not come to the organization to seek
affection and affiliation.

Techniques of human relations school try to play a trick on workers to create a false sense of
happiness and are not really concerned with their real well being. There is a difference
between allowing workers to participate in making decisions and letting workers think they are
participating. On this sense, this approach is also production-oriented and not employee
oriented.

The unqualified application of these techniques in all situations is not possible. For example
where secrecy of decision is required and when decisions have to be made quickly on emergent
basis, this approach may not work. This approach makes as unrealistic demand on the
supervisor and expects him to give up his desire for power. The assumption that the satisfied
workers are more productive and improved working conditions and human relations lead to
increased output may, not always be true. Above all, human behaviour is not the total field of
concern of the manager.

Human relations movement accepted scientific management’s central goal of efficiency, but
focused on individuals and on small-group processes rather than large organizations. It
stressed communication, leadership and interpersonal relations, particularly between
employees and their bosses. Like scientific management efforts, research in human relations
focused on the lower levels of organization rather than on the middle and upper groups and
hence lacked comprehensive scope. Behaviour scientists became interested in companies as
research sites, but they tended to use their findings to build their own disciplines, or to
establish a science of human relations rather than a science of management. Thus the human
relations movement accepted many of the assumptions of the scientific management thinkers,
and it did not achieve a major breakthrough in management theory.
CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

Henri Fayol (1841-1925): Principles of Management

Henri Fayol was a French mining engineer who spent many of his later years as an executive for
a French coal and iron combine. In 1916, as director of the company, Fayol penned the book
General and Industrial Management. In this book, Fayol classified the study of management
into several functional areas which are still commonly used in executive training and corporate
development programs. The functional areas identified by Fayol are planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating, and controlling. Fayol set down specific principles for practicing
managers to apply that he had found useful during his years as a manager. He felt these
principles could be used not only in business organizations but also in government, the military,
religious organizations, and financial institutions. Fayol's principles were not meant to be
exhaustive. Rather, his aim was to provide managers with the necessary building blocks to serve
as guidelines for managerial activities.

In sum, identified what he presented as 14 principles for improving managerial effectiveness.

While they are now over 80 years old, they are very similar to principles still being applied by
managers today. The problem with Fayol's principles of management is knonmmwing when to
apply them and how to adapt them to new situation. These principles are:

• Division of work

• Authority

• Discipline

• Unity of command

• Unity of direction

• Subordination of individual interests to the general interest

• Remuneration

• Centralization

• Scalar chain (line of authority)

• Order

• Equity

• Stability of tenure of personnel

• Initiative

• Esprit de corps

Division of work is the well-known idea of assigning separate tasks to individual specialists with
the intent of producing “more and better work with the same effort.” Fayol recognized that
division of labor leads to heightened expertise, which increases productivity. He also noted that
as a result of the specialization that derives from division of work, jobs are performed more
quickly because employees do not lose time shifting from one activity to another. At the same
time, Fayol appreciated that benefits derived from dividing work must be balanced against
obvious disadvantages associated with such negatives as boredom and monotony.

Authority was defined as “the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.” Fayol
distinguished between the formal authority managers held by virtue of office or rank and
personal authority, which was “compounded of intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to
lead, past services, etc.” Well ahead of modern-day scholars, Fayol recognized that savvy
managers complement their official authority with personal authority. He further realized that
authority and responsibility are corollaries in the sense that wherever authority is exercised,
responsibility arises. Fayol stated the classic case for authority being commensurate with
responsibility. This principle appears throughout the management literature.

Discipline is essentially respect and obedience between a firm and its employees. Fayol felt that
discipline was vital for a smoothly functioning and prosperous firm. He viewed “defects in
discipline” to be a result of ineptitude on the part of a firm’s managers. Discipline came from
placing knowledgeable managers at all levels of authority, workplace agreements that are
satisfactory to both managers and employees, and the judicious use of employee sanctions.

Unity of command was expressed as: “For any action whatsoever an employee should receive
orders from one superior only.” Just as the Biblical injunction advises: “No one can serve two
masters.” To Fayol, dual command was a threat to authority, discipline, and stability.

Unity of direction means“one head and one plan for a group of activities having the same
objective.” It provides the coordination necessary for focusing a firm’s efforts. Unity of
direction comes from a sound organization structure and is essential to “unity of action.”

Subordination of individual interests to the general interest is a plea to abolish “ignorance,

ambition, selfishness, laziness, weakness and all human passions.”As viewed by Fayol, the
placing of an individual’s or group’s interests over a firm’s general welfare would inevitably lead
to conflict among participating parties. Fayol recognized that individuals or groups who serve
only themselves are harmful to the interests of their fellow employees and the interest of the
firm in general.

Remuneration deals with, piece rates, bonuses, and profit sharing. Fayol concluded that
appropriate employee remuneration depends on many factors. In general, however, a firm’s
method of payment should be fair, should motivate by rewarding successful performance, and
should not lead to excessive overpayment. Fayol also acknowledged non financial incentives as
form of remuneration.

Centralization is a principle that Fayol felt was always present to a greater or lesser extent and,
thus, belonged to the “natural order.” His discussion of centralization as a question of
proportion unique to each firm and his appreciation of the distortion that occurs as information
is serially transmitted along a scalar chain continues to offer valuable insights for contemporary
managers: Centralization is not a system of management good or bad of itself, capable of being
adopted or discarded at the whim of managers or of circumstances; it is always present to a
greater or lesser extent. The question of centralization or decentralization is a simple question
of proportion; it is a matter of finding the optimum degree for the particular concern. In small
firms, where the manager’s orders go directly to subordinates, there is absolute centralization;
in large concerns, where along scalar chain is interposed between manager and lower grades,
orders and counter information, too, have to go through a series of intermediaries. Each
employee, intentionally or unintentionally, puts something of himself into the transmission and
execution of orders and of information received, too. He does not operate merely as a cog in a
machine. What appropriate share of initiative maybe left to intermediaries depends on the
personal character of the manager, on his moral worth, on the reliability of his subordinates,
and also on the condition of the business. The degree of centralization must vary according to
different cases. The objective to pursue is the optimum utilization of all faculties of the
personnel.

Scalar chain refers to “the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest
ranks.” As Fayol explained, this path shows a firm’s line of authority and the links through which
communications are transmitted from the top to the bottom of a firm and back. To counter
possible communication delays caused by the unity-of-command principle, Fayol developed
what is referred to as the “gang plank.” The gang plank allows communications to cross lines of
authority. The gang plank permits lateral communication through the shortest path and avoids
overburdening a firm’s scalar chain.

Order, with regard to material things, ensures, in the words of a time-honored adage, “A place
for everything and everything in its place.” As Fayol noted, the same may be said for people,
“The right man in the right place.” The objective of material order is to avoid wasting resources.
Fayol recognized that social order requires good organization and good selection and, by
necessity, a need to balance a firm’s human requirements with its available resources. Fayol
considered ambition, nepotism, favoritism, or merely ignorance, resulting in unnecessary
positions or positions filled within competent employees, to be the enemies of social order.

