Propositional Logic and Predicates

Presented at
CKPCET, SURAT, INDIA.

Dr. Mitesh S. Joshi,

Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics,
CKPCET, Surat,
Email:(mitesh.joshi@gmail.com),
Mobile: +91-9825956637

April 27, 2021

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Outline of the presentation I
1 Introduction
2 Definitions, Statements and Notation
3 Connectives
Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
4 Statement Formulas and Truth tables.
5 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements
6 Well-defined formulas, Tautologies
7 Equivalence of Formulas
8 Duality Law
9 Tautological Implications
10 The Predicate Calculus
The Predicates
Simple statement function
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Outline of the presentation II

Quantifiers
Predicate Formulas
Free and Bound Variables

11 Universe of Discourse, Examples

12 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

13 References

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 Introduction

Introduction:-

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 Definitions, Statements and Notation

Definition (Statements)
All the declarative statements to which it is possible to assign one and
only one of the two possible truth values are called statements. These
statements which do not contain any of the connectives are called atomic
(primary, primitive) statements.

Illustrations:
1 Canada is a country.
2 Moscow is a capital of Spain.
3 This statement is false.
4 1 + 101 = 110.
5 Close the door.
6 Toronto is an old city.
7 Man will reach Mars by 1980.
Capital letters A, B, C, . . . , P, Q, . . . with the exception of T and F as well
as subscripted capital letters to represent statements in symbolic logic.
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 Connectives

Connectives

Definition
The statements that we consider initially are simple statements called
atomic or primary statements. New statements that are formed from these
atomic statements with the help of sentential connectives are called
molecular or compound statements.

Normally we encounter three types of connectives.

1 Negation (¬P )
2 Conjunction (P ∧ Q)
3 Disjunction (P ∨ Q)

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 Connectives Negation

Negation:

The negation of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word

”not” at proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with
the phrase ”It is not the case that”.
Illustration: Consider the statement.

P: London is a city.

Then the negation of the P is given by

¬P : London is not a city.
¬P : It is not the case that London is a city. Also the truth table for the
Negation is given by,

P ¬P
T F
F T

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 Connectives Conjunction

Conjunction:

The conjunction of two statement P and Q is the statement P ∧ Q which

is read as ”P and Q”.
Illustration:-1 Form the conjunction of
P: It is raining today.
Q: There are 20 tables in this room.
Then the conjunction of two statements P and Q is given by
P ∧ Q : It is raining today and there are 20 tables in this room.
Illustration:-2 Translate into symbolic form the statement
Jack and Jill went up the hill.
The corresponding symbolic statements are given by,
P: Jack went up the hill.
Q: Jill went up the hill.
P ∧ Q : Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.
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 Connectives Conjunction

Also the truth table for the conjunction is given by,

P Q P ∧Q
T F F
F T F
F F F
T T T

Illustration:-
1 Roses are red and violets are blue.
2 He opened the book and started to read.
3 Jack and Jill are cousins.

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 Connectives Disjunction

Disjunction:

The disjunction of two statement P and Q is the statement P ∨ Q which

is read as ”P or Q”.
Illustration:-1 Form the conjunction of
P: It is raining today.
Q: There are 20 tables in this room.
Then the disjunction of two statements P or Q is given by
P ∨ Q : It is raining today or there are 20 tables in this room.
Illustration:-2 Translate into symbolic form the statement
Jack or Jill went up the hill.
The corresponding symbolic statements are given by,
P: Jack went up the hill.
Q: Jill went up the hill.
P ∨ Q : Jack went up the hill or Jill went up the hill.
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 Connectives Disjunction

Also the truth table for the disjunction is given by,

P Q P ∨Q
T F T
F T T
F F F
T T T

Illustration:-
1 I shall watch the game on television or go to the game.
2 There is something wrong with the bulb or with the wiring.
3 Twenty or thirty animals were killed in the fire today.

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 Statement Formulas and Truth tables.

Statement Formulas and Truth tables.

Example
Construct the truth table for the statement formula P ∨ ¬Q.

The truth table is given by,

P Q ¬Q P ∨ ¬Q
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
T T F T

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 Statement Formulas and Truth tables.

