CHAPTER 3
Pesticides, History, and Classification
YUSUF ABUBAKAR • HABIBU TIJJANI, PHD • CHUKWUEBUKA EGBUNA, BSC, MSC •
CHARLES OLUWASEUN ADETUNJI, PHD • SMRITI KALA, PHD • TOSKË L. KRYEZIU •
JONATHAN C. IFEMEJE, PHD • KINGSLEY C. PATRICK-IWUANYANWU, PHD
INTRODUCTION
Pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances used to
prevent, destroy, or control pest including insects, fungus,
rodents or, unwanted species of plants causing harm dur-
ing production and storage of crops [1]. The word “pesti-
cide” is a broad term that includes insecticides, herbicides,
fungicides, and rodenticides that may be used to kill some
specific pests. Pesticides are classified according to the
sources of origin as either being a chemical pesticide or
biopesticides. Biological pesticides are host specific. They
are highly specific in the sense that it acts on the target
pest and strongly related organisms, whereas chemical
pesticides are nonspecific with wide range of activities
on a large group of nontarget organisms. Biopesticides
are environmentally friendly because they are less toxic,
decomposed easily, and required in small quantities.
Chemical pesticides cause several environmental pollu-
tion because they are quite toxic and may not be biode-
gradable. More so, biopesticides are of important
advantage being less susceptible to genetic modification
in plant populations. This confirms the little chance of
pesticide resistance in pests, which is hardly encountered
in case of chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides are
further subdivided into organochlorine, organophos-
phate, carbamate, and pyrethroids. Biopesticides are group
of pesticides derived from natural materials such as ani-
mal, plant, and microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and nematodes). They include microbial pesticides, plant
incorporated protectants, and biochemical pesticides.
Pesticides act through several mechanisms. Some
are termed growth regulators as they either stimulate
or retard the growth of pest, while repellents are
known to repel pests, and attractants attract pests or
chemosterilants, which sterilize pests. Pesticides with
a wide range of activities and used to control more
than one class of pests are difficult to classify [2]. Ex-
amples are aldicarb, which is used in Florida citrus
production and may be considered an acaricide,
Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819304-4.00003-8
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
insecticide, or nematicide for the reason that it con-
trols mites, insects, and nematodes, respectively.
Aside from established chemicals employed as insec-
ticides, other traditional means are also employed to
decrease the growth of insect or limit their activities.
Some of these compounds are generally meant for other
purposes but are being used as insecticides. They
include alcohols and oils. Alcohols are used as surface
compounds for the control of mosquito larvae. It is
the active ingredient in Agnique, a known larvicidal
product. The aim for the uses of alcohol is to reduce sur-
face tension of water, thus reducing the adherence of
mosquito larvae or pupae leading to their drowning
and death. Oils similarly are useful for surface applica-
tions. However, they prevent supply of oxygen for the
survival of the larvae or pupae. The use of this water sur-
face control has several advantages because their actions
are more physical than conventional insecticides that
are more biochemical in actions. These ensure that the
organisms do not develop pesticide resistance.
HISTORY
Ever since ancient times, human civilizations have tried to
apply the most effective and less time-consuming ap-
proaches for cultivating and preserving their food re-
sources. An actual illustration of this is how they
cultivated venomous and nutritious vegetation in the
same place due to the shielding effect of toxic plants for in-
sect elimination. Correspondingly, throughout this period,
elemental sulfur has also been used. These would be the
initial methods for removing pests for several millennia.
Later on came the Ebers papyrus, one of the oldest
still existing documents that contain some of the prep-
aration techniques for the removal of insects from
foods. In parallel, traditional Chinese medicine also
uses primitive sulfides. It is likewise interesting to note
that Homer’s epic work “Odysseus,” written around the
29
30 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
same time, describes the use of substances to remove
insects.
Around 1500's, the early stages of the use of the
“para-pesticides,” namely mercury and arsenic,
emerged. These substances were used until the start of
synthetic pesticide era (1940 and beyond), initially for
the destruction of food reserves during the World War
II and later on as precious tools for cultivating processes
of foods consumed daily. It is crucial to note that
through this time, several scientists have highlighted
the adverse effects of pesticides on human health
when used for a long time. For instance, the drastic in-
crease in the number of lymphoma patients is a topic
that would be discussed until today [1e3].
Present Era
A vital event in the history of pesticides represents the
discovery of the initial modern pesticide: dichloro-
diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) by Paul Muller in
1939. This revelation granted him years later the Nobel
Prize in Medicine, primarily because of the decrease of
the damages caused by pesticides in agriculture and like-
wise health-related problems such as malaria or typhus.