Equity, as envisioned by Fayol, results from a combination of kindliness and justice. As such,
equity provides a basis for dealing with employees and instilling devotion and loyalty. Fayol
took care to distinguish between equity and equality and, in doing so, anticipated modern
equity theory Recognizing the difficulty invoked in instilling a sense of equity at all levels of a
firm, Fayol—no doubt reflecting on his personal experience—observed that in dealing with
employees’ desire for equity, (the head of the business must frequently summon up his highest
faculties.”

Fayol’s twelfth principle, stability of tenure of personnel, sought to provide for orderly human-
resource staffing and establishing provisions to ensure that a firm’s employees possessed the
requisite abilities for the work to be performed. Fayol appreciated that it took time to develop
the necessary skills to perform at a superior level. He also recognized that it took time for a
manager and a group of employees to develop into a high-performing team. In particular,
managers must get to know their employees to inspire their confidence and, from experience,
Fayol knew this can be a lengthy matter.

Initiative, as a principle, exhorted employees to display zeal and energy in all endeavors. Fayol
observed that “thinking out a plan and ensuring its success is. . . one of the most powerful
stimulants of human endeavour. . . and... [this] is what is called initiative.”Fayol considered
the“freedom to propose and execute” to e be key aspects of initiative that were essential to
subordinate satisfaction .As Fayol thus realized,“ The initiative of all, added to that of the
manager ,and supplementing it if need be, represents a great source of strength for
businesses.”

Finally, esprit de corps stressed building harmony and unity within a firm. Fayol warned against
sowing dissension among subordinates. Calling once again on his years of experience as a
manager, he understood that “real talent is needed to co-ordinate effort, encourage keenness,
use each man’s abilities, and reward each one’s merit without arousing jealousies and
disturbing harmonious relations.” Quoting the proverb, “union is strength,” Fayol advised:
“Dividing enemy forces to weaken them is clever, but dividing one’s own team is a grave sin
against the business.” As Fayol explained, his principles were intended as guides to theory and
practice and were not meant to be exhaustive in scope, nor were they meant to be rigidly
applied.
Theory X and Theory Y

In his 1960 book, The Human Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor proposed two theories by
which to view employee motivation. He avoided descriptive labels and simply called the
theories Theory X and Theory Y. Both of these theories begin with the premise that
management's role is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for the economic
benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge.

Theory X

Theory X assumes that the average person:

 Dislikes work and attempts to avoid it.

 Has no ambition, wants no responsibility, and would rather follow than lead.
 Is self-centered and therefore does not care about organizational goals.
 Resists change.
 Is gullible and not particularly intelligent.

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can. Most
people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to get them to
expend adequate effort towards the achievement of organizational objectives. The average
human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition,
and wants security above all. Essentially, Theory X assumes that people work only for money
and security.

Theory X - The Hard Approach and Soft Approach

Under Theory X, management approaches can range from a hard approach to a soft approach.

The hard approach relies on coercion, implicit threats, close supervision, and tight controls,
essentially an environment of command and control. The soft approach is to be permissive and
seek harmony with the hope that in return employees will cooperate when asked to do so.
However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The hard approach results in hostility, purposely
low-output, and hard-line union demands. The soft approach results in ever-increasing requests
for more rewards in exchange for ever-decreasing work output.

The optimal management approach under Theory X probably would be somewhere between
these extremes. However, McGregor asserts that neither approach is appropriate because the
assumptions of Theory X are not correct.

The Problem with Theory X

Drawing on Maslow's hierarchy, McGregor argues that a satisfied need no longer motivates.
Under Theory X the firm relies on money and benefits to satisfy employees' lower needs, and
once those needs are satisfied the source of motivation is lost. Theory X management styles in
fact hinders the satisfaction of higher-level needs. Consequently, the only way that employees
can attempt to satisfy their higher-level needs in their work is by seeking more compensation,
so it is quite predictable that they will focus on monetary rewards. While money may not be the
most effective way to self-fulfillment, in a Theory X environment it may be the only way. Under
Theory X, people use work to satisfy their lower needs, and seek to satisfy their higher needs in
their leisure time. But it is in satisfying their higher needs that employees can be most
productive.

McGregor makes the point that a command-and-control environment is not effective because it
relies on lower needs as levers of motivation, but in modern society those needs already are
satisfied and thus no longer are motivators. In this situation, one would expect employees to
dislike their work, avoid responsibility, have no interest in organizational goals, resist change,
etc., thus making Theory X a self-fulfilling prophecy. From this reasoning, McGregor proposed
an alternative: Theory Y.

Theory Y

The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are
never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can
best be motivated.
Theory Y makes the following general assumptions:

 Work can be as natural as play and rest.

 People will be self-directed to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them.
 People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that addresses
higher needs such as self-fulfillment.
 Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.
 Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in
the population.

Expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average
human being does not inherently dislike work, which can be a source of satisfaction. External
control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about effort. People
can exercise self-direction to achieve objectives to which they are committed. Commitment to
objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of
those rewards is satisfaction of the self- actualization needs.

The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but to seek,
responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, emphasis on security and low ambition are the result
of experience and are not inherent in man’s nature. Capacity to exercise a relatively high
degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is
widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. Under conditions of modern industrial life,
the intellectual potential of the average human being is only partially utilized.

Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational
goals by using the employee's own quest for fulfillment as the motivator. McGregor stressed
that Theory Y management does not imply a soft approach.

McGregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity assumed by
Theory Y and therefore may need tighter controls that can be relaxed as the employee
develops.

Theory Y Management Implications

If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational energy of its
employees:

 Decentralization and Delegation - If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of
levels of management; each manager will have more subordinates and consequently
will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.
 Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds variety and
opportunities to satisfy ego needs.
 Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision making process taps
their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work
environment.
 Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and participate in the
process of evaluating how well they were met.

If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of motivation as

employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology anticipated by Abraham Maslow in his

1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation". Maslow consequently extended the idea to
include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
remains relevant in every sector today.

Abraham Harold Maslow proposed a theory that outlined five hierarchical needs which could
also be applied to an organization and its employees’ performance. Needs are deficiencies,
which move one into action to satisfy them. Individual needs or drives are unlimited, insatiable
and endless but the resources to satisfy them are limited. Maslow believed that the lower
needs must be satisfied before higher needs. He believed that at any given time, there is a
uniquely active need which must be satisfied. Maslow asserted that satisfied needs do no
motivate anymore. These needs are:

Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are basic: The body craves food, liquid, sleep, oxygen, sex, freedom of
movement, and a moderate temperature, pain avoidance. When any of these are in short
supply, we feel the distressing tension of hunger, thirst, fatigue, shortness of breath, sexual
frustration, confinement, or the discomfort of being too hot or cold. These irritants compel us
to seek the missing commodity so that our body can return to homeostasis-a system in balance
or at rest. As long as the body feels substantially deprived, it marshals all its energies in the
service of satisfying these demands. But once these physical needs are met regularly, they no
longer exert pressure. A need fulfilled no longer motivates. As hunger and the other
physiological needs are met, the need for security kicks in. Physiological needs. Organizations
should provide better staff meals with ample time and space. Organizations should pay
allowance on employees’ food and life essentials.