Example
Construct the truth table for the statement formula P ∧ ¬P .
The truth table is given by,
P ¬P P ∧ ¬P
T F F
F T F

Example
Construct the truth table for the statement formula (P ∨ Q) ∨ ¬P .

P Q P ∨Q ¬P (P ∨ Q) ∨ ¬P
T F T F T
F T T T T
T T T F T
F F F T T
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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Conditional statement:

If P and Q be two statements then the statement P → Q which is read as

”If P then Q” is called the conditional statement.
1 The statement P → Q has truth value F, when Q has truth value F.
2 The statement P → Q has truth value T, when P and Q both have
truth value F.
The statement P is called antecedent and Q is called consequent in
P → Q. The truth table for the conditional statement P → Q is given by,

P Q P →Q
T F F
F T T
F F T
T T T

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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Example
Express in English the statement P → Q where

P: The sun is shining today.

Q: 2 + 7 > 4.

Solution: The conditional statement of ”If P then Q” is

If the sun is shining today, then 2 + 7 > 4.

It is customary to represent the following expression by P → Q.

1 Q is necessary for P.
2 P is sufficient for Q.
3 Q if P.
4 P only if Q.
5 P implies Q.
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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Example
Write in symbolic form the statement

If either Jerry takes calculus or Ken takes sociology, then Larry will take
English.

Solution: Denoting the statement as

J: Jerry takes calculus.

K: Ken takes Sociology.
L: Larry takes English.

The above statement can be symbolized as

(J ∨ K) → L.

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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Example
Write in symbolic form the statement

The crop will be destroyed if there is flood.

Solution: Let the statement is denoted as,

C: The crop will be destroyed.

F: There is a flood.

The above statement can be symbolized as

F → C.

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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Definition (Bi-conditional statement)

If P and Q are any two statements, then the statement P  Q read as ”if
P only if Q” and abbreviated as ”P iff Q” is called a bi-conditional
statement.
The truth table for P  Q is given by,

P Q P →Q Q→P (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P )
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Bi-conditional statement is given by,

P Q P Q
T F F
F T F
F F T
T T T

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 Conditional and Bi-conditional statements

Example
Construct the truth table for ¬(P ∧ Q)  (¬P ∨ ¬Q).

The corresponding truth table is given by,

P Q P ∧Q ¬(P ∧ Q) ¬P ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q)  (¬P ∨ ¬Q)

T T T F F F T
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T

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 Well-defined formulas, Tautologies

Definition (Well formed formulas)

A statement formula is an expression which is string consisting of
variables, parenthesis and connectives. A well-formed formula can be
generated by the following formula.
1 A statement variable standing alone is a well-formed formula.
2 If A is well-formed formula then ¬A is a well-formed formula.
3 If A and B are well-formed formulas then, (A ∧ B), (A ∨ B),
(A → B) and (A  B) are well-formed formulas.
4 A string of symbols containing the statement variables, connectives
and parenthesis is a well-formed formula iff it can be obtained by
finitely many applications of the rules 1, 2 and 3.

According to this definition following are the well-formed formulas.

¬(P ∧ Q), ¬(P ∨ Q), (P → (P ∨ Q)), (P → (Q → R)),
(((P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)  (P → R))

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 Well-defined formulas, Tautologies

The following are not well-formed formula.

1 ¬P ∧ Q. Obviously P and Q are well-formed formula. A wff would be
(¬P ∧ Q) or ¬(P ∧ Q).
2 (P → Q) → (∧Q). This is not a wff because ∧Q is not.
3 (P → Q. Note that (P → Q) is wff.
4 (P ∧ Q) → Q. The reason for this not being a wff is that one of the
parenthesis in the beginning is missing. ((P ∧ Q) → Q) is a wff, while
(P ∧ Q) → Q is still not wff.

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 Well-defined formulas, Tautologies

Definition (Tautology)
A statement formula which is true regardless of the truth value of the
statements which replace in it is called universally valid formula or
tautology or a logical truth.

Definition (Contradiction)
A statement formula which is false regardless of the truth values of the
statements which replaces the variables in it is called a contradiction.

Remarks:
1 The negation of a contradiction is tautology.
2 A statement formula which is tautology is identically true and a
formula which is a contradiction is identically false.
3 Conjunction of two tautologies is a tautology.