Despite its sensation, the use of DDT would not last
long. In 1962, the book “Silent Spring” by author
Rachel Carson, elaborated the harmful effects of DDT.
Immediately after that, numerous states banned the
use of DDT in favor of lower risk organophosphates
and carbamates in the forthcoming years.
Presently, there are still public concerns about the
consequences of using pesticides in health (especially
in old people and children). In contrast, because of
the exponential growth of the population in the last de-
cades, global production of pesticides is growing at the
same trend [2]. In the meantime, according to the new
EU regulations, producers are required to minimize the
manufacture of pesticides to decrease the number of
serious illnesses in the population. However, high
attention is now being dedicated to the arrival of
pesticide-resistant herbs, a factor that will definitely
have a high impact in the future [1e3].
GENERAL MODE OF ENTRY OF PESTICIDES
The mode of entry of pesticides can either be systemic or
nonsystemic.
Systemic Contact Pesticides
Pesticides with systemic contact are absorbed by ani-
mals or plants and transferred to tissues that are not
treated. Systemic herbicides pass through the plant
and can reach in the areas of leaves, stems, or roots
that are untreated. They are effective in killing of weeds
even with partial spray coverage of the pesticide. They
effectively penetrate the plant tissues and pass via plant
vascular system to kill target pests. In addition, few pes-
ticides are considered locally systemic and pass only to a
distance that is not far from the point of contact. Such
insecticides include 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,
4-D) and glyphosate [3].
Nonsystemic Contact Pesticides
The nonsystemic pesticides are also known as contact
pesticides, as they produce the desired effect when
they come in contact with the pest. Nonsystemic pesti-
cides must come into physical contact with the pest for
it to be active. Pesticide enters the body of pests via
their epidermis while in contact which result to death
by poisoning. These pesticides must not necessarily
penetrate the tissues of the plant and consequently
not transported via the vascular system of the plant.
Contact pesticides include paraquat, diquat, and
dibromide.
Stomach poisoning pesticide enters the pest’s body
via their mouth and to the digestive system resulting
to death by poisoning. These insecticides kill the vector
by destroying the midgut (or stomach) of the larvae, for
example, malathion.
Fumigants are pesticides that act or kill the target
pests through production of vapor. These pesticides
form poisonous gases after application. The vapor
formed enter the body of pests through their respiratory
system (tracheal) via spiracles, which result, to death by
poisoning. Most of their active ingredients are in liquid
form when packaged under high pressure and change to
gases when they are released. Fumigants are used for the
removal of pest from stored product such as fruits, veg-
etables, and grains. It is also useful in controlling pests
in soil.
Repellents also belong to this class of pesticides.
Their uniqueness is the ability to repel the pest and
not exactly kill, but they are distasteful enough to
keep pests away from treated areas. They also interfere
with the ability of pests to locate crop. Repellants are
useful in public health applications to prevent mosqui-
toes and bloodsucking insects including ticks and black
flies from biting pets, livestock, or humans.
USEFULNESS OF PESTICIDES IN
COMMERCIALIZED AGRICULTURE
The use of pesticides has gained the attention of several
stakeholders, farmers, scientists, governments, and
agroindustries. The usefulness of pesticides were
summarized:
 CHAPTER 3 Pesticides, History, and Classification
1. Pesticides have been highlighted as an effective
weapon of man for the management of agricultural
pests affecting the increase in agricultural produc-
tion. The process of applying these pesticides has led
to a drastic reduction of insect pests, diseases, and
weeds that can strikingly decrease the amount of
harvestable agricultural yield and economic margin.
2. The utilization of pesticides has resulted in enhanced
agricultural production of quality foods. For example,
the consumption of diet having fruit and vegetables
prevail over impending risks from consumption of
low residues of pesticides available in some agricul-
tural crops after application of pesticides [4].
3. The application of pesticides helps in the preserva-
tion of wood from destruction by termites and other
wood-boring insects as well as in controlling the
spread of malaria vector, the Anopheles mosquitoes
[5].
4. The reception of pesticides for the management of
agricultural pests by farmers has boosted and
encouraged several scientists and researchers to
divert most of their energy into more research and
growth in the pesticide subsector. This has led to the
discovery of more types of pesticides with different
modes of action.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF
PESTICIDES
Some of the demerits of pesticide use include the
following:
1. The consequence of environmental pollution that
has led to uncontrolled outward influence on the
quality of the environment makes the utilization of
pesticides counterproductive. This might cause a
long-term or short-term effect that entails
contamination of groundwater or drinking water.
