Fritz Kramer Baron Clive: On Imperialism, Adventure, and Opium 5/12/2004-7/20/2004 8/24/2004

Section 1 Baron Clive: On Imperialism, Adventure, and Opium

History is funny. Before I am attacked, please do not think I take the subject lightly or disrespect the academic discipline in any manner. In reality, I have chosen this very basic word in an attempt to describe an incredibly complex situation. Although one may find humor situationally throughout history, the terms oft-forgot second definition is the connotation I hope to evoke; strangely suspicious or curiously odd. Is it not strange that our conquerors, our warriors, our dictators; very often humanitys most heartless, but driven individuals, are the most celebrated? Yes, emotionally, but of course not in reality. These human beings had the greatest effect on civilization. Their actions have echoed for tens if not hundreds of years. No one could forget Alexander the Greats capture of the majority of the Middle East. Pizarros actions against the Incas and Cortess similar conquest of the Aztecs still hold weight in Latin Americas current political systems. And, who could ignore Napoleons sweeping campaigns in Europe. These names have been immortalized not only because they single handedly had enormous impact on human events but also because they personified an ideology and a time. If all these men have been remembered by history, then why has one been forgotten? His deeds were no less great, and/or terrible. In an era of capitalism and democracy, how could the story of a common mans personal transformation into one of his Nations wealthiest and most heroic figures go untold? Sir Robert Clive conquered India; for his

company, for his nation, and for himself. The following pages will describe Clive and the incredible circumstances that made up his life. By no means is this essay intended to be a definitive work on Clives life or actions. If that is what you are looking for, check my bibliography or head to the Oriental and India Office Reading Room at the British Library. What this piece truly represents is a personal look at a mans life over a three month period. Using Clives India as a microcosm, the goal of the study was to learn first hand if and how an individual within a certain political and economic context had a true effect on his surroundings. Thus, the title of this essay, in fact, represents my general argument. Using the terms imperialism, adventure, and opium as symbols equating economics, politics, and finally the human psyche, I discovered that Clive himself was a necessary factor in the colonization of India. In fact, he was the principle factor. Subsequently, my research displayed that the human spirit is actually the chief element working within windows of opportunity created by the other components. India would not have become a British colony if Clive never existed; at least at the time or to the degree in which it was colonized. Yet, the funny thing is, who has ever heard of Sir Robert Clive?

I. Imperialism The First Multinational The East India Company was formed as a joint stock venture in 1599 in Britain. On December 31st 1600, it received a Royal Charter from Elizabeth I granting monopoly trading rights for the firm in the East Indies region.1 The Portuguese had established a profitable sea
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trade almost a century before. The company did not have any grand effect until it successfully secured a foothold onto the subcontinent in Surat in 1613. In the next two years the British firm would opportunely negotiate a treaty in which they would receive exclusive rights to build factories as well as permanent habitations in exchange for European luxuries to the Great Mogul.2 As time passed and the firm continued to turn excellent profits, it spread its influence to many regions of the country. It would soon surpass the Portuguese and establish posts in present day Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta). The major factories in these locations would also turn into the militarized forts of the Company during the next century. Over time, the primary products that the Company exported from the nation would shift. Originally, they dealt with spices, which had an incredibly high profit margin.3 But as other European firms also began to enter the market, exports shifted to include textiles such as chintz fabric and silk. From the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th, the Company found an incredibly profitable combination; selling Indian opium for Chinese tea.4 This would lead into the Opium Wars beginning in the late 1830s. French and Dutch and Portuguese Oh my. The Portuguese and Dutch arrived in India earlier than both the French and English. Portuguese settlements in the South West of the subcontinent began to spring up during the 16th century. Not until 1640, when the dynastic union of Portugal and Spain broke, would the government of Portugal control the regions wholly. Vasco de Gama was the first man to navigate an all water trade route between Europe and India. He arrived in Calicut in 1498
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primarily looking for precious stones and spices. And, he found them. Of note, the Portuguese held habitations in Cochin as early as 1503 and Goa in 1510. Over the next century, the Portuguese were the chief European players involved in the subcontinent. But Indias riches were plentiful and extremely valuable to the European markets, so naturally, more entities would join the Portuguese as time passed. The Dutch formed the VOC, Vereenigde Landsche Ge-Oktroyeerde Oostindische Compagnie (The Dutch East India Company) in 1602, and even though the firm was created after the East India Company, it was more centralized and stable and entered the subcontinent before the British.5 The other chief player in India during this early trading period was the French. Compared to the rest of the nations, they had a rather slow start, not incorporating until 1664. The primary purpose of the firm was to compete directly with the British and Dutch firms and secure a footing in the relatively new spice trade. Normally, this form of trade would not specifically fall into the category of imperialism; trade is not necessarily empire building. The foreign nations did their best to gain hegemonic control over East Indies trade routes. But India is far too large a country to have its domestic market taken over by these aggressive intruders. What made these firms imperial were the charters and contracts held between the companies and their mother countries. In all cases and to various degrees, the documents allowed for the acquisition of territory to establish trading posts inside India. This included removing the indigenous population by violent means if necessary. Clearly, these can be seen as imperial actions. Moguls and Their Bumpy Rule

