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 General Introduction

The general definition for dialectic is as

follows: "a method of reasoning that
compares and contrasts opposing points
of view in order to find a new point of view
that will incorporate whatever is true in the
originals.“

 To present the principle ideas and issues in

the area of ethics offered by Philosophers
from classical to contemporary times.
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 This Chapter Focuses on Subject matter of

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Philosophy.
 Key Ethical Issues: ● VIRTUE
Dialectical Tradition - Virtue the power for moral action that enables man
to act with ease and order in some area of his life.
● VALUE
- Value is sometimes as the object of human desire
and striving
● OBLIGATION
- Obligation is the claim made upon us by reason
that some things are to be done and deserve praise
whereas others are to be avoided and deserve
blame.
- The technical name for the part of ethics that deals
with obligation is called deontology.
● NATURAL LAW
- Natural law theory that states that man himself is
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capable of setting up a standard of morality based

on his own nature.
 Socratic and Platonic  In Plato's dialogues and other Socratic
dialogues, Socrates attempts to examine first
Dialectic principles or premises by which we all reason
and argue with. Socrates typically argues by
cross-examining someone's claims and
 To Plato, "dialectic" was a process premises in order to draw out a contradiction or
applicable to both speech and thought. inconsistency among them.
 The term "dialectic" was used by Socrates
as "the art of discussion" by which he
searched for truth through questioning and
answering.
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 Aristotelian Dialectic

#Aristotle began his

investigations with dialectic while still
attending Plato's academy where he
studied from 367 BCE through 347. Aristotelian Dialectic

 Later he wrote Topics to serve as a handbook for  "Aristotelian Dialectic" is a dialogue between two
dialectic argumentation. Aristotle used many persons, T and Q, concerning Aristotle's views on
forms of formal logic, and even calculus to the nature of dialectic and rhetoric and also on the
further his points. role of dialectic and rhetoric in modern education.
 According to Aristotle, there were numerous
benefits to the use of dialectic including: the
intellectual training, its use for discussions with
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others based on their own premises, and for

examining un-provable principles in science.
 Kanatian Dialectic
#Kant felt that there could be no
proven principles where there is no human
experience.
Two major principles were developed by Kant:

1) The first stated that all dialectic used by the ancients

was the logic of illusion.

-Kant felt that he used the term when referring to the

critique of dialectical illusion.

2)The second principle he coined was Transcendental

dialectic and he used this to expose the illusion of
transcendental judgments.
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-The latter could also read as: judgments that claim to

pass beyond the limits of experience.

Hegelian Dialectic
#Hegel's dialectic, which he usually
presented in a threefold manner, was
vulgarized by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus as
comprising three dialectical stages of
development:
1) giving rise to its reaction
2) an antithesis which contradicts or negates the
thesis
3) and the tension between the two being resolved
by means of a synthesis
 When it is realized that what is coming into being
is, at the same time, also returning to nothing
(consider life: old organisms die as new organisms
are created or born), both Being and Nothing are
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united as Becoming.
 The Hegelian dialectic cannot be mechanically applied for
any chosen thesis. Critics argue that the selection of any
antithesis, other than the logical negation of the thesis, is
subjective.
 Then, if the logical negation is used as the antithesis,
there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis.
 In practice, when an antithesis is selected to suit the
user's subjective purpose, the resulting "contradictions"
are rhetorical, not logical, and the resulting synthesis not
rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible
syntheses.
 The problem with the Fichtean "thesis — antithesis —
synthesis" model is that it implies that contradictions or
negations come from outside of things. Hegel's point is
that they are inherent in and internal to things.
 This conception of dialectics derives ultimately
from Heraclitus

Marxist Dialectic
This is what Marx had to say about the difference
between Hegel's dialectics and his own:
"My dialectic method is not only different from the
Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. To Hegel, the life-
process of the human brain, i.e., the process of thinking,
which, under the name of 'the Idea,' he even transforms
into an independent subject, is the demiurgos of the real
world, and the real world is only the external,
phenomenal form of 'the Idea.' With me, on the contrary,
the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected
by the human mind, and translated into forms of
thought.”
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Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed Hegel was "standing
on his head", and endeavored to put him back on his feet,
ridding Hegel's logic of its orientation towards philosophical
idealism, and conceiving what is now known as materialist
or Marxist dialectics.
Lenin’s summary of dialectics:
1) The determination of the concept out of itself [the thing
itself must be considered in its relations and in its
development].
2) The contradictory nature of the thing itself (the other of
itself), the contradictory forces and tendencies in each
phenomenon
3) The union of analysis and synthesis.
Marx wrote:
"The mystification which dialectic suffers in Hegel's hands, by no means
prevents him from being the first to present its general form of working
in a comprehensive and conscious manner. With him it is standing on its
head. It must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the
rational kernel within the mystical shell.”
 Marxist Dialectic
#Such apparently are the elements
of dialectics. One could perhaps present
these elements in greater detail as follows:

1) The objectivity of consideration (not examples, not
divergencies, but the Thing-in-itself).
2) The entire totality of the manifold relations of this
thing to others.
3) The development of this thing, (phenomenon,
espectively), its own movement, its own life.
4) The internally contradictory tendencies (and sides)
in this thing.
5) The thing (phenomenon, etc) as the sum and unity of
opposites.
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7) The union of analysis and synthesis - the breakdown
of the separate parts and the totality, the summation of
these parts.
8) The relations of each thing (phenomenon, etc.) are
not only manifold, but general, universal. Each thing
(phenomenon, etc.) is connected with every other.
9) Not only the unity of opposites, but the transitions of
every determination, quality, feature, side, property into
every other.
10) The endless process of the discovery of new sides,
relations, etc.

6) The struggle, respectively unfolding, of these

opposites, contradictory strivings, etc.
 14)The apparent return to the old (negation of
Marxist Dialectic the negation).
15)The struggle of content with form and
conversely. The throwing off of the form, the
transformation of the content.
Such apparently are the elements of
dialectics. One could perhaps present
16) The transition of quantity into quality
these elements in greater detail as and vice versa. In brief, dialectics can be
follows: defined as the doctrine of the unity of
opposites. This embodies the essence of
11)The endless process of the deepening of man's dialectics, but it requires explanations and
knowledge of the thing, of phenomena, processes, development.
etc., from appearance to essence and from less
profound to more profound essence.
12) From co-existence to causality and from one
form of connection and reciprocal dependence to
another, deeper, more general form.
13) The repetition at a higher stage of certain
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features, properties, etc., of the lower and