Some pesticides also have adverse effect on
nontarget plant which results to the bio-
accumulation of the pesticide’s residues [6].
2. Many pesticides have been shown to exhibit a
nontarget effect on beneficial microorganism, soil
quality soil enzymes as well as other beneficial
aquatic microorganisms and algae [7].
3. The continuous use of pesticides has led to the
development of resistance by target organism as
well as cross-resistance to other vigorous constitu-
ents from some pesticides. This later on might lead
to the development of more enhanced vicious
populaces of pests or target organisms.
4. Severe usage of pesticides has made the farmers to
depend and ignore other available alternatives
31
such as organic agricultural practices and bio-
pesticides [8].
5. The high cost of production and the socioeco-
nomic aspect of the pesticides have discouraged so
many investors most especially taking into
consideration the standard benefit:cost ratio [9].
The blend of secondary pest outbursts, insect
resistance, government rules, and legal clashes over
well-being and the surroundings, consistently have
repercussions for the economics of unadventurous
pesticide utilization.
6. The registration of most pesticides has been
observed to be very tedious, time consuming, and
highly demanding with a lot of requirements. This
has resulted to a lot of economic challenges due to
the high costs implication involved in research and
development necessary for utilization that has led
to less preference of pesticides for control of agro-
nomic pests.
7. The health challenges and food safety issue have
become paramount most especially during post-
harvest storage of agricultural crops whenever
pesticides are used to prevent the incident of agri-
cultural pest, that is, Gamalin 20 and malathion.
This includes acute poisoning, chronic poisoning,
neurobehavioral effects, developmental and
reproductive effects, carcinogenic effects, and
immunological effects. Most farmers in developing
country do not allow the pesticides to decay before
they are being send to market and most consumers
do not wash these agricultural produces before
consumption that has led to the accumulation of
ingestion of pesticide residues. This has led to the
issue of food poisons and increase in death of
many families [10]. Another typical challenge is the
issue of increase in human infertility and birth
defects [11].
8. The continual utilization of pesticides has
increased the issue of environmental pollution
whenever pesticides are used for the management
of pests. This has resulted to pesticide applications
that contribute significantly to pollution of the
environment. This happens whenever pesticides
are introduced into the environment that normally
leads to run-off into water body, leakage of pol-
lutants and irrigation water into groundwater, and
drift of pesticides through wind and soil erosion.
All these have led to systemic introduction of pes-
ticides into the ecosystem that has increased the
number of killing among the wildlife while some
grieve impairment to vital roles such as reproduc-
tive failure.
32 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
9. The continual utilization of pesticides has led to
high level of soil impoverishment by affecting the
water retention, soil structure, physicochemical
properties, and porosity that normally results into
less water permeation and more run-offs thereby,
leading to flooding down streams.
10. The incessant application of pesticides has resulted
into pollution of water bodies. This has led to the
continual washing of pesticides into the water
bodies by irrigation water and rainwater. The non-
biodegradability of pesticides that easily build-up in
the bodies of plant and animal causes a great
instability along the food chain and high level of
imbalance in the ecosystem, and causes biodiversity
collapse. A typical example is the percolation or
leakages of pesticide residues into water bodies,
which consequently led to the killing of aquatic
invertebrates and fishes whenever pesticides are
applied, that is, application of DDT for the killing of
fishes.
11. The continual usage of pesticides has increased the
rate of attenuation of soil fertility. Most especially it
also affects the activity of soil microorganism that
perform decomposition of organic matters, soil
aeration, and most especially these microorgan-
isms that are involved in the biodegradation of soil
nutrient (nitrogen cycles, carbon cycle, phosphorus
cycle), that is, free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae, blue-green algae,
and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus.
12. The erroneous dosage of pesticide has been identi-
fied as one of the major problems affecting agri-
cultural produce. This might be linked to the large
financial losses experienced by primitive farmers
most especially in the developing countries. They
normally experience high level of phytotoxicity,
which will normally reduce yield of agricultural
produce because the rate of photosynthesis has been
affected. In addition, there is a large tendency for the
pests to cultivate resistance against pesticides, which
normally have devastating effect on the large-scale
production of agricultural produce [12].
13. The problem of low government intervention has
greatly affected the pesticide regulatory role of the
government most especially in most developing
country. This might be linked to the inadequate of
staffs in pesticide regulatory events, absence of
appropriate legislative expert, shortage of infra-
structure, equipment and materials, transportation,
reduced budget provision on operating money,
absence of formulation control, and pesticide res-
idue investigative amenities and competencies [13].