Sutherland

The political hierarchy of 18th century India was quite complex and in constant flux. This was the case because of the interaction of two chief factorseconomics and religion. Both Islam and Hinduism were represented in the structure. Sitting at the apex of the hierarchy was the Great Mogul of Hindustan in Delhi. Directly under this sovereign was the Turkish nobility. These Muslims chiefly controlled large princedoms in what now would be considered Northern India. The third level was made up of the Hindu aristocracy. This group represented the highest Hindu caste and controlled the nations trade as well as bureaucratic matters.6 The dynamic between these groups had worked relatively well since the 16th century because the Muslims had enough money to quell the demands of the Hindus and keep them in the aristocratic lifestyle that they were accustomed. But, in any situation where a minority is ruling over a great majority, the situation could easily be stressed. The system began to fail in the mid to late 17th century. A Hindu agrarian force known as the Marathas would begin to attack Mogul power in 1664. Even though they were extremely numerous and powerful, the group was unable to form coherent political and administrational systems in the regions they conquered.7 This fact kept them from being an effective political force in India. They primarily plagued the middle of the subcontinent. However, this created a buffer between the two Muslim controlled regions of the country. Because of this, Asaf Jah, a high-ranking Muslim nobleman received the governorship for the South in 1713, which in turn separated the nation in three independently acting regions. This decentralization of power in the subcontinent would play directly into the hands of the European Imperial powers. In many cases, mercenary armies would perform their

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services to the highest bidder. This would play a decisive role in Clives first true military tests during the Seven Years War and the contemporaneous events in India. The Birth of a Lord On September 29th 1725, Robert Clive was born in Styche Hall near the village of Moreton Saye in the agriculturally based Shropshire, England. His father, Richard, was part of the landed gentry, but by no means wealthy. In fact, to make ends meet, Richard Clive took up a law practice and moved to London separating himself from his family when Robert was a young child. Because of this, the young Clive lived with his Aunt, Uncle, and cousins until the age of nine, when his Aunt died and Clive departed for London to live with his father.8 As the first son of a family of five daughters and one brother, Clive was quite spoiled in his youth. Robert Harvey notes that even at a young age Clive, adored fighting, and, his uncle commented with concern that he is out of measure addicted to fighting. 9 This characteristic could possibly stem from the inconsistency in the boys youth combined with an aspect of feminine overindulgence from the women in his family, which is thought to be the catalysts of his sensitive and egotistical nature.10 School, at least the educational components, held little importance to the young Clive. Bored with small city life and angry with the belief that he was superior to his surroundings, Clive was a bully and a grandstander. He supposedly led a gang of school children who threatened to break local shopkeepers windows if they were not paid off.11 Even though these youthful actions could be extrapolated to events later in his life, his teachers saw no aspiring talent in his delinquency.
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Higginbotham Harvey 10 Harvey 11 Harvey

