Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

 Theory and Perspective:

The ultimate purpose of scientific enterprise is to create a theory. Human beings always
tend to theorize to explain a certain phenomenon or working of a certain thing. Sociology
is concerned with how society works, so the aim is to develop theories about how society
functions. So, a perspective is a theoretical framework. Its our basic assumptions or
observations on how things are the way they are. Thus, a sociological perspective is our
assumptions or observations of general patterns on how society works. As, sociology
emerged different sociologists had different insights on how society functions. For
example, Durkheim stressed on the importance of structure in a society whereas Weber
emphasized action as the central concept. None of these perspectives are wrong , rather
they highlight different aspects of society. So, it would be wrong to say that only one
perspective holds true. Thus, different theoretical perspectives of sociology emerged. The
3 major perspectives of sociology will be discussed further, which are:
1. Structural-Functionalist Perspective
2. Conflict Perspective
3. Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective

 Structural-Functionalist perspective:
This is the first perspective that emerged in sociological analysis. It is a Macro-level
perspective and sociologists like Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer
are associated with this. It was further refined by Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis and
Robert Merton.
This perspective assumes society as an organism. Like organisms grow, society also
grows from simple ones to much complex ones. The basic unit of an organism is a cell,
similarly the basic unit of a society is an individual. Whatever relationship a cell has with
its organism, individual and society has the same. Cells die, but organisms continue to
live on, similarly, individual dies but society continues. Like disease make an organism
sick similarly social problems makes a society sick. Cells do not directly create an
organism, but they form together to make tissues, then organs, then systems and then
finally organism. Similarly, an individual forms family which make different order of
structures. There is a hierarchy present. This approach is called organicism and was
proposed by Herbert Spencer in this perspective.
Thus, society has a structure and a structure is some recurring pattern and a form of
stability. Different individuals work together and form a structure. A structure has
different parts interacting in a way and each part of a structure has its specific functions
to perform. Society, like any other organism or a machine has its own needs to keep
going, these needs are called functional prerequisites. These needs are fulfilled by the
 functions of different parts of the society. Thus, a role of each part for the whole is called
function. Thus, society has different parts which performs certain functions to fulfill the
functional prerequisites of the society. For example, if an organism needs to breath ,
different organs will perform different functions for the organism to do respiration.
The fulfillment of needs results in a state of equilibrium. This also is the central postulate
of structural functionalism that society remains in a state of equilibrium. That is, different
individuals are bound under certain restrictions and values, and each part of it contributes
toward the equilibrium. For example, in a country we are bound by laws to maintain a
balance because social change disrupts the equilibrium. But long before a new
equilibrium is regained. Thus, this perspective supports evolution of society. Like in the
past, larger birth rate was desired as mortality rate was high so lager families ensured
survival of some individuals to carry on the society, but with recent times, greater
population and low mortality rate , smaller families are ideal. So, variables supporting the
equilibrium may shift but equilibrium is still maintained.
The controversial part of this perspective is, that it also states that, every part of social
structure is functional. Meaning whatever, that is going on serves a purpose, it is not
redundant. Even things which are considered negative like, dowry and poverty are
considered functional. Which many people disagree on.
R.K Merton further added to the concept of functionalism and said not everything is
functional is society. Everything as certain consequences like:
- Positive functions are the positive impacts to the society and are called functions
- Negative functions are the negative impacts caused on society and are called
dysfunctions.
- Some functions do not have particularly any good or bad effect on society ad are called
non functions.
For example, in democracy , political parties are functional , bombings are dysfunctional,
and changes in political vocabulary are non-functions.
To evaluate each point, structural functionalism in its true essence is that society is a
complex structure whose parts perform different functions to promote stability or
equilibrium.
Sociologists studying this perspective sees how a certain institution or function or
structure aids to the stability of the society.