14. Inadequate safety measures has led to several issues
of contaminations and poisoning in the field. For
example, most farmers in the rural area are ignorant
about some safety measures that are necessary
whenever they apply pesticides on their farm, that is,
protective clothing and gloves as well as other pro-
tecting gears wear in the course of spraying of pes-
ticides. Other preventive actions are barely observed
by these farmers as the farmers have been several
times without number to be eating, or drinking in-
between smoking spraying actions. Mostly, these
farmers utilize all or some of these pesticide con-
tainers for domestic purposes that make some
pesticide residues to cause a lot of hazards.
15. The challenges of poor extension services from staffs
involved in the extension services have shown
considerable effect on rural farmers that dwells most
especially in the rural areas. This might be linked to
reduced staffing and mobility. Extensionists in
general are deprived of necessary support, poorly
educated in the area of pesticide administration,
lack incentive, and are scarcely any supplement
arrangement to educate farmers most especially
from developing country on safety protections as
well as overall understanding on pesticide utiliza-
tion. Moreover, lack of close intimacy between the
farmers and the extension officer has increased the
reliability and overreliance of the extension officer
on pesticide vendors. Mismanagement and main-
tenance of equipment used for the application of
pesticides due to high level of illiteracy of the
farmers henceforth indulge in severe misuses of
pesticide usage such as incorrect timing of applica-
tion and dearth of awareness on the time required
for complete degradation of pesticides, inappro-
priate utilization of use of nozzles, incompetent to
differentiate one pest from the other, use of incor-
rect doses and formulations, and mingling together
of various types of pesticides [14].
CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES
A pesticide varies in identity (physical and chemical
properties). According to Drum [15], pesticides can
be broadly classified in different ways depending on
their origin (Table 3.1) and target pest species
(Table 3.2). They can also be classified based on func-
tion (Table 3.3).
 CHAPTER 3 Pesticides, History, and Classification 33

TABLE 3.1 TABLE 3.3

Classification of Pesticides Based on Origin. Classification of Pesticides Based on Function.
Based on Origin Sources and Examples Action Function Examples
Organic sources Naturaldplant phytochemical Feeding Prevent an insect or (Azadirachta
(essential oil, plant extracts, leftover deterrents other pest from Indica A. Juss)
oilseed cakes) feeding
Syntheticdproduced by chemical Ovipositor Prevent egg laying by Azadirachta
synthesis e.g., Pyrethroids, deterrent gravid female indica
organophosphates, carbamates,
organochlorine Repellents Deters pest from Plant essential
approaching toward oil
Inorganic Inorganicdmixture of inorganic salts crops
sources [1]
Bordeaux mixture Cu (OH)2.CaSO4 Attractants A chemical that lures Gossyplure
Malachite Cu (HO)2.CuCO3 and pests
sulfur Fumigants Kills the target pests Phosphine
Biological Biological: microbial pesticide by producing vapor
(bacteria, virus, and fungi) Insect A substance that Diflubenzuron
growth works by disrupting
regulator the growth or
development of an
insect
Synergist A chemical that Piperonyl
TABLE 3.2
enhances the toxicity butoxide
Classifications of Pesticides Based on Target
of a pesticide but not
Pest Species. by itself toxic to pest
Pesticide
Class Target Pests Example
Acaricides Mites Bifonazole Natural Organic Pesticides
Algaecides Algae Copper Natural organic pesticides include class of pesticides
sulfate such as the phytochemicals present in plants; alka-
Avicides Birds Avitrol loids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds, which
Bactericides Bacteria Copper have proven pesticidal potential [16]. Plant-derived
complexes essential oil, plant extracts, and leftover oilseed cakes
are found to be active against varieties of pests [17].
Fungicides Fungi Azoxystrobin
These are particularly attractive on the grounds of
Herbicides Weeds Atrazine low mammalian toxicity, short environmental persis-
Insecticides Insects Aldicarb tence, and complex chemistry that do not develop
Larvicides Larvae Methoprene resistance in pest [18].
Molluscicides Snail Metaldehyde
Inorganic Pesticides
Nematicides Nematodes Aldicarb Inorganic pesticides include inorganic salts such as cop-
Ovicides Egg- prevents hatching Benzoxazine per sulfate, ferrous sulfate and lime, and sulfur [19]. The
of egg in insects and chemicals in inorganic pesticides tend to be simpler and
mites are soluble in water than those of organic pesticides.
Piscicides Fishes Rotenone Many of them work by causing stomach poisoning in
Repellents Insects Methiocarb insects [20].