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 Well-defined formulas, Tautologies

Definition (Substitution instance)

A formula A is called a substitution instance of another formula B if A
can be obtained from B by substituting formulas for some variables of B,
with the condition that the same formula is substituted for the variable
each time it occurs.
Illustration:
Let B : P → (J ∧ P ).
Substitute R  S for P in B, and we get
A : R  S → (J ∧ (R  S))
Then A is substitution instance of B. But A : R  S → (J ∧ P ) is not a
substitution instance of B.

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Definition (Equivalence of formulas)

Let A and B be two statement formulas and let P1 , P2 , . . . . . . , Pn denotes
all the variables occurring in both A and B.Consider the assignment of
truth values to P1 , P2 , . . . . . . , Pn and the resulting truth values of A and
B. If the truth value of A is equal to the truth value of B for every one 2n
possible sets of truth values assigned to P1 , P2 , . . . . . . , Pn then A and B
are said to be equivalent.

Illustrations:
1 ¬¬P is equivalent to P.
2 P ∨ P is equivalent to P.
3 (P ∧ ¬P ) ∨ Q is equivalent of Q.
4 P ∨ ¬P is equivalent to Q ∨ ¬Q.
Remark: Equivalence of two statements A and B can be displayed as
A ⇐⇒ B or ”A” ⇐⇒ ”B”.

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Example
Prove that (P → Q) ⇐⇒ (¬P ∨ Q).

The corresponding truth table is given by,

P Q P →Q ¬P ¬P ∨ Q (P → Q)  (¬P ∨ Q)
T T T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Example
Show that P → (Q → R) ⇐⇒ P → (¬Q ∨ R) ⇐⇒ (P ∧ Q) → R.

Solution:- The solution may derived as follows. We know that

Q → R ⇐⇒ ¬Q ∨ R.

LHS = P → (Q → R)
⇐⇒ ¬P ∨ (¬Q ∨ R)
⇐⇒ (¬P ∨ ¬Q) ∨ R
⇐⇒ ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ R
⇐⇒ (P ∧ Q) → R.

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Equivalent Formulas

1 P ∨ P = P, P ∧ P = P . (Idempotent Laws)
2 (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ⇐⇒ P ∨ (Q ∨ R), (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ⇐⇒ P ∧ (Q ∧ R).
(Associative Laws)
3 P ∨ Q ⇐⇒ Q ∨ P, P ∧ Q ⇐⇒ Q ∧ P (Commutative Law)
4 P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ⇐⇒ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R), P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ⇐⇒
(P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R) (Distributive Law)
5 P ∨ F ⇐⇒ P, P ∧ T ⇐⇒ P
6 P ∨ T ⇐⇒ T, P ∧ F ⇐⇒ F
7 P ∨ ¬P ⇐⇒ T, P ∧ ¬P ⇐⇒ F
8 P ∨ (P ∧ Q) ⇐⇒ P, P ∧ (P ∨ Q) ⇐⇒ P (Absorption Law)
9 ¬(P ∨ Q) ⇐⇒ ¬P ∧ ¬Q, ¬(P ∧ Q) ⇐⇒ ¬P ∨ ¬Q
(DeMorgan’s Law)

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Example
Show that (¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R) ⇐⇒ R

Solution:

(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ R)

⇐⇒ (¬P ∧ (¬Q ∧ R)) ∨ ((Q ∨ P ) ∧ R)
⇐⇒ ((¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∧ R)) ∨ ((Q ∨ P ) ∧ R)
⇐⇒ ((¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (Q ∨ P )) ∧ R)
⇐⇒ (¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ (P ∨ Q)) ∧ R
⇐⇒ T ∧ R
⇐⇒ R

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Example
Show that ((P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R))) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R) is
a tautology.

Solution: Using De Morgan’s laws, we obtain

(¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ ¬R)

⇐⇒ ¬(P ∨ Q) ∨ ¬(P ∨ Q)
⇐⇒ ¬((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ R))

Also,

¬(¬P ∧ (¬Q ∨ ¬R) ⇐⇒ ¬(¬P ∧ ¬(Q ∧ R))

⇐⇒ P ∨ (Q ∧ R)
⇐⇒ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
(P ∨ Q) ∧ ((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)) ⇐⇒ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)

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 Equivalence of Formulas

Consequently, the given formula is equivalent to,

(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R) ∨ ¬((P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R))

Which is substitution instance of P ∨ ¬P .