Safety Needs

The safety needs operate mainly on a psychological level. Naturally we try to avoid a poke in
the eye with a sharp stick. But once we’ve managed a certain level of physical comfort, we’ll
seek to establish stability and consistency in a chaotic world. When he talked about security,
Maslow pictured the child who strives for predictability and certainty. For instance, most kids
enjoy a set bedtime routine and grow visibly distressed if a parent tries to short-circuit the
ritual. Their safety needs require a consistent and secure world that offers few surprises.
Unfortunately, life doesn’t always cooperate. A safe working environment should be provided,
for example, in dangerous industries like construction industry, company should provide
helmets to protect employees from potential dangers, warning boards should be conspicuous
at extremely dangerous sites. As financial security is also a kind of safety needs, organizations
should pay employees fairly and ensure them stable career.
Love and Belongingness Needs

The love or belongingness needs come into play after the physiological and security drives are
satisfied. Gratification is a matter of degree rather than an either-or accomplishment. But once
a need has been significantly satisfied over a long period of time, it becomes functionally
absent. The action switches to the next highest level, in this case, love.

Maslow’s concept of belonging combines the twin urges to give and receive love. Giving love is
different from the passion of rock music lyrics that announce, “I want you, I need you, I’m going
to have you.” That’s raw sex. And giving love is more than the maternal instinct implanted by
nature. For Maslow, giving love is seeking to fill a void by understanding and accepting selected
others. Receiving love is a way of staving off the pangs of loneliness and rejection. The man who
attains this level will “feel keenly, as never before, the absence of friends, or a sweetheart, or a
wife, or children.“ Even though it’s higher in the hierarchy than physical or safety needs, the
desire for love and belonging is similar in that it motivates only when a person feels a deficit.
According to Maslow, love loses its pull when you’ve had enough. Maslow notes that the need
for love is more fragile than the needs that go before.

Esteem Needs/Prestige Needs

The esteem needs are of two types. There’s self-esteem, which is the result of competence or
mastery of tasks. Harvard psychologist David McClelland calls this “need for achievement.”
There’s also the attention and recognition that come from others. Wanting this admiration is
part of what McClelland labels “need for power.” McClelland assumes that individual
differences in needs are tied to personality, and they change slowly if at all. Maslow, on the
other hand, believes that repeated shifts in motivation are possible when a person is in a
supportive environment. Leaders should recognize employees’ achievement, either by financial
means or spiritual means. Organizations should set specific awards for achieving certain goals
and tasks. The awards should not only be financial motivations but also mental motivations like
praises.
Self-Actualization

Maslow described the need for self-actualization as “the desire to become more and more
what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming”. People feel this gentle but
persistent tug to maximize their potential only after they have satisfied their basic deficiency
cravings. Self-actualization can take many forms, depending on the individual. These variations
may include the quest for knowledge, understanding, peace, self-fulfillment, meaning in life, or
beauty. Leaders who can satisfy employees’ self-actualization needs are the most effective
leaders. This enables organizations to fully utilize employees’ ability and potentials, in which
way enhance the overall productivity and effectiveness of the business.

Application of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need to Management

In order to be able to provide physiological motivation an organization should ensure that it

provides for example sufficient lunch breaks and offer salaries that enable the workers to be
able to meet basic needs.

Safety needs can be provided through the creation of a conducive environment which is safe,
provision of job security and a feeling that workers are safe from any threat.

Social needs require an organization to create a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and the spirit
of communal living by encouraging team spirit among the workers.

Esteem motivators are provided through the recognition given to workers achievements,
attaching value to their views, assigning important projects to hard working employees and
provision of status to make them feel valued and appreciated by the organization. Create an
environment of team spirits, generate a feeling of acceptance and belonging by organizing
company parties or company culture trainings. For those who are dispatched to other places,
either within national boundaries or abroad, offer them enough time to reunite with their
families.

In order to enable a worker to achieve the need of self actualization it requires provision of
challenging tasks, important work assignments which help to stimulate motivation, creativity,
and progress in accordance to long term organizational goals.

Impacts and Implications of hierarchy of needs theory on employee performance

Motivational factors play an important role in increasing employee job satisfaction. This will
result in improving organizational performance. High productivity is a long term benefits of
employee motivation. Motivated employee is a valuable asset who creates value for an
organization in strengthening the business and revenue growth. Motivation is going to work if
the right person with suitable skills is made responsible for the job or otherwise it will be the
wastage of resources and time, and will lead to job dissatisfaction.

Organization plays a large role in an employee's satisfaction and performance. Some

organizations offer bonuses or extra benefits to certain employees who make the effort to
improve their performance. This can include tuition performance or allocations to attend
specialized conferences. These sorts of ancillary benefits can stimulate an employee to take on
new opportunities to improve themselves and, as a result, improve his or her performance in
their current position. It can also set his or her career path in a better direction, for future
growth and promotion.

The method a organization chooses for performance reviews and evaluations can have the
biggest effect on employee performance. Organizations that fail to review their employee's
performance or recognize a job well done may soon find disgruntled employees. Furthermore,
organizations that stringently monitor employee work without providing employees the
opportunity to provide feedback may also result in non-motivated employees. The performance
reviews to keep employees motivated and performing well include periodic, regular, honest
and objective feedback to the employee. However, the organization should also have some
mechanisms in place for the employee to give feedback about ways the organization could also
improve itself and make itself a better place to work. Allowing open communication in both
directions will keep the employees more satisfied with their performance and happier with
their compensation level in relation to their work.

Max Weber and the bureaucracy theory

While Taylor was focusing on manufacturing companies and Fayol on management in general,
Max Weber (1864–1920) was busy studying government organizations and large businesses
from a sociological perspective. According to Weber, large organizations of the day should have
the following characteristics:
•Clear and definite division of tasks
•A hierarchical command structure
•Carefully defined authority and responsibilities
•Impersonal relations between officials (the position is more important than the person)
•Recruitment on the basis of ability and knowledge instead of cronyism and contacts
•Promotion and reward on the basis of objective criteria and procedures
•The execution of activities according to clearly laid down procedures
•All information, procedures and details written down, so that full control of every aspect is
possible
•The power of officials, even the most senior executives, bound by documented guide-lines

Weber stated that when an organization functions according to the above characteristics, it can
be termed an ideal bureaucracy. In his opinion, this was the most efficient form for an
organization to adopt as everyone in such an organization would function coherently: like a cog
in a well-oiled machine.

The ‘ideal bureaucracy’ is not just a description of an organization but also a theoretical model
that is helpful in the study of organizations. A number of contemporary writers in the field of
organizational behaviour have also published theories in relation to such ideal types.
We must see Weber’s definition separate from the subsequent negative connotations that the
word ‘bureaucracy’ has gained. It is common for us to link this word to ideas of inertia, red
tape, an unending succession of pointless rules and so on. Weber’s description was intended to
be an objective scientific analysis of the dominant organizational form at the time. In it, he
identified positive and effective qualities such as the execution of rules without personal bias,
and the suitable operation of administrative tasks. He also highlighted some of the less
effective, negative characteristics such as inflexibility and the lack of initiative and creativity.