With Clives little academic inclination or aspiration, Richard was able to secure an interview for his son (who he deemed Idiot Bob) with the East India Company through a personal connection. Clive secured the position of writer, and was to be sent to Madras. Even though this clerical appointment was the lowliest job of the East India Company, any job with the firm was highly prestigious.12 Finally, Clive knew that he would no longer be trapped by the confines of small town life and meager economic means. The only thing separating him and the romanticism of India was a six-month sea voyage. II. Adventure Home on the Fort The harsh realities of India quell enchanting idealism rather quickly. So does an extra nine months added to an intercontinental journey. Clives voyage on the East India Companys ship, the Winchester, was plagued with harsh weather forcing unplanned stoppages in Brazil as well as Dutch India. Finally, 15 months after departing from London, Clive spotted the ports of Madras on June 1st 1744.13 For Europeans, India primarily represented one thing; a lucrative opportunity. Monetary incentive was the chief attraction to the subcontinent. Clive found himself in a haven for enterprising young men from the middle to lower levels of the upper class. There were no women, no society, and no fun.14 In fact, the British community in Madras numbered just around 400. A person was in India for a single reason, to make as much money as quickly as possible. Even when compared to 18th century standards, India was a far cry from the English definition of civilized society. Clives first experience with an Indian in Madras was when
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one carried him on his back from the ocean to Fort St. George.15 Naturally, this first impression would do little for Clives development of any cultural understanding. The stifling heat combined with the overt power of nature, insects, dust storms, etc., found in the tropics was a great departure from the chronic dampness and chill of the British Isles. Lastly, Clives job was strenuous and boring. The combination of these characteristics created a general homesickness in Clive and his usually rabble-rousing personality turned inward. During these initial months Clive became a bit of a loner, took up smoking hookah and chewing betel-nut, and passed his time by studying all the subjects he had previously ignored in school. For two years Clive lived this routine, but fate would soon call the young man to action. Anglo-French Conflict His was a dormant nature which was roused and brought to life by India.16 The War of Austrian Succession, which would slowly turn into the Seven Years War over the following decade, pitted the British against the French the same year Clive arrived in India. Until this time, the nations companies had traded independently and peacefully. However, the French had made inroads in new commodities like indigo and saltpeter by the mid 18th century, enticing the East India Company to make the first aggressive move requesting a British fleet to attack the French.17 This move created a chain of events that would transform the subcontinent forever. The French attacked Fort St. George on September 7th 1746 by sea. Two days later the East India Company negotiated a peace in which the French would occupy the fort but

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the British would not be imprisoned. Clive was impassioned by the embarrassment of his Company and nation. Therefore when asked to promise to not raise arms against their French occupiers, Clive and three friends refused. They were immediately imprisoned. A hero must deal in drama and that is exactly where Clive and his compatriots excelled, making a daring escape by darkening their skin and dressing like Indians and then scurrying past a sleeping sentinel.18 Over the next three days, they traveled south to the closest British bastion, Fort St. David in Calicut. On arrival, Clive enlisted into the military. The British lacked troops to mount a counterattack against the French. It would take eight months for the necessary replacements to arrive at Fort St. David. When his test came, though, Clive would pass with flying colors. During an engagement South of the French city of Pondicherry, French soldiers attacked Clive from barely ten yards firing a bullet through his hat and coat. But, the young and brash soldier would not stand down. His platoon followed his energetic lead and refused to retreat while Clive ran back to the lines for additional ammunition. Limited skirmishes continued until December when a peace treaty between Britain and France, ending the aggression in Europe, called for the return of Madras to the East India Company and British control. Clive had begun to receive wide spread notoriety among his contemporaries from his brave military actions and somewhat reckless and cocky behavior. Robert Harvey recounted a story in his work, Clive: The Life and Death of a British Emperor, in which Clive openly accused a man of cheating while playing cards and a duel ensued. Clive had the first shot; he missed. The officer, a notoriously good marksman, told him to withdraw the accusation of cheating, and he would be spared. Clive is said to have declared, Fire and be damned. I said you cheated, I say so still and I will never
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pay you. The officer raised his gun, then lowered it, and his adversary was spared.19 Behavior like that makes you a popular man, especially if your opponent was actually cheating. The Indian Climate At this time Clives military and political philosophy and general strategy began to take form. Even though Clive would return to England during peace time after securing a small fortune, the Seven Years War would call him back to India. Taking cues from his higher ranking officials, Clive was first able to observe and then use his innate selfconfidence and popularity to achieve tactical success. Until this time, the British army and the East India Company were associated but independent entities.20 Stringer Lawerence, the commander of the British forces sent after the French had taken Fort St. George, realized that the buildup of troops would be wholly depleted during peace time leaving both the military and the East India Companys interests in jeopardy. The East India Company had an interesting dynamic. It was government sanctioned, but beyond that, the crown had little control of its actions. In fact, Tuck states in his six volumes on the East India Company that British policy toward the subcontinent was an elusive concept.21 At the same time, inherent boundaries existed within the organization of the East India Company. Because of the great distances separating the corporate structure from where the actual trade originated from in India, it was very difficult to establish any control. Because of this, a great deal of the firms policy was created within