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 Duality Law

Definition (Duality Law)

Two formulas A and A∗ are said to be duals of each other if either one
can be obtained from the other by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨ by ∧. The
connectives ∧ and ∨ are also called duals of each other.

Example
Write the duals of
(a) (P ∨ Q) ∧ R,
(b) (P ∧ Q) ∨ R
(c) ¬(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ ¬Q(Q ∧ ¬S)).

Expression Duals
(P ∨ Q) ∧ R (P ∧ Q) ∨ R
(P ∧ Q) ∨ R (P ∨ Q) ∧ R
¬(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ ¬Q(Q ∧ ¬S)) ¬(P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ ¬Q(Q ∨ ¬S))

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 Duality Law

Theorem
Let A and A∗ be dual formulas and let P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn be all the atomic
variables that in A and A∗ . That is to say, we may write A as
A(P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ) and A∗ as A∗ (P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ). Then through the use of
De Morgans law

P ∧ Q ⇐⇒ ¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q) P ∨ Q ⇐⇒ ¬(¬P ∧ ¬Q) (1)

We can show that

¬A(P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ) ⇐⇒ A∗ (¬P1 , ¬P2 , . . . , ¬Pn ) (2)

and
A(¬P1 , ¬P2 , . . . , ¬Pn ) ⇐⇒ ¬A∗ (P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ) (3)

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 Duality Law

Example
Verify equivalence of if A(P, Q, R) = ¬P ∧ ¬(Q ∨ R).

Solution:

A(P, Q, R) = ¬P ∧ ¬(Q ∨ R) ⇐⇒ A∗ (P, Q, R) = ¬P ∨ ¬(Q ∧ R)

A∗ (¬P, ¬Q, ¬R) = ¬¬P ∨ ¬(¬Q ∧ ¬R) ⇐⇒ P ∨ (Q ∨ R)

On the other hand

¬A(P, Q, R) = ¬(¬P ∧ ¬(Q ∨ R) ⇐⇒ P ∨ (Q ∨ R)

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 Duality Law

Theorem
Let P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn be all the atomic variables appearing in the formulas A
and B. Given that A ⇐⇒ B means ”A  B” is a tautology, then the
following are also tautologies.

A(P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn )  B(P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ) (4)

A(¬P1 , ¬P2 , . . . , ¬Pn )  B(¬P1 , ¬P2 , . . . , ¬Pn ) (5)

Using (3), we get

¬A∗ (P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn )  ¬B ∗ (P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn ) (6)

∗ ∗
A ⇐⇒ B (7)

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 Duality Law

Example
Show that
(a) ¬(P ∧ Q) → (¬P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)) ⇐⇒ (¬P ∨ Q)
(b) (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∧ (¬P ∧ Q)) ⇐⇒ (¬P ∧ Q)

Solution:

¬(P ∧ Q) → (¬P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q))

⇐⇒ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q))
⇐⇒ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)
⇐⇒ (P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬P ∨ Q
⇐⇒ ((P ∨ ¬P ) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬P )) ∨ Q
⇐⇒ (Q ∨ ¬P ) ∨ Q ⇐⇒ Q ∨ ¬P ⇐⇒ ¬P ∨ Q

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 Duality Law

It follows that

(P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∨ (¬P ∨ Q)) ⇐⇒ ¬P ∨ Q

Using duality relation we obtain

(P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∧ (¬P ∧ Q)) ⇐⇒ ¬P ∧ Q

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 Tautological Implications

Definition (Implications)
A statement A is said to tautologically imply a statement B and only if
A → B is a tautology. We shall denote this idea A ⇒ B which is read as
”A implies B”. Similarly, A ⇐⇒ B states that A and B are equivalent or
that A  B is a tautology.

Remark: A ⇒ B states that A → is a tautology or A tautologically

implies B.