Rodenticides Rodents Warfarin
Synthetic Pesticides
Termiticides Kills termites Fipronil The major classes of synthetic pesticides are organo-
Viricides Viruses Scytovirin chlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and
pyrethroides.
34 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
Organochlorines
Organochlorine pesticides (also called chlorinated hy-
drocarbons) are organic compounds attached to five
or more than five chlorine atoms. They represent one
of the first categories of pesticides ever synthesized
and are used in agriculture. Most of them are usually
used as insecticides for the control of a broad range of
insects, and have a long-term residual effect in the envi-
ronment. These insecticides may alter the proper func-
tion of the nervous system of the insects leading to
disorders such as convulsions and paralysis followed
by eventual death [1]. Common examples of these pes-
ticides include DDT, lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, diel-
drin, heptachlor, toxaphene, and chlordane (Fig. 3.1).
Although, the production and usage of DDT has been
banned in most developed countries including the
United States many years back, it is still produced and
being used in most tropical developing countries for
the control of vector.
Organophosphorus
Organophosphorus are phosphoric acid-derived pesti-
cides (Fig. 3.2), considered to be one of the wide spec-
trum pesticides consisting of a heterogeneous group of
FIG. 3.1 Chemical structures of some organochlorine compounds.
chemicals [21], which control broad range of pests,
weeds, or plant diseases because of their multiple func-
tions. They are acetylcholine cholinesterase inhibitors,
disturbing neurotransmitter across a synapse [22]. As
a result, nervous impulses fail to move across the syn-
apse causing a rapid twitching of voluntary muscles,
hence, leading to paralysis, which is associated to death.
Some of the widely used organophosphorus insecti-
cides include parathion, malathion, dichlorvos, diaz-
inon, and glyphosate (Fig. 3.2). The compounds in
this group are characterized by a covalent binding of
carbon to phosphate (CeP) bond replaced by one of
its four carbon to oxygen to phosphorus bonds of phos-
phate ester [23]. The CeP direct linkage is described to
be chemically and thermally inert, making organo-
phosphonate compounds resistant to some drastic con-
ditions such as chemical hydrolysis, photolysis
compared and thermal decomposition with analogous
compounds characterized with more reactive NeP,
SeP, or OeP linkages.
Organophosphate pesticides have contributed dras-
tically to improved agricultural productivity as well as
effective crop yields [24]. Developing countries are
increasingly adapting to its use. For example, Iran
 CHAPTER 3 Pesticides, History, and Classification
FIG. 3.2 Chemical structures of some organophosphate compounds.
agriculturists use pistachios for orchards to pest control
being the largest producer [25]. These pesticides are also
biodegradable, also cause minimum environmental
pollution, and may be classified as slow pest resistance
compounds.
Carbamates
Carbamates are organic pesticides derived from carba-
mic acid. These include carbaryl, carbofuran, and ami-
nocarb [1]. They are similar in structure to
organophosphates. However, they differ from their
origin. Organophosphates are derivatives of phosphoric
acid, while carbamates are derived from carbamic acid.
The principle behind the use of carbamate pesticides is
similar to that of organophosphate pesticides by
affecting the transmission of nerve signals resulting in
the death of the pest through poisoning [26]. Some-
times, they are also used as stomach and contact poi-
sons as well as fumigant. This pesticide can be easily
be degraded under natural environment with minimum
environmental pollution.
Pyrethroides
Pyrethroids are organic compounds isolated from
the naturally occurring flowers of pyrethrums
35
(Chrysanthemum Coccineum and Chrysanthemum cine-
rariaefolium) [1]. The insecticidal properties of pyre-
thrins are due to pyrethroic acids. Pyrethroides affect
the sodium channels and lead to paralysis of the or-
ganism. The most widely used synthetic pyrethroids
includes permethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin,
lethrin, furethrin, fenevelerate, and alphcyperameth-
rin. The synthetic pyrethroids also belong to this group
of pesticide, which can be synthesized by duplicating
the structure of natural occurring pyrethrins. Rela-
tively, they are more stable and effective than natural
pyrethrins. The major active components are pyrethrin
I and pyrethrin II plus smaller amounts of the related
cinerins and jasmolins. Synthetic-pyrethroid pesti-
cides are highly neurotoxic to insects and fish but
less toxic to mammals and birds. Most of synthetic in-
secticides are nonpersistent, and can be broken easily
on exposure to light. They are considered the safest in-
secticides for use in food. Modern pyrethroids slightly
resemble their pyrethrin I (progenitor) and exert
different mode of action from the original natural
products. The commonly used synthetic-pyrethroid
pesticides are cypermethrin, fenvalerate, fluvalinate,
deltamethrin, lethrin, furethrin, and permethrin
(Fig. 3.3).