He saw bureaucracy as a perfect means of reaching management targets as well as an

organizational form that functioned so perfectly in itself that its permanent continuation also
became a target. The emphases on technical perfectionism could lead, however, to the
structure being considered as more important than
organizational goals, which of course would have consequences for the continuity of the
organization.

Today, some of the characteristics of Weber’s ‘ideal bureaucratic’ model are recognizable in
some organizations, particularly in larger ones.

As organizations became larger and more complex, the authoritarian-paternalistic pattern gave
way to increased functional specialization with many layers of middle and lower management
for coordinating organizational effort. The result was a bureaucratic approach to organizational
structure. With the intentions of eliminating managerial inconsistencies and as a reaction to
managerial abuses of power, Max Weber propounded a set of principles to provide grounds for
organizing group efforts. The characteristics of bureaucratic organization are division of labour
by functional specialization. We defined hierarchy of authority, a set of rules covering the rights
and duties of employees, a system of procedures or dealing with work situations, impersonal
relations between people and promotion and selection of employees based on technical
competence, Often, public service with a large number of offices and employees like postal
services are cited as examples of bureaucratic organizations. The strength of such a
bureaucratic organization exists in its system of workable set of rules, policies and a hierarchy
of authority.

The advantages of bureaucracy are many folds. Apart from consistent employee behaviour, it
eliminates overlapping or conflicting jobs or duties, and the behaviour of the system is
predictable. In turn, consistency and precise job definitions help to avoid wasteful actions and
improve efficiency. Further, bureaucracy has the advantages of basing its mode of hiring and
promotion on merit, developing expertise in employees and assuring continuity in the
organization. In other words, bureaucracy emphasizes the position rather than person and
organization continues even when individuals leave.

Despite the above advantages, bureaucratic organization has some significant negative and side
effects. Too much of red tapes and paper work not only lead to unpleasant experiences but also
to inefficient operations. Since employees are treated impersonally and they are expected to
rely on rules and policies, they are unwilling to exercise individual judgment and avoid risks.
Consequently their growth, creativity, development and even initiative suffer considerably.
Machine like treatment makes employees unconcerned about the organization and exhibit
indifference regarding the organization and job performance. Bureaucracy expects conformity
in behaviour rather than performance.

Systems Theory

A system is an entity made up of two or more interdependent parts that interact to form a
functioning organism. An organization, human body, a flower and a tree are examples of a
system (anything and everything is a system). The phrase ‘interdependent parts’ is very
important and means that a manager should not look for a single cause of a problem. A system
can either be open or closed. An open system interacts with its environment. All biological,
human and social systems are open systems and many physical and mechanical systems are
closed systems. Traditional organization theorists regarded organization as closed systems
while modern view is to treat it as an open system having constant interaction with its
environment. In other words, an organization is an open system that interacts regularly with
external forces such as government agencies, customers and suppliers. These external forces
have an impact on organization practices.

The open system concept is the first part of the two parts of systems theory. The second part is
the impact of changes within an organization. The changes in one part of the organization affect
all other parts of the organization. This interdependence complicates the manager’s job. The
boundaries of open systems are permeable or penetrable, flexible and changeable depending
upon its activities. The function of the management is to act as a boundary-linking pin among
the various subsystems within the organizational system.

Every system has flows of information, material and energy and these inputs get converted into
outputs of goods, services and satisfactions in the organization. This process is called
‘throughput’. This change process is synergistic. Synergy means that the output of a system is
always more than the combined output of its parts. In other words, these interrelated parts
become more productive when they act in cooperation and interaction rather than in isolation.

A system adapts and adjusts to the changing conditions of its environment and exercises
control over its operations through feedback. Information flows to appropriate people as
feedback to carry out this function.

Contingency Theory

As indicated under the systems theory, today’s organizations are quite complex and there
cannot be one correct managerial strategy that works in all situations. The contingency
approach stresses the absence of a single best way to manage and emphasizes the need for
managerial strategies based on all relevant facts. In other words, each manager’s situation must
be viewed separately, a wide range external and internal factor must be considered and then
the focus should be on the action that best fits the given situation. This approach, in a way
attempts to integrate the various schools of management thought, otherwise it is obvious that
the principles and concepts of various schools have no general and universal applicability under
all conditions. The contingency approach suggests that managers need to be developed in skills
that are most useful in identifying the important situational factors. They should be able to
identify which technique, in a particular situation, will best contribute to the attainment of
management goals. In other words, managers should develop a sort of situational sensitivity
and practical selectively. Contingency approach is most applied in the activities of motivating,
leading and structuring the organization. The other potential areas of application include
employee development and training, decisions of decentralization, establishment of
communication and control systems and planning information decision systems. The
implication of contingent theory on motivation is that behaviour results from individual
reactions to important aspects of the environment and individuals are motivated by influences
around them. The implication on leadership is that managers must not only be kind and
considerate to subordinate but also be flexible leaders and act at the right time. Contingency
leadership approaches and discusses the aspects of the leadership situation that influence how
a leader should behave. This theory says that organization must be designed to fit its situation,
particularly the organizations environment and the technology it uses. Researchers have found
that the more complex and changing the environment, the more flexible the structure must be.
Bureaucratic structure like that of a manufacturing organization can be effective only in a
stable, unchanging environment. Some organizations may find a more flexible structure to be
most effective.

Newspaper Management.

The newspapers have become an indispensable necessity of modern living. It serves as media
for the free exchange of news and views. "It is not only convey news and events, also function
as a long-range reporting telescope - looking and watching, doubting and asking, probing and
investigating.

The functions of the press are mainly to inform, educate and entertain the public. While the
primary function of the press is to provide comprehensive and objective information on all
aspects of the country's social, economic, political and cultural life. It has also an educative and
mobilizing role. The newspaper is a knowledge industry and it is ‘brain intensive ‘. It
communicates knowledge through the exchange of news and views. Knowledge is power. The
flow of knowledge is the flow of socio—political power. The free functioning of the newspaper
industry as a power base has earned it the status of the ‘Fourth Estate. ‘

Newspapers are acclaimed as the vital breath of democracy and hailed as the university of the
people. They act as watch dogs of the sleeping democracy. This fact casts upon the newspapers
the role of guardians of public interests and transforms journalism into a public utility service.
This is what requires the newspaper industry to set before itself the highest standards.

In the economic sphere, the newspaper industry is a ‘key’ industry of the Kenyan economy.
Besides providing employment, direct and indirect, the newspaper industry plays an important
role in economic development of the country. It acts as a link between the producer and the
consumer. Indeed, the industry is regarded as a prime mover of economic progress in more
than one sense.

Despite the heavy impact of other mediums, newspapers still continue to serve as the basic
news media for majority of the mass. Disseminating news in an objective manner is the basic
objective of a newspaper. However, most of the newspaper in the country were started
primarily with the object of propagating the views of certain schools of political thought.