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the subcontinent. As long as profits kept rolling in, company officials within India held relative autonomy on organizational decisions.22 Clive would slowly militarize the East India Company into a totalitarian force. This would primarily occur over the next twenty years through strategic alliances with the various princes and Indian leaders in Southern India and then Bengal. As discussed earlier, the breakdown of Indian leadership had begun to crack at the turn of the 18th century. Three primary nawabs (viceroys of the Great Mogul) existed in India during the middle of the 18th century; the nawabs of Deccan, Bengal, and Oudh. Constant fighting occurred between the various sects living within the subcontinent. However, Indian warfare was quite different from that of their European colonizers. Principally, Indian warfare was a show of threat, without any proof through action. The army with the greatest number of men, the most elephants, and the toughest looking cavalry was often the victor without a display of force. It was discovered that small tactical European forces could engage the larger Indian forces with high degrees of success simply because the Indians were not used to actual combat. Clive would utilize this concept by using groups of specially trained British forces to lead the Indian masses and crush any and all opposition. To Clive, this leadership role was wholly natural, especially the domineering position over the Indians. The Sweet Smell of Victory Clive amassed some of the most astounding victories in military history. In 1751 he designed and implemented a plan to place the rightful heir of the nawab of the Carnatic in power, undermining Francois Dupleixs plans for French trading supremacy. After an initial attack, Clive was forced to hold position in a dilapidated fort known as Arcot. For fifty days with a force of 120 Europeans and 200 Indians, Clive laid inside the fort under
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heavy siege. The story of their trouble found its way to the Marathas who had also been in support of the true heir but believed the fight was useless. Upon hearing of the courage and strength of the Englishmen they began to move in support of Clive. Raja Sahib, who was in charge of the siege of Arcot, had no intention of facing the Maratha force and after unsuccessful negotiations decided for a full assault on Clives position. Utilizing elephants with iron plates attached to their heads to crush the fortified walls, Sahib staged a failed attack, which left him 400 casualties to Clives, six. The next morning, Sahibs force had vanished. The news of Clives astounding victory at the age of 27 over the Indian prince and his French allies hit Britain like lightning. He was deemed the Heaven Born General.23 Clive was able to fully relish in his actions as he journeyed home in 1753. Battling what was thought to be manic-depression brought on by malaria, Clive tired of India and made the decision to travel back to Britain. He bought a single ticket, but two weeks before departure, the woman he had been courting, Miss Margaret Maskelyne, heard of his sudden departure. Somehow in between his spontaneity and her disappointment in the news, he proposed marriage. They were wed three days later, and ten days after that, left the subcontinent together.24 7 Years War Clive traveled back to India two years later in 1756 by the urging of the East India Company. The firm needed stability in the subcontinent for trade and Clive knew there would be a window of opportunity to win respect, prestige, and money.25 He returned with the company position of Governor of Fort St. David and the military position of lieutenant23 24