36 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
FIG. 3.3 Chemical structures of some synthetic pyrethroids.
Biorationals
Biorational pesticides (biopesticides) represent a spe-
cific group of compounds that are considered relatively
safe to the environment and nontoxic to humans. Bio-
rational pesticides are derived from natural materials
including plants, animals, bacteria, and certain mineral
elements. They can be subdivided into two major
groups, the biochemically derived ones which include
hormones, enzymes, pheromones and the microbial
derived which are viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and nematodes. Biochemical pesticides are less selective
compared to microbial pesticides. In arthropods, the
mechanism of action is based on the interruption of
their natural growth processes. Diflubenzuron, metho-
prene, and Bacillus thuringiensis serotype israelensis
(Bti) are specific examples in biorational class of pesti-
cides. Another notable microbial pesticide is those
derived from fungus, Trichoderma [27]. In addition,
some insect viruses found in nature such as those of
Baculovirus family (Baculoviridae) are considered as bio-
pesticides [27,28].
Pesticides of Plant Origin
Natural plant defense systems are found useful in the
prevention of insects and other arthropods. Plant chem-
ical constituents are subdivided into two categories
namely secondary and primary metabolites derived
from distinct biochemical pathways and are responsible
for diverse biological activities [29]. The secondary me-
tabolites are not directly involved in reproduction,
growth, or development but are useful as sources of vi-
tal compounds with diverse biochemical activities
[29e31]. Natural pesticides are found in terpenoids,
phenolics, and alkaloids. Research evidences have
shown that over hundreds of isolated compounds
from plants have demonstrated bioactivities. However,
rather than killing the insects, more of the compounds
are active as feed deterrents or growth inhibitors [32].
Some of the identified natural pesticides were reviewed
below.
Terpenoids
Terpenoids are secondary metabolites which have hy-
drocarbon isoprene (C5H8) as their simplest unit
[29,33]. Volatile isoprene produced in large quantities
during the process of photosynthesis protects plants’
cell membrane from damages caused by light radia-
tions and high temperature [33]. The protective roles
of terpenoids are attributed to their bitter taste, pre-
venting plants containing them from being eaten by
animals [34]. Chrysanthemum plants have monoter-
pene ester (Pyrethroids) in their leaves and flowers,
which are strong insecticides and protect the
plant from insects. Monoterpenoids are neurotoxic
to insects and to mites after significant contact with
them.
 CHAPTER 3 Pesticides, History, and Classification
Primary components of essential oils include mono-
terpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, which are high vola-
tile compounds that contribute to plant fragrances.
These essential oils can act as insect toxins and protect
plants against the attack of bacterial and fungal. Exam-
ples of plants with terpenoids insecticidal properties
include Cinnamomum spp., Laurus spp., Mentha spp.,
Ocimum spp., Origanum spp., Piper spp., Rosmarinus
spp., Salvia spp., Satureja spp. and Thymus spp. among
others.
Diterpenoids (C20) synthesized from sesquiterpe-
noids (C15) [29] similarly exhibit insecticide activities.
Diterpenoids from Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) are
strong antibacterial and antifungal compounds.
Triterpenoids (C30) are secondary metabolites whose
biosynthesis is a complex one [29]. They have similar
structural identification with animal steroids and other
steroid hormones. Because of this structural relationship,
phytoecdysones, which mimic insect molting hormones,
can disrupt larvicidal development and increase mortal-
ity of insects. Phytoecdysones are found in plants such as
Spinacia oleracea. Limonoids are also examples of triterpe-
noids, which are found in Azadirachta indica (neem trees)
seed as azadirachtin [35,36]. Azadirachtin are strong
limonoid with insect repelling properties at low concen-
trations (Fig. 3.4). The mechanism by which azadirachtin
exact its insecticidal effects is through the interference of
insect neuroendocrine system, disrupting moulting,
metamorphosis, and reproduction process in the insects.
Cymbopogon citratus (lemon grass) is another example of
plant with high limonoid levels.
Melia volkensii is a source of insecticidal compounds
that can be obtained from its large fruit extract [37]. The
active principles are identified to be limonoids, pre-
dominantly volkensin triterpene that is closely related
to nimbilin from A. indica [32].