The newspaper industry is a private business enterprise that functions as a public institution. It
is not only a commercial organisation but also an important socio-political institution. On the
one hand it is a business concern just like any other commercial establishments, which aims at a
reasonable return on investment, after meeting all the costs. On the other hand, it is a social
institution, having socio—political obligations. It is expected to reflect and influence community
life socially, politically and economically. Its primary objective is disseminating news, analyzing
events objectively, and creating public opinion to promote community welfare, national
aspirations and economic progress. It occupies a special position in the body politics of a nation.
It is a unique business organisation which has to follow such managerial policies that would
ensure not only return on investments as in any other business organisation, but also should
provide satisfactory public services.

Newspaper industry has a heavy patronage from the government and enjoys several privileges.
There is perhaps no other commodity in the world, which is as perishable as a newspaper, the
product of the newspaper industry. In most cases a newspaper has a life of only a few hours.
The production and marketing of the product of this industry require to be managed
simultaneously without leaving much time in between the two activities. It is very essential for
the industry to manufacture and distribute its product racing against the time.

The newspapers provide joint services to both the readers and the advertisers. Thus, they
derive their revenue from two sources, circulation and advertisements. The revenue from
circulation is the net amount realized from the sales agents for the copies supplied to them
during the month less the commission that is paid to them. The advertisement revenue is the
charges collected by selling the advertisement space in the daily.

The combined revenue from these two components of sales is important for the newspaper
firm. These two sales activities are mutually dependent or complementary to each other.
Further, the price of newspaper is neither monopoly price or competitive price, but is more or
less exogenously fixed and demand for newspaper in inelastic with respect to its price.

Advertisements are gathered either directly by the advertisement department of the

newspaper or through Advertising Agencies. The two services are not independent of each
other. An increase in circulation increases the demand for the advertisement space. It is clear
that if the potential readers do not buy the newspapers, the advertisers will not be interested in
advertising in such newspapers. If a newspaper utilizes a disproportionately large portion of its
space for advertisements, it may lose readers, which may rebound consequently on the
advertisement revenue itself. The newspaper, thus, has to make a proper balance between the
two lines of earnings revenue.

The newspaper is perhaps the only single commodity produced by a private firm which is sold
at a price below its cost of production and still making a profit. The sales revenue normally
covers only two—thirds of the cost of production. This makes the economics and management
of newspapers industry very difficult and complex. The conventional formula of profit of a firm
as the difference between sales revenue and cost of production is inapplicable to newspaper
firm. Thus, profit maximization through sales maximization does not make much sense for a
newspaper firm.

The newspaper industry is one in which there is intense competition. The competition, however
is not perfect, but monopolistic in nature. The industry has the structural characteristic of
monopolistic competition such as large number of firms, no barriers to entry and product
differentiation. No other industry, perhaps faces such intense competition as newspaper
industry. The competition between the different newspaper firms demands high level of
efficiency in the firm’s business. Those firms which cannot meet the stiff competition with their
efficient operation of the business, naturally die out.

Newsprint is the major raw material of the newspaper industry. The scarcity and frequent price
hikes of newsprint are the greatest problem faced by the newspaper industry in these days.
Further, the technological development and competition arising from it have recently changed
the industrial atmosphere. The newspaper industry consists of two distinct operations. First is
gathering, editing and layout of the news and views. Second, the manufacturing process of
newspaper. The former, editorial work is most important to success. Today many newspapers
have resorted to modern technology. Thus, enabling them to offer multi colour printing units,
computerized photo composing, Facsimile transmission systems, computerized offset printing
machines etc.

The sophisticated techniques of production like Desk Top Publishing (DTP), computerized
printing units etc., drastically changed the image of this industry. The traditional skilled workers
like hand compositors are become redundant. This leads to technological unemployment. In
this context the managerial challenge is how to retain them in the organisation by constant
training and retaining, so as to fit them in the firm as required by changing technology. It
means, rearrangement of work and re-designing of organisation is essential.

A newspaper is not just what the editors say, but also what is implied by its design its
appearance, its channels of distribution, its price and the quality and activities of its agents. A
newspaper is therefore a transaction between the producer and the subscriber — a synthesis
what the editor intends and the subscriber or reader perceives. The newspaper must be
planned, not just edited. It means that the people charged with selling the product must
participate in its creation at the outset, not just after they get it from the editors desk or from
the printing press. Acceptance of this phenomena has enormous organizational consequences.
It means that there must be very detailed product and market planning. It also means that
people in charge of these process must be invested with responsibilities and powers that
sometimes cross over more traditional lives of authority.

Now the challenge of present-day newspaper management is to effectively co-ordinate the

evergoing new spirit of journalistic profession and the rapid changes in production technology
with its attendant, redundancy of certain type of job which will demand to renovate the
organisation with a strong marketing orientation. The management of the newspapers must
make themselves ready to face the continuing challenge.'

Monopoly in the Press

The growing circulation of the press as a business institution calls for regulation or control by
the state in the interest of the general public. This danger is threat to free and democratic of
the press and democracy press. There are widespread allegations that the Press is in the hands
of monopolists whose dictates the journalists have to obey and thus this effects freedom of the
press in an invidious manner.

It cannot be disputed that a democratic society lives and grows by free market of ideas and
open public discussion. There can be no single voice of the press in a free society. It is essential
that there should be variety of ownership and opinion and different newspapers and magazines
should put before the public varied and different points of view. Monopoly in the press and a
free democratic society cannot co-exist.

Marketing of newspapers is a very crucial function in the newspaper industry due to the very
short span of life of the produce. Sale through agent and sales through mail are the two main
marketing channels of the newspaper industry. Agents appointed on commission basis for the
distribution of newspapers play an important role in the promotion of its circulation.

Cost, Revenue and Profitability

The ultimate objective of any business firm is to generate surplus from its operation. How best
this could be achieved is the central problem that any management has to address itself.

Cost of Production

One unique feature of the production process of a daily newspaper, unlike that of any other
product, is that in a newspaper the ‘product design ‘changes every day and in fact, each edition
of a newspaper calls for new and additional design. The 'design cost’ due to these daily changes
in the design is an additional component in the cost of production of newspapers. This will, in
fact, be reflected in the ‘wages and salaries ‘paid to employees, because a design change
involves the use of more labour and expertise

The major components of production of newspaper may be identified as (1) material costs
consisting of cost of newsprint and other consumable stores. (2) wages and salaries, (3)
depreciation and (4) other miscellaneous expenses.

The cost of newsprint depends on the price, quantity and quality of newsprint used. The
availability of better-quality newsprint, therefore, is a crucial factor that determines the cost of
production of newspapers.

Salaries and Wages

The second major component of the cost of production of newspaper is the ‘salaries and
wages’. The revision of salaries and wages of newspaper employees periodically by the wage
Boards has resulted in a substantial increase in this item.

News Collection

Charges News collection charges include the monthly fee for the service of news agencies,
Telephone charges, Fax, Photo services, etc

Revenue

The revenue for the newspaper industry has mainly two components, viz., (i) circulation
revenue and (ii) advertisement revenue. The circulation revenue is the total proceeds from the
sale of newspaper less the commission paid to the agents for the services rendered. The
advertisement revenue is the charges collected by selling newspaper space for advertisements
less the commission paid to the advertisement agencies. These two sources of revenue are not
independent of each other. while advertisement rates of a newspaper depend, to a large
extent, on the circulation of the newspaper, the nature and quality of advertisements influence
circulation.