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colonel. The day he took his seat at Fort St. David, the nawab of Bengal sacked Calcutta and took all the remaining British from the old fort and imprisoned them in what is now infamously called the Black Hole of Calcutta. Although legend mixes with fact, the general estimates are that between 100 and 150 men were locked in an 18ft x 18ft room with minimal ventilation during Indias staggering hot season. The next morning only 23 men were still alive. When news of this atrocity reached Clive, it was just the reason he needed to start a fight. It took him and his men six months to reach the captured Fort St. William and one month to fully defeat the nawab. The numbers of the battle are quite astounding. A force of 1100 Europeans and 800 Indians who possessed 7 field guns beat the nawabs army consisting of 34,000 men, 50 elephants, and 40 canons.26 The East India Company received grand concessions through the resulting treaty. However, by no means was this the nawabs final defeat. Two more master strokes would be necessary, part deceit part pure force. To dispose of the nawab, Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the British needed the support of his commander and chief, Jafar Ali Khan. And to reach friendly terms with Jafar Ali Khan, the East India Company had to deal with a Bengali trader named Omichund. Omichund, in return, demanded a sum of 300,000 pounds to not betray the plan. This was a ludicrous ammount and the firm found itself in a precarious position. However, Clive decided to fight treachery, with treachery. He produced two treaties, one on red paper, one on white; one that made concessions for Omichund, one that did not. This dishonest master stroke would catch up with him some ten years later. The conspiracy proved successful and Jafar Ali removed his support from the nawab.27

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Clive would have his chance at Suraj-ud-Dowlah on the fields of Plassey soon after. Clive had 1100 Europeans and about 2000 Indians. They would face a force of 35,000 foot soldiers and a 15,000 member calvary. They were also out gunned almost 5 to 1, and the 50 canons under the nawabs controlled were manned by French specialists.28 Those are bad odds. But, Clive was never one to step down from a gamble. He had amassed his fame and fortune by taking risks, and this would be no different. Fate seemed to play into Clives hands as monsoon rains poured down rendering his enemys canons useless. Prior to the precipitation, accurate gunning from Clives men had killed at least two important generals in Surajs force. The deception of the past months also played out perfectly. Jafir Alis force stayed neutral throughout the engagement. Harvey states that only 12,000 of the 50,000 participated in the attack. Jafar Alis was quickly granted the position of nawab after the battle. Clive received 160,000 pounds for the affair from the new ruler. He also received a 27,000 per annum tax annuity and secured 100,000 yearly for the East India Company. In effect, though, the East India Company had unofficial control of Bengal, one of the single largest and wealthiest regions of India. At the age of thirty-five, Clives health would make him return to England in 1760 with approximately 300,000 pounds.29

III. Opium The Business of Government Clive returned to India five years later in 1765 to strengthen the foundations of a British India. On his arrival in Calcutta he learned that nawab Jafar Ali had died willing him

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an additional 70,000 pounds. With the death of the nawab, fighting flaired again and Clive was presented with the opportunity to take over Oudh just as he had Bengal. But, Clive realized that the new land mass would be too bureaucratically difficult for the East India Company to administer. With diplomatic mastery, Clive handed the region back to its rightful nawab in exchange for true sovereignty of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa to the Company. Sovereignty also included a 4 million pound tax base. The East India Company was the rightful ruler of Indias richest region.30 Clive could do little more for his Company and country. He was already an incredibly rich man before the age of forty-five. Also, the subcontinent continually plagued his health, so he departed from India for the final time in 1767. Clive ventured back to England where he began to develop a system for administering the subcontinent by British rule. There would remain a fuzzy line between the East India Company and the Crown until 1784. By that time, Bengal was virtually a British province. Clives Psyche When Clive returned to England for the first time in 1755 he ran for the House of Commons. He lost. Clive never fully received acceptance from the highest class of British society. They considered him a rogue who had made his fortune by fighting and tricking savages in a far off land. In reality, Clive was an extremely determined individual who was fortunate enough to find himself in an environment that rewarded self confidence and action. Nirad Chaudhuri compares Clive to Napoleon because of the two mens similar irrepressible urge for self-assertion.31 He was also dominated by temperament. Financial

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and psychological rewards met all Clives spontaneous and risky actions. Instant celebrity met Clive on each return trip to his mother land. Yet, he always felt like an outsider. Clive was an excellent husband and father. No contrasting reports exist in a time when adultery and general machismo ran rampant. Yet, the same mind that married at a whim for love was heavily medicated by harsh barbiturates to dull physical and mental pain. Clive obviously displayed a superiority complex, but when examined, the true catalyst of his turmoil was most likely an inferiority complex. He never fully coped with his somewhat

meager background. Throughout his life he strove to re-elevate the Clive family to the highest social strata. The Company he made rich would be his downfall. In 1772, Clive was blamed when the East India Company experienced a banking default. He was brought in front of Parliament to testify on his actions in India.32 Clives critics vehemently attacked his role, deeming him an oppressor and liar, specifically citing the case of the fraudulent treaty involving Omichund. Of course this was true, but no one had seemed to complain as long as figures had been in the black. Clive gave an impassioned defense stating that his monetary rewards, although large, had been fractions of what he was originally offered by the nawabs, which was also wholly true. His famous words, leave me my honor, take away my fortune, pushed the vote his way, and Clive was vindicated by Parliament.33 But the trial had already etched its trauma into this complex mans psyche. Within eighteen months he was dead at the age of 49. A Heros Death?