(1) P ∧Q⇒P (8) P ∧ (P → Q) ⇒ Q

(2) P ∧Q⇒Q (9) ¬Q ∧ (P → Q) ⇒ ¬P
(3) P ⇒P ∨Q
(10) ¬P ∧ (P ∨ Q) ⇒ Q
(4) ¬P ⇒ P → Q
(5) Q⇒P →Q (11) (P → Q)∧(Q → R) ⇒ P → R
(6) ¬(P → Q) ⇒ P (12) (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P → R) ∧ (Q →
(7) ¬(P → Q) ⇒ ¬Q R) ⇒ R

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 Tautological Implications

Theorem
If H1 , H2 , . . . , Hm and P imply Q, then H1 , H2 , . . . , Hm imply P → Q.

Proof.
From our assumption we have

H1 ∧ H2 ∧ . . . , ∧Hm ∧ P ⇒ Q (8)

This assumptions mean

H1 ∧ H2 ∧ . . . , ∧Hm ∧ P → Q (9)

is a tautology. Using equivalence

P1 → (P2 → P3 ) ⇐⇒ (P1 ∧ P2 ) → P3 (10)

(H1 ∧ H2 ∧ . . . , ∧Hm ) → ∧(P ⇒ Q) (11)

is a tautology. Hence the theorem.
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 The Predicate Calculus

The Predicate Calculus

The symbols P, Q, R, . . . , . . . , P1 , Q1 , . . . . . . were used to define

statements or statement variables.
In this section we introduce the concept of predicates in an atomic
statement.
The logic based upon the analysis of a predicates in any statement is
called predicate logic.

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 The Predicate Calculus The Predicates

The Predicates I

Consider the following two statements.

John is a bachelor.
Smith is a bachelor.
The part ”is a bachelor” is called a predicate. Denote the predicate
”is a bachelor” as B and John by (j) and Smith by (s) and using this
above these two statement using predicate (B) is given by,
B(j) : John is a bachelor.
B(s) : Smith is a bachelor.
In general, any statement of type ”p is Q”, where Q is predicate and
p is subject can be denoted by Q(p).
Consider another atomic statement
R(p) : This painting is a red.
Where, R denote the predicate ”is red” and p denote ”This painting”.

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 The Predicate Calculus The Predicates

The Predicates II

Consider following two statements involving two objects.

G(j1 , j2 ) : Jack is taller than Jill.
N (c, s) : Canada is to the north of the United States.
Where G denote the predicate is taller and N denote the predicate is
to the north of and the objects j1 and j2 as Jack and Jill c and s as
Canada and United states.

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 The Predicate Calculus Simple statement function

Definition (Simple statement function)

A simple statement function of one variable is defined to an expression
consisting of a predicate symbol and an individual variable. Such a
statement function becomes statement when variables are replaced by the
name or any object.

Following are some of the Illustrations of the statement function.

M (x): ”x is man.
H(x): ”x is a mortal. ”
M (x) ∧ H(y): x is a man and y is a mortal.
G(x, y): x is taller than y.

From the basic simple statement functions M (x) and H(x) using the
logical connectives we can form another statements as

M (x) ∧ H(x) M (x) → H(x) ¬H(x) M (x) ∨ ¬H(x)

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 The Predicate Calculus Quantifiers

Quantifiers I

Consider the following statement.

All men are mortal.
Every apple is red.
Any integer is either positive or negative.
For all x, if x is an apple, then x is red.
For all x, if x is a man, then x is a mortal.
For all x, if x is a integer, then x is either positive or negative.
Denote the phrase ”for all” by (∀) of (x) and using these notation the
above statement can be restated as per the following. The notation ∀ or
(x) is called Universal Quantifier.
M (x): x is a man. H(x) : x is a mortal.
A(x): x is an apple.

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 The Predicate Calculus Quantifiers

Quantifiers II

N (x) : x is an integer. P (x) : x is either positive or negative.

The above statements using universal quantifier ∀ can be restated as,

(x)(M (x) → H(x))

(x)(A(x) → R(x))
(x)(N (x) → P (x))

Consider the following statements.

There exists a man.
Some men are clever.
Some real numbers are rational.
Rewriting the basic statements using the predicates we get.
M (x) : x is man.

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 The Predicate Calculus Quantifiers

Quantifiers III

C(x) : x is clever.
R1 (x) : x is a real number.
R2 (x) : x is a rational.
Using the existence quantifier, we can expressed the above statements can
be expressed as,

(∃x)(M (x))
(∃x)(M (x) ∧ C(x))
(∃x)(R1 (x) ∧ R2 (x))

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 The Predicate Calculus Predicate Formulas

Definition (Predicate Formulas)

P (x1 , x2 , . . . . . . , xn ) denotes an n−place predicate formula in which the
letter P is an n−place predicate and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are individual variables.
In general, P (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is an atomic formula of predicate calculus.