The newspaper industry has a third minor category of revenue, the miscellaneous income by
way of selling wastages like newsprint cut, waste paper, empty barrels, plates, etc.

While the circulation department sells the newspaper as a product or service, the
advertisement department sells space in the newspaper. Thus, there are certain basic
differences in the marketing functions of the two departments.

Advertisements in the newspapers are generally classified into three distinct categories. a)
Classified advertisements b) Display advertisements c) Public notices such as legal
announcements, tenders, financial reports etc.
ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NEWSPAPER INDUSTRY

Management and Organizational structure are interrelated. The efficiency of management

depends to a large extent to the organizational set up. "An organisation consists of two or more
people working together to satisfy a need -— one of their own needs or someone else - The
closer these people work together the more likely is the organisation to be effective and this
implies that certain things have to be agreed and understood between them; the nature of the
need that their organisation has set out to satisfy has to be agreed" Management, as an applied
science, uses the method of science and develops the tests theories about the processes in
which it works. The manager is the specialist who knows and understands management theory
and its applications. At the same time, he has the necessary skills to make such applications in
working organizations."

The basic functions of the management are generally classified as planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, controlling and co-ordination.

Newspaper ‘planning’ involves selecting objectives and then evolving suitable policies,
programmes and procedures to achieve the objectives. This involves a chain of decision making
at each and every stage, characterized by several alternatives and scope of choices. Newspaper
‘organizing’ is a process by which the management brings order out of chaos, remove conflicts
between people over work or responsibility and establish an environment suitable for team
work. ‘Staffing’ is the process of filling the jobs with right people. A company may be successful
with an organizational structure that is far from the best, but it may never be able to attain
objectives if the people who run it and those who do the actual work are incapable. ‘Directing’
a newspaper establishment includes all activities designed to encourage the subordinates to
work effectively and efficiently in both the short and long run. ‘Controlling’ implies
measurement of accomplishment against plans and the correction of deviations to assure
attainment of objectives according to plans. In the age of specialization, it is impossible for a
manager to know all about the functions of an organisation. It is sufficient for managers to
acquire a working knowledge of the different disciplines associated with their organizations so
as to be able to communicate effectively with different department heads and co-ordinate
specialized activities.

Organizational Structure of typical newspaper industry

The hierarchy of the management of most newspapers starts from the Board of Directors,
which appoints the other key personnel like Chief Editor, Editor and Managing Director. The
head of the editorial wing of the newspaper is part of the Director Board coordinates and
controls all the activities of the firm. The Personnel Administration division, circulation,
advertisement, stores and purchases, accounts, press etc under each Divisional Manager and is
controlled and directed by the Editor and Managing Director

The middle level management positions consist of the post of Resident Editors, Chief News
Editor, Assistant Editors and News Editors. The lower management level posts are Chief — Sub-
Editors, senior Sub-Editors and Sub-Editors. The lowest management cadre in the newspaper is
the Sub-Editor, who is appointed direct through advertisement. They are initially appointed as
Sub-Editor trainees and on successful completion of the training, absorbed to the regular cadre
as Sub-Editors or staff Reporters. Subsequently they are promoted to higher posts according to
the policies followed by the management from time to time.

Other departmental heads, Divisional Managers for Personnel and Administration, Divisional
Marketing Manager (Advertisements), Divisional Manager (Sales), Divisional Manager
(Accounts), Divisional Manager (Production) are appointed by the Board of Directors. Under
each Department heads there are section Superintendent and Clerks.

Challenges Facing Newspaper Industry

Newspapers are often criticized for ignoring ethical values, for using the paper as
a tool for settling personal scores or for blackmailing. It is never correct to generalize.
There are of course always some black sheep and ‘fly by night’ newspapers but that is
no reason to loose sight of the very important vacuum being filled by the small papers in
the information communication chain.
A newspaper is a written publication containing news and ads, usually printed on
low costs newsprint often published on a daily and weekly basis. Small newspapers
focus solely on one particular geographical area where most of the readers live.

FINANCIAL PROBLEMS: Since some newspapers get few/no government advertisements and
they are forced to rely on private ads. Subscriptions in small newspapers generate a very
meager revenue and is insufficient to run a newspaper efficiently. The lack of ads thus
makes it hard for small and medium newspaper to run for a very long time

LACK OF ADVERTISEMENTS: The boom in Electronic media has affected the number
of a newspaper gets. Since ads generate a major amount of the organization's revenue,
the dearth of the ads greatly affect a small newspaper's finance.

ADMINISTRATION: With limited revenue, small newspapers cannot maintain a large

staff. So, they depend on a few people to do all of the work. The administration is also
unable to pay their few staff members their monthly salaries. The administration also
finds it hard to pay for the basic utilities like phone and electricity for its employees.

PRINTING COSTS: Some newspapers with their restricted finances, cannot afford to
print on high quality newsprints. They also use low cost printing which is of much lower
quality, giving the newspaper a very cheap look. The papers use rotary print.

NEWSPRINT: The availability of newsprint is very less to suite the current demand. The
costs are also very high. Some newspapers cannot afford to use the best newsprint
available in the market and are then forced to use newsprint of lower cost which makes
the paper look of very low quality.

LOW QUALITY: Since some newspapers use low cost print methods, and low cost
newsprint, the overall presentation of the newspaper is shabby and unattractive. They
rarely use color print. Printing is not clear.
NETWORK: Some newspaper have a very limited network because they employ very few
reporters. Due to time constraints, these few reporters are often forced to work out of
their offices. They do not have time to go tout and widen their networks.

FACILITIES: Some newspapers cannot afford to provide a lot of hi-tech facilities for its
employees. They do not have or have very few computers and internet facilities. The
organization often finds it hard to even pay for their basic utilities.

CIRCULATION: The circulation figures of a some newspaper are very less since small
newspaper are subscribed by people of only one locality. It is a major problem for the
small newspaper and there is less or no scope for the expansion of the organization
also.

COMPETITION: Due to the technological advancements in the field of print media there
is a very hectic competition among the big newspapers which are engaged in price
wars. Newspaper with their limited circulation figures cannot afford to participate
in this price wars.

OTHER PROBLEMS: Some newspapers find it very difficult to offer bonuses and fringe
benefits for their employees. They also do not have the resources to organize
professional workshops for their journalist and other employees to update their
knowledge about technological advancements and break through.
RADIO MANAGEMENT

Radio stations and the people who work in them are faced with, to use the Chinese adage,
'interesting times'. There is increased competition from radio and other traditional media at
local, regional, national and now global levels and increasingly from new technological means
of broadcasting, such as podcasts and Internet audio streaming - we can listen to many digital
radio broadcasts via satellite or the Internet virtually anywhere in the world. This dual aspect of
globalization brings with it interesting political, economic and social issues - who, for instance,
owns, controls and decides on the 'content' of a radio broadcast, how independent is a radio
station, and soon? Many commercial stations are now part of much larger global media
companies, some of which may seem to transcend national politics, policies and laws. These
technological, economic, political and social issues are both complicated and nested - often one
affects another and sometimes in ways that may not be immediately obvious.