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Robert Clive was found dead in his home on November 22nd 1774. Apart from that fact, speculation and intrigue have been the norm when discussing his death. The general belief was, after helping a friend of the family fix a pen with his trusty pen-knife, Clive took a double dose of laudlum (mixture of brandy or whisky and opium), turned the knife against himself and slit his throat. Clive had taken the laudlum against his doctors orders because of a combination of a chronic stomach ailment and vertigo which caused him severe depression. More than likely, there was also an addiction to the drug. The story seems feasible until one considers the size of a pen knife and the repeated slashes to the neck that one would have to undergo to do any real damage. This last act would be a final testament to Clives bravery and fortitude, if he in fact committed suicide. This mystery might never be solved however, as Clive was placed in a casket soon after his death without an autopsy and buried in an unmarked grave in the middle of the night. This is certainly a curious way for a national hero to be escorted to his final resting place, or should we say, funny?

IV. Conclusion An ordinary leader would hot have been enough to produce the events that occurred on the subcontinent. Only someone with Clives combination of bold recklessness and subtle intrigue could have so effected the direction of Indian history and the formation of the worlds first great multinational operation. The Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French spent equal amounts of time in the subcontinent, yet were unable to seize the same opportunities that Clive successfully captured. All men love money and prestige, but Clive was attracted to a higher commodity, acceptance from a group who would never consider him one of their

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own. This is the same reason why popular history has overlooked Robert Clive from its pages. In many ways, he was an undesirable character. By no means would the British want to be represented by his unsavory manner, whether it was in making his fortune, or taking his life. Not only did he stoop to the level of his opponents, but he beat the savages at their own game. Could this antithesis of the prim and proper, outspoken brazen and passionate, become a symbol of British ideology? No, he certainly could not, especially when the modern United Kingdom has strived to separate itself from its imperial past. The funny thing about history is that it seems to be quite cyclical. Clives son got exactly what his father had always desired. Edward Clive married into the Welsh nobility and was given the title of the Earl of Powis after his fathers death. An injection of new money into the aristocracy always works wonders. And, now, in 2004, Clives ancestors are in such a financial state that you or I could walk down to Christies Auction House on King Street in London and purchase priceless pieces from the Clive collection. Now thats even funnier.

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Bibliography Chaudhuri, N. Clive of India: A Political Psychological Essay. Barrie and Jenkins. London, England. 1975. Edwardes, A. The Rape of India: A Biography of Robert Clive and a sexual history of the conquest of Hindustan. The Julian Press, Inc. NY, NY. 1966. Foster, W. The East India House: Its History and Associations. John Lane the Bobley Head Limited. London, England. 1924. Harvey, R. Clive: The Life and Death of a British Emperor. Thomas Dunne Books. NY, NY. 1998. Higginbotham, JJ. Men Whom India has Known. Higginbotham and Co. Madras, India. 1874. Lawson, P. The East India Company: a History. Longman Group. Essex, UK. 1993. Marshall, PJ. Problems of Empire: Britain and India 1757-1813. Miller, R. The East Indiamen. Time-Life Books. Alexandria, Virginia. 1980. Phillips, CH. The East India Company, 1784-1834. Manchester University Press. Manchester, UK. 1940. Paine, T. Reflections on the Life and Death of Lord Clive. W. Clark. London, England. 1820. Sutherland, L. The East India Company in 18th Century Politics. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK. 1952. Sutton, J. Lords of the East: The East India Company and its ships. Conway Maritime Press LTD. London, England. 1981. Tuck, P. The East India Company: 1600-1858. Routledge. NY, NY. 1998. Wilson, CR. Press List of Bengal and Madras Papers, 1746-1785. Imperial Record Office, 1902.

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