 Conflict perspective:
Thus, is a macro-level perspective, meaning it looks at the bigger picture of society and
its classes. The most important sociologist who defined conflict perspective s Karl Marx.
After being ignored by many years, it was revived by C.Wright Mills, Lewis Coser and
others.
Conflict perspective studied class conflict. Society is composed of different groups which
conflict with one another. Conflict sociologists greatly critique functionalists and say that
even if there is a structure, functionalists fail to ask who created the structure. Thus, most
important questions asked in conflict perspective are:
1. Who created the structure?
 2. Who benefits from it?
3. Who is exploiting whom?
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The idea of exploitation is central to conflict. It is seen how different groups are
exploiting other groups, how power is manipulating to exploit other groups.
Modern era conflict perspective not only studies class conflict but it also studies conflicts
between classes but also races, genders and nationalities.
Marxism is the major part of this perspective. Karl Marx was a German philosopher, 20 th
century was Marx’s century. Marxism brought revolution in Russia. So, one may reject
him, but one cannot ignore his influence. Karl Marx says that society consists of 2
conflicted classes:
1. The class which has monopoly over property and means of production also known
as Bourgeoise.
2. The class which does not own anything and is the working industrial class , also
known as Proletariat.
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So, the conflict of these two classes is the characteristic of modern capitalist society.
Society’s ultimate truth is conflict. History moves only because of conflict of classes.
Conflicts lead to revolution as Proletariat overthrows Bourgeoise. In history, many
revolutions have occurred solely because of conflicts between interests , classes, races
etc.
Marx believes in Dialectical materialism. Thus, after Proletariat overthrows Bourgeoise ,
capitalism will change into socialism. This means that the means of production will not
be owned by a specific class but by the state. With time more conflicts occur, a new class
takes over and new economic relationships are made. There have been many encounters
in history where revolutions like these took place. The last revolution, which Karl Marx
thought , will make an ideal society is Communism. Marx thinks that Communism will
overthrow Socialism , and the working class itself will become the owners. An example
of Communism is yet to seen in the world, as it would be an ideal society, no conflicts
will occur which is not possible.
Thus, conflict perspectives in its true essence means society is based of conflicts. Conflict
theorists see how one group is exploiting others and let other people see the exploitation
in question as well.

 Symbolic-Interactionist perspective:
This is a micro-level perspective. The previous two perspectives were quite different
from one another, but they have one thing in common and that is they are macro-level
 perspectives, meaning they look at the bigger picture or society. But perspective at hand,
studies society at a small scale and microlevel sociology claims that perspectives must be
studied at micro level because ‘society’, ‘social structure’ and other big things are
conceptual abstractions while, ‘people’ and their ‘interactions’ at the very end makes a
society. The important sociologists of this perspective are C.H Cooley, G.H Mead ,
Herbert Blumer and Erving Goffman.
Symbolic interactionalism says that the ultimate reality of society is interaction. Only
through interaction can other bigger social class, exist. It studied everyday interaction
between people or individuals and how interactions can cause changes in people’s
perceptions and how different symbols are used like signs, gestures, words etc. A symbol
is something that invites one’s attention other than itself. For example, in traffic lights,
the color right symbolized that one needs to stop the car. Language is the biggest symbol
that we use. Language consists of words, words themselves hold no inherent meaning as
they are just sounds being produced by humans, they become a symbol when everyone
comes to an agreement that it holds a special meaning. Interaction gives rise to new
symbols, for example, in a group of close friends some word may hint towards some
other meaning which cannot be comprehended by those outside the group. Thus, this
shows that humans do not react to the words, but they react to the meaning behind them,
the frequency at which it was spoken and the emotions behind them. Berger and
Luckmann state that society is an objective reality. But this perspectives states that
society is also subjective, that is, for each person, an institution , society or other person,
is what they perceive them to be. These perceptions can change overtime with how well
the interact with other individuals or classes.
Modern interactionists such as Erving Goffman and Herbert Blumer state that people do
not respond to other people directly; instead they respond to whatever they imagine other
people to be. Reality is subjective in a sense that reality is what we perceive it to be. A
person’s potential to be a friend or stranger is not their characteristic , rather its one’s
perception if they consider them as friend or stranger, which yes can change over time.
Thus, the people that we claim to know are just our perceptions of what we think of them
as and are partly just a figment of our imagination. That does not mean that all the reality
is subjective. Facts like stars and earth are there and are reality. But then again us
processing facts as facts depends on how we perceive them as. Thus, meanings are given
to facts with our perceptions.
Thus, symbolic-interactionist perspective in its true essence is society as the product of
everyday interactions. Sociologists dealing with this perceptive see what people find in
other people actions and how meanings are form of certain symbols. Plus, the
relationship between the people interacting.

 Application of perspectives on Sports :

1. Functions of sports:
-It provides a source of recreation.
-It creates a source of accomplishment
 -It engages people in physical activities
-It helps in the economy of the country
2. Conflicts in sports:
-Rich enjoy sports which are not available to other classes.
-Match fixing

3. Interactionist sports:
-Relationship between the sportsmen and crowd
-Relationship between sportsmen and coach
-Relationship among sportsmen