Rocaglamides are Aglaia compounds obtained from
the family of Meliaceae [38,39] among interested bio-
logical compounds such as lignans [40] and triterpenes
[41]. Rocaglamides occurs in nature with over 50 iden-
tified compounds [39]. They are aromatic with cyclo-
pentatetrahydrobenzofuran skeleton, and are strong
insecticidal compounds with broad-spectrum activities
against neonate larvae of Spodoptera littoralis, Ostrinia
sp. and Helicoverpa armigera [36,42,43]. The mode of ac-
tions of rocaglamides is derived from their ability to
inhibit protein synthesis, which also account for their
potential anticancer activity [44].
Isobutylamides from Piper nigrum (black pepper) such
as its pipericide have been known with acute insecticidal
properties. The Piperaceae from which pipericide are rich
with numerous potentials of natural insecticides [45].
37
Other insecticidal compounds from the family include
conocarpan (P. decurrens) and dillapiol (P. aduncum) [32].
Essential oils obtained from plants through various
methods from aromatic medicinal plants have shown
great potentials as insecticidal compounds or as insect
repellants. They have been commercialized as natural
oils for their use as insect repellants or insecticidal pur-
poses [32]. The activities vary with structure, amount of
saturation, and functional groups of the oils [46].
Thymol a typical ovicidal compound from this class
of compounds is toxic to housefly [46]. Thymol was
more active compared with its derivatives that were
evaluated. The enhanced fumicidal and ovicidal activ-
ities are attributed to increase volatility and lipophilicity
of the new acylated derivative [46].
Saponins
Saponins belong to the group of nonnitrogenous plant
secondary metabolites commonly found in plants [29].
They are glycosylated triterpenoids with detergent prop-
erties, and they disrupt the cell membranes of invading
microbial organism. Avenacins (triterpenoid saponins)
contained in wheat prevent the invasion of Gaeumanno-
myces graminis, the pathogen for wheat.
Trilactone terpenes extracted from Ginkgo biloba fo-
liages are potent insecticides on brown planthopper
(Nilaparvata lugens) rice pest. The array of promising
compounds in Ginkgo has paved way for their cultiva-
tion and use for the preparation of several pharmaceu-
ticals and natural insecticidal compounds [32].
Grayanoid diterpenes from Rhododendron molle are
strong grayanotoxins, which are strong neurotoxic com-
pounds in invertebrates and mammals [32].
Phenolics
Phenolics are a class of secondary metabolites with hy-
droxyl group [29]. They are synthesized in plants as part
of their host defense mechanism against pathogens.
Phenolics have large and complex chemical structure
[47]. Flavonoids are the largest class of phenolics. Phy-
toalexins are isoflavonoids that present antibiotic and
antifungal properties in response to invading pathogen
attacks. They are toxic molecules that disrupt pathogen
biochemical process or the cellular structure. Specific ex-
amples of phytoalexin include rishitin obtained from
tomatoes and potatoes (Solanaceae), camalexin from
Arabidopsis thaliana and medicarpin obtained from Med-
icago sativa (Fig. 3.5).
Furanocoumarin is another example of phenolics
synthesized by a wide variety of plants as response to her-
bivore attack or invading pathogen. Furanocoumarins
are highly toxic to some vertebrate and invertebrate
38 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
FIG. 3.4 Chemical structures of some terpenoids derived pesticides.
FIG. 3.5 Chemical structures of some phenolic pesticides.
herbivores. They are usually inactive until exposed to
ultraviolet light, and act by their integration into verte-
brate DNA leading to the rapid death of cells. Furanocou-
marins are found in smaller quantities in grapefruits.
Tannins
Tannins are a class of flavonoid polymers, which are
water-soluble. They are stored in vacuoles after produc-
tion by plants. Tannins binds to insect salivary proteins
and digestive enzymes (trypsin and chymotrypsin)
leading to the inactivation of the proteins. This action
makes tannins toxic to insects. Tannins similarly pre-
vent weight gains in insect herbivores who inject high
amount of tannins leading to their premature death.
Lignins are strong components of plant cell walls,
which confer them with rigidity, insolubility, and indi-
gestibility making them excellent barriers against the
attack of various pathogen attacks.
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are a class of secondary metabolite with char-
acteristic bitter-tasting nitrogenous compound. They are
synthesized from aspartic acid, tyrosine, lysine, or tryp-
tophan [29]. Alkaloids can be found in several vascular
plants: major classes are morphine, caffeine, nicotine,
and cocaine. Caffeine are found in Camellia sinensis
(tea), Coffea arabica (coffee), and Theobroma cacao (co-
coa). Caffeine is toxic to insects and fungi as beneficial
to the host plant (Fig. 3.6). Atropine are products of
Atropa belladonna also known as “deadly nightshade
plant.” They are neurotoxic and cardiac stimulant
compounds.