Technological advances have resulted not just in the introduction of alternative types of
broadcasting but also in new alternatives to radio listening, such as playing computer games. As
a result, radio broadcasters find that both the number and the types of competitors have
increased at a time when they can reach an ever-increasing audience. This though is not just
due to technological advances; people in the developed world are now supposed to have both
a higher disposable income and more leisure time than previously and increasingly more media
channels to choose between Nonetheless listeners can no longer be considered to be passive
audiences. They are, to use a term present in management and media studies,' active' as
audiences and as consumers who chose from an increasing variety of outlets competing for
their attention, time and money. If they don't like a broadcast, they can, and will, turn it off and
find an alternative. The structure of the competitive environment for radio stations has, and
continues to, change.

Economically, radio stations now compete for audiences and market share in an increasingly
competitive marketplace that may be dominated by a few, large global media companies.
According to Michael Porter (1980) there are five forces that act on an organisation in a
competitive marketplace: the relative power of the buyers; the relative power of suppliers;
potential new entrants; substitute products and finally; the prevailing degree of competitive
rivalry. In Porter's terms the radio industry is an increasingly turbulent and competitive
environment. Suppliers here include, for example, news production companies as well as staff.
So, while a station, for example, may find an increasing number of sources for news feeds it
may also find that it faces more competition to hire and retain a well know DJ. With regard to
the former a station may negotiate a news contract with both local and global news suppliers.
According to Porter, the extent to which a station can 'negotiate' successfully with its suppliers
would vary according to the particular dynamics of each supplier-station relationship. Similarly,
a station's relationship with its various 'customers', that is, for example, its advertisers, the local
community, the audience, and again the buyer station dynamics would affect any relationship
here.

Radio Management

Station Managers are responsible for the day-to-day running of radio stations. They lead
the management team and ensure that the key objectives of the station are met in terms
of output, audience or revenue. They help to determine the station’s objectives and it is
then their job to provide leadership and motivation to station staff to ensure they are
met.

Station Managers are responsible for recruiting and retaining employees, managing
staff welfare and morale and establishing the station's culture. They are responsible for
internal communications with staff as well as external communications, representing the
station at a local level and building relationships within the community.

They ensure that the station complies with laws, regulations and industry codes governing radio
broadcasting. They make sure that complaints are dealt with swiftly.

In commercial radio the job title Station Director may also be used. In some
organizations, a Regional Director may be responsible for more than one station. Most
stations also have a Programme Controller or Programme Director. In the BBC, the job
title Editor, Local Radio is used for local Station Managers who may be supported by
Assistant Editors.

In commercial radio, the focus of the Station Manager's role is sales: maximizing
revenue for the station and managing its budget and resources. Their role is
interdependent with the Programme Controllers or Directors who have day-to-day
responsibility for programming.

Radio Station Departments

In a radio station, there are basically three different wings. They are (i) Programme Wing (ii)
Engineering Wing and (iii) Administration Wing. While the first two wings are responsible for
running a radio station’s broadcasts, the administrative wing provides all the support that is
required for the functioning of the station. Let us learn about the working

Radio responds to new technologies

All the current developments in the structure and regulation of the radio industry must be seen
against the background of changing technology and a greatly increasing range of audio delivery
platforms. While there are those who predicted that the iPod would mean the end of radio as
we know it (see Berry2006 for discussion of this) the same was said at the birth of television,
commercial television, daytime television, the Walkman and the Internet. Radio broadcasting
has a strong survival instinct.

Most of the new media opportunities for radio broadcasting involve targeting small segments
of the listening population, albeit sometimes on a worldwide scale. The old models of
management developed at a time when an individual network could see a weekly audience in
excess of twelve million people are not applicable to the new digitally-delivered strands which
may number their audience in tens of thousands. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that
technological advances will change the purposes for which we use radio. The function of music
radio has arguably already changed forever.
New demands on radio managers

Against this background of unprecedented technological change, the expectations of the radio
audience are changing in other ways. Perhaps in response to the laissez faire wild-west
atmosphere of much of the internet, greater emphasis seems to be being placed on the
reliability and trustworthiness of the traditional public-service broadcaster. In a world where
facts, opinions and entertainment are freely available from thousands of sources it is arguably
only the trust and understanding built up between a broadcaster and their regular listeners that
justifies the existence of traditional services at all. This places new demands on the radio
manager,

The manager in radio

So who manages radio? In radio job titles are seldom a good indication of rank, authority or
experience. Whilst a producer in network radio will have similar responsibilities to a producer in
television, film or the stage, and is additionally expected to act as a director in the studio, it has
become commonplace for a lowly-paid or voluntary assistant who answers the telephones in a
local radio station to also be referred to by the presenter as 'my producer'.

Many community radio stations side step these value-laden terms and are under the day-to-day
control of a Station Manager; a title increasingly used in smaller commercial radio stations
where directors sit at a higher level in a group structure and where little control over editorial
or commercial policy is devolved to the individual station.

It is not simply that 'who manages' has changed in radio, how they manage is also changing.
Radio managers now manage multi-skilled employees, have an ever increasingly participative
audience and increasingly answer the demands of global organizations. Perhaps encouraged by
these demands they have become increasingly influenced by modern management theories.

Nonetheless it can be argued that management theory here cannot be assimilated wholesale;
radio is a specific environment and management needs to adapt to and reflect this
appropriately. Knowledge of the context of changing social, economic, political, technological
and cultural factors is crucial for radio station managers when they plan the way a station runs.
How people receive the station, how it spends its budget and what it can broadcast are all
issues critical to its success. An understanding of the radio industry 'landscape' is important for
any radio station manager. Similarly, managers need insight into changes in national and global
patterns of media ownership and concentration and important concepts such as public service
broadcasting if they are to have an informed framework to work within

THE FUNDING OF BROADCASTING

This is another area in which the tectonic plates are shifting. Public-service broadcasting is
generally funded through a statutory levy on households equipped to receive its transmissions.
There are many ways of collecting this fee. In Britain, viewers have to purchase a licence by
mail, at a post-office or on-line. They may pay it by installments; but, if they own or rent a
television set, they must have a licence even if they never watch the public-service channels it
funds(the publicly-funded radio services are free).Not to pay is actually a criminal, not a civil,
offence. The licence fee is thus effectively a regressive poll-tax – though one to which, added to
the annual bill for local property taxes; in Macedonia it’s an addition to the monthly electricity
bill. In other countries, as in Australia, it comes in the form of a government grant paid for
through general taxation

In most countries public-service broadcasters are now subject to hybrid funding, whereby a
proportion of their income comes from public sources but much of it has to be raised
commercially. Hybrid funding can lead to tensions between public and purely commercial
broadcasters when it leads the former to chase ratings and revenue at the latter’s expense:
allegations of unfairly-subsidized competition and a dilution of the public-service mission are
very common. In the United States, the stations of the Public Service Broadcasting channel
supplement their core income by seeking, through energetic on-air campaigns, free-will
donations from the people of the communities they serve.