A well-formed formula of predicate calculus is obtained by using the

following rules.
1 An atomic formula is a well-formed formula.
2 If A is well-formed formula then ¬A is well-formed formula.
3 If A and B are well-formed formula then (A ∧ B), (A ∨ B), (A → B)
and (A ) are also well-formed formulas.
4 If A is well-formed formula and x is any variable, then (x) and (∃x)
well-formed formulas.
5 Only those formula obtained from using rules (1) to (4) are
well-formed formulas.

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 The Predicate Calculus Free and Bound Variables

Definition (Free and Bound Variables)

Given a formula containing a part of the form (x)P (x) or (∃x)P (x), such
a part is called x−bound part of the formula. Any occurrence of x in an
x−bound part of a formula is called a bound occurrence of x, while any
occurrence of x or of any variable that is is not a bound occurrence is
called a free occurrence.
Consider the following formulas:

(x)P (x, y) (12)

(x)(P (x) → Q(x)) (13)
(x)(P (x) → (∃y)R(x, y)) (14)
(x)(P (x) → R(x)) ∨ (x)(P (x) → Q(x)) (15)
(∃x)(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) (16)
(∃x)P (x) ∧ Q(x) (17)

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 The Predicate Calculus Free and Bound Variables

Example
Let
P (x) : x is a person.
F (x, y) : x is a father of y.
M (x, y) : x is a mother of y.
Write the predicate ”x is the father of the mother of y”.

Solution
We name a person z as the mother of y. We want to say that x is a father
of z and z is the mother of y.

(∃z)(P (z) ∧ F (x, z) ∧ M (z, y)). (18)

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 The Predicate Calculus Free and Bound Variables

Example
Symbolize the expression ”All the world loves a lover.”

Solution
First note that the quotation really means that everybody loves a lover.
Now let
P (x) : x is a person.
L(x) : x is a lover.
R(x, y) : x loves y.
The required expression is

(x)(P (x) → (y)(P (y) ∧ L(y) → R(x, y))). (19)

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Definition (Universe of Discourse)

For statement containing one or more variables if the variables are
restricted to particular set or class then it is called universe of discourse or
the domain of individual or simply universe.

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Example
Symbolize the statement ”All men are giants”.

Solution
Define two statements as

G(x) : x is Giant and M (x): x is a man.

The given statement can be symbolized as

(x)(M (x) → G(x))

If the variable x is restricted to universe E=class of man, then the

statement can be symbolized as,

(x)G(x)

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Example
Symbolize the statement ”Given any positive integer, there is greater
positive integer” with and without using the set of positive integers as the
universe of discourse.

Solution
Define two statements as

G(x, y) : x is greater than y and P (x): x is a positive integer.

Then the above statement using E=set of positive integers as universe

discourse, can be symbolized as

(x)(∃y)G(y, x)

and without restriction the statement can be symbolized as,

(x)(P (x) → (∃y)(P (y) ∧ G(y, x)))

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Example
Consider the predicate Q(x) : x is less than 5 and the statements (x)Q(x)
and (∃x)Q(x). If the universe of discourse is given by
1 E = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 4}
2 {3, −2, 7, 8, −2}
3 {15, 20, 24}
Find the truth values of the above statements.

Solution
The statement (x)Q(x) is true for universe of discourse (1) and false
for (2) and (3).
The statement (∃x)Q(x) is true for both (1) and (2) and false for (3).

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Example
All cats are animals. Symbolize this statement.

Solution
This statement is true for any universe of discourse. Define two
statements as

C(x) : x is a cat and A(x) : x is an animal.

and universe of discourse as E = {Cuddle, Ginger, 0, 1}.

The statement (x)(C(x) → A(x)) is true and
The statement (x)(C(x) ∧ A(x)) is false.

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 Universe of Discourse, Examples

Example
Some cats are black. Symbolize this statement.

Solution
Consider the universe of discourse as E = {Cuddle, Ginger, 0, 1}. and
define two statements as,

C(x) : x is a cat and B(x) : x is an black.