Plant-derived compounds have been used in the
field and farms as traditional means for the control of
pest and vermifuges [48]. Specifically, acetogenins iso-
lated from Asimina triloba, A. longifolia, and Annona
muricata have been evaluated for their pesticidal activity
 CHAPTER 3 Pesticides, History, and Classification
FIG. 3.6 Chemical structures of some alkaloid pesticides.
[49]. Squamocin, a complex alkaloid, was among the
compound studied (Fig. 3.6). Rotenone is also from
this group of chemicals. They are commercial botanical
insecticide derived from the plant Derris elliptica. Aceto-
genins and rotenone exhibit similar mechanism of ac-
tion, which is the inhibition of mitochondrial NADH:
ubiquinone oxidoreductase enzyme [50].
Alkaloids from the Stemonaceae family contain use-
ful biological compounds with insecticidal activities.
They are the only source of stemona alkaloids [51],
that are structurally characterized due to the presence
of pyrrolo(1,2-a)azepine (5,7 bicyclic AB-ring system)
nucleus [52]. Japanese and Chinese traditional medi-
cine system for centuries have explored the use of plant
extract from Croomia and Stemona for the manage-
ment of respiratory diseases, enteric helminths as well
as ectoparasites of humans and cattle [53,54]. The insec-
ticidal activities of the plants have also been explored
[55,56].The alkaloid stemofoline from crude extract of
Stemona cochinchinensis and S. curtisii roots are attrib-
uted to the strong insecticidal activities against Spodop-
tera littoralis [56]. Similarly, the extract from S. collinsae
possesses insecticidal activities against S. littorallis. This
has been attributed to the presence in large quantities
of didehydrostemofoline and smaller stemofoline.
The insect-toxic potencies of these two alkaloids are
higher than that of standard pyrethrum extract. The
mechanism of action of the stemofoline is by agonism
to insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptor [57].
Napthoquinone
Napthoquinone compounds (BTG 504 and BTG 505)
from Calceolaria andina, a Chilean plant from Scrophu-
lariaceae are important pesticides. The compounds have
39
FIG. 3.7 Chemical structures of some napthoquinone
pesticides.
been characterized as 2-acetoxy-3-(1,1-dimethylprop-2-
enyl)-1,4-naphthoquinone and 2-(1,1-dimethylprop-2-
enyl)- 3-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, respectively
(Fig. 3.7). The compounds are effective against aphids,
spider mite, and tobacco whitefly [58,59]. BTG 504 and
BTG 505 are good insecticidal and fungicidal when
compared to dunnione. The compounds are potent
against Musca domestica (house fly), B. tabaci (whitefly),
Phaedon cochleariae (beetle), and T. urticae (spider mite)
unlike dunnione [60]. The mechanism of action for the
compounds was found to be different. Although BTG
505 acts through the inhibition of mitochondrial com-
plex III, dunnione acts primarily by the initiation of
redox cycling [60].
Defense proteins
Plant proteins can play protective roles against pest and
pathogens in some plants producing them. These pro-
teins, which may be present in plants, or plant seeds
specifically can inhibit pathogens and pest enzymes
through the formation of enzyme complexes, which
form complexes that block the active sites and may alter
the conformation of enzymes, in turn reducing the
40 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
functions of enzymes. They serve as defensins, lectins,
amylase, proteinase inhibitors, inhibiting wide range
of pathogens including nematodes, bacteria, fungi,
and insect herbivores. The proteins are usually small
peptide chains, which are rich in cysteine. Defensive
proteins are generally produced in significant quantity
by plants after an attack by pathogens or pests through
mechanisms that involve more resources and energy
than that in biosynthesis of simple defense phytochem-
icals (terpenoids, saponins, phenolics, tannins, and al-
kaloids) discussed earlier.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Pesticides are tremendously helpful in the control of
pest because they provide means for the control of
loss of crops during production or storages. The use of
pesticide in developing countries is increasing especially
as it pertains organophosphate pesticides among others
[25]. These pesticides in some cases find their way to
human through animal that feed on contaminated
feeds. The contaminated feeds exact soome kind effects
on animals and thus reduce their performances [25].
CONCLUSION
The application of chemical pesticides has been given a
lot of attention and support for the management of
agricultural pests but there are lots of limitations to
their application. This might be linked to the safety
issue of a serious hazard from the various active ingredi-
ents. Therefore, there is a need to make sustainable,
green, eco-friendly biopesticides.
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FURTHER READING
[1] A.S. Perry, I. Yammamoto, I. Ishaaya, R.Y. Perry, Insecti-
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