Commercial broadcasting has a wider range of funding options. Historically, the most common
source has been advertising revenue, derived from selling air-time for commercials in slots
between and during programmes across the schedule. The proliferation of outlets is inevitably
diluting
this as a source of income. And, as technology enables viewers to ‘skip’ the commercials if they
want to, it provides a less and less secure income stream.

Another source is sponsorship, when an organisation pays to have its product or identity
associated with a programme or with a broadcast event. Sponsorship too is going through a
process of change. Whereas, in the past, it was regarded almost as the equivalent of a
donation, it’s now much more aggressively brand-orientated. In the future, as the market
fragments, it’s likely to shift its emphasis even more closely to the individual consumer.

An area of some controversy is product placement when, rather than buying advertising air-
time, an advertiser pays to have the product included prominently within the editorial content
of a programme; it’s long been an accepted practice in feature films. For years, ‘undue
prominence’ of this kind has been prohibited by broadcasting regulators(and by self-regulating
public-service broadcasters); but the new ability of viewers to evade the commercial breaks is
making such placement an attractive alternative – and probably unstoppable, at least within
fictional and entertainment formats. It should, however, have no place in news and current
affairs programmes, where it would clearly jeopardize editorial independence.

Then there is subscription, where a viewer or listener pays a monthly fee for access to a
specified ‘bundle’ of channels which are otherwise encrypted and so unobtainable. An
alternative (or a supplement) is pay-per view, whereby the consumer accesses and pays for
only the individual programmes he or she wants; this can also be used for video-on-demand
services.

And then there is the internet, initially used by broadcasters only as a supplementary service to
their main channels but now increasingly a production and distribution medium in its own right.
As with newspaper web-sites ,most internet broadcasting is still free to the consumer, as it’s
seen as a spin-off from the core business – even if it costs the supplier a great deal of money. At
present most providers mitigate those costs by selling advertising on the website but we may
well see new kinds of subscription and pay-per-view extended to these services too.
Nor should we forget the programmes themselves as sources of funding. Through co-
production, several broadcasters may contribute to the production budget in return for the
right to transmit the result. It gives the participants access to formats and scales of production
they couldn’t individually afford. Programme sales of completed productions to other
broadcasters can also provide a significant revenue stream for high-volume producers and
there may also be a market for retail sales to the public of cassettes or DVDs. The use of
premium telephone lines in audience-participation formats such as phone-ins can generate a
useful supplement to mainstream income, as can SMS messaging. Small local stations may also
compete – or even collaborate– with the local press in classified advertising (‘small-ads.’).

Where programmes – particularly long running series – attract large audiences, merchandising
can be a significant revenue-earner. Apart from recordings of the programmes themselves,
spin-off products such as tie-in books, toys and games can thrive on the publicity generated by
the original broadcasts. Branded products promoting the identity of a broadcaster or a channel
can also increase consumer awareness ,particularly if they are distributed as part of a presence
at public events.
Television Management

Television is a popular and powerful medium which plays a central role in the
multimedia environment in the present day world.

Audio visual medium

Television content includes both sound and visuals. This audio visual character of television
makes it a magic medium which allows us to watch the world from our
drawing rooms. This powerful visual nature helps television to create vivid impressions
in the minds of the viewers which in turn leads to emotional involvement. The audio
visual quality also makes television images more memorable.

Domestic medium

To watch television, the viewers need not leave the drawing room. No need of going to the
movie theater or buying tickets. They can watch television in the comfort of home
with family. This is why television is generally regarded as a domestic medium. It
provides entertainment and information right inside home and has become an integral
part of the everyday lives of people. It can actually pattern the daily activities of the
viewers. This domestic nature of television influences the content also. A newspaper
report has an impersonal tone, whereas the television anchor addresses the audience
directly. The domestic nature of television makes it an intimate medium. This makes the
viewers experience a sense of closeness to the Television.

Live medium

The important characteristic of television is that it is capable of being a live medium.This is

because the live nature of television allows it to transmit visuals and information
almost instantly. The visuals of an earthquake in Indonesia can reach our television set
in almost no time. This capacity of the medium makes it ideal for transmitting live visuals
of news and sports events. Television allows you to witness events which happen
thousands of miles away.
Mass medium

Anyone with a television receiver can access the information shown on television. This makes it
an ideal medium to transmit messages to a large audience. This characteristic of television
makes it an ideal instrument for transmitting social messages. Television also has a very wide
output, range and reach. It is truly a mass medium.

A transitory medium

Television programmes are not easy to be recorded by viewers. It may be practically impossible
to record every programme which appears on your television. Therefore, television is generally
identified as a transitory medium. However of late advancements in technology is making
recording easily possible.

Expensive medium

There is need of a large amount of machinery and expertise to run a television station. A
television programme can never be made easily. It requires a lot of money, machinery and
experienced people. Broadcast media in general and television in particular involves complex
technology and organization.

Television is a powerful medium with high impact. Generally it is the most preferred medium of
advertisers.

Departments in TV Station

A television station is a business, organization or other enterprise that transmits content

over television. A television transmission can occur via analog television signals or
through digital television signals. Broadcast television systems standards are set by the
government, and these vary around the world. Television stations broadcasting over an
analog system were typically limited to one television channel, but digital television
enables broadcasting through sub channels as well. Television stations usually require
a broadcast license from a government agency which sets the requirements and
limitations on the station.
General Manager. This person overseas all activities done in the organization like
production, advertising, budget issues, community relations, ensuring achieving goals of
mission statement, etc. He/she is the decision maker of short and some long term
objectives apart from the television board committee.

Producers: They come up with production concept. In other words the ‘they hatch the
production concept’. He then budgets for the entire production process, makes major
decision which guide the production process. He is the team leader thus works with
writers, decides on the key talent, hires the director where there is no in-house director,
and guides the general direction of the production. The producer is assisted by the
assistant producer throughout the production.

Assistant Producers: They are the sources contributors and stories for the program.
They assist the producers.

Anchors: They are those who have professional and personal strength and authority,
as though the bearer of that title, through a combination of experience, personality and
charisma is holding the program together and somehow grounding it in reality.

They are also newsreaders or news casters.

Assignment Editors: They are in charge of assigning duties to reporters. Where reporters to get
news, when to bring news items, are some of activities they look into. They also write and come
up with headlines on fished stories which they as well edit before broadcast

.Reporters: They fetch news stories and sometimes do write down those news ideas into
readable stories. These make the news department live and active.

Writers: Their duty is to write down news stories from news ideas brought by reporters.

Videographers: They are also called cameramen. They do shoot shots assigned by the
responsible producers. For example whether it is a shooting script or treatment script
videographers are right people to manage the shooting job.
Sports editors: Their duty is to edit sports news. They do assign sports reporters to reporting
duties.

Meteorologists: They do prepare news of climate and weather changes. They even report
forecast of climate as well as weather. All discussed positions above fall under the news
department which comprise program manager who design new programs, control and
monitors them; production manager, who is responsible of making it.