The statement (∃x)(C(x) ∧ A(x)) is false and

The statement (∃x)(C(x) → A(x)) is true when x is replaced by 0 or
1. Thus, the conditional connective is not correct in this case.

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 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

Definition (Equivallent formulas)

Let A and B be two predicate formulas defined over a common universe
discourse E. If for every assignment of object names from the universe
discourse E to each of the variables appearing in A and B, the resulting
statements have the same truth values, then the predicate formula A and
B are said to be equivalent to each other. If E is arbitrary, then we say
that A and B are equivalent, that is A ⇔ B.

Following are the valid formula of the predicate calculus.

E1 ¬¬A(x)  A(x)
E2 C(x, y) ∧ B(x)  B(x) ∧ C(x, y)
E16 A(x) → B(x)  ¬A(x) ∨ B(x)

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 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

Some valid formulas over finite Universes

Definition
Let the universe of discourse be denoted by a finite set S given by,
S = {a1 , a2 , . . . . . . , an }, we have

(x)A(x) ⇔ A(a1 ) ∧ A(a2 ) ∧ . . . ∧ A(an ) (20)

(∃x)A(x) ⇔ A(a1 ) ∨ A(a2 ) ∨ . . . ∨ A(an ) (21)

Hence, from the above two equations De’ Morgans law can be stated as,

¬((x)A(x) ⇔ (∃x)¬A(x)
¬((∃x))A(x)) ⇔ (x)¬A(x)

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 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

Special valid formulas involving quantifiers I

Following are the four implications that are used in the the theory of
inference of predicate calculus and will allows us to remove or add
quantifiers during the course of the derivation.
1 Let A(x) be the predicate formula where x is particular object
variable of interest then,

(x)A(x) ⇒ A(y) (22)

2 Implication universal specification or instantiation denoted as US is

given by
(x)A(x) ⇒ A(x) (23)
3 Let x be any object variable, and B be any formula not containing
any free occurrence of x, and A(x) be any formula. Then

(B → A(x)) ⇒ (B → (x)A(x)) (24)

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 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

Special valid formulas involving quantifiers II

4 Universal generalization implication UG is given by

A(x) ⇒ (x)A(x) (25)

5 The existential specification abbreviated as ES

(∃x)A(x) ⇒ A(y) (26)

6 The existential generalization, or EG is given by,

A(y) ⇒ (∃x)A(x) (27)

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 Valid Formulas and Equivalences and Examples

Following are some equivalences and implications.

E22 (∃x)(A(x) ∨ B(x)) ⇔ (∃x)A(x) ∨ (∃x)B(x)
E24 (∃x)(A(x) ∧ B(x)) ⇔ (∃x)A(x) ∧ (∃x)B(x)
E25 ¬(∃x)A(x) ⇔ (x)¬A(x)
E26 ¬(x)A(x) ⇔ (∃x)¬A(x)
E15 (x)A(x) ∨ (x)B(x) ⇒ (x)(A(x) ∨ B(x))
E16 (∃x)A(x) ∧ (x)B(x) ⇒ (∃x)(A(x) ∧ B(x))
Another table:
E27 (x)(A ∨ B(x)) ⇔ A ∨ (x)B(x)
E23 (∃x)(A ∧ B(x)) ⇔ A(x) ∧ (∃x)B(x)
E29 (x)A(x) → B ⇔ (∃x)(A(x) → B)
E30 (∃x)A(x) → B ⇔ (x)(A(x) → B)
E31 A → (x)B(x) ⇔ (x)(A → B(x))
E32 A → (∃x)B(x) ⇔ (∃x)(A → B(x))

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 References

References:

[1] Advanced Engineering Mathematics,(8th edition), John Wiley and

sons, (2008) by Erwin Kreyzeic.
[2] Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Prentice-Hall International, Inc.
NJ. by Michael D. Greenberg.
[3] Calculus with analytical Geometry, (9th edition), Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company. (2004) George B by Thomas, Jr. Ross L. Finney:
[4] Calculus, A new horizon, (6th edition), John Willey and Sons, (2006),
by Howard Anton.
[5] Engineering Mathematics Vol-I and Vol-II, Student manual, SVNIT,
Surat by A. P. Verma and M. N. Mehta.

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