EARTHQUAKE CAUSES AND OCCURRENCES

Earthquake Resistant Structures & Retrofitting Techniques

ASSAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
21st to 23rd November, 2016

Presentation by:

Mrs. INDIRA BARUAH GOGOI

Department of Civil Engineering,
Assam Engineering College
 Introduction
 Stability of the crust of the Earth is an essential condition for the propagation
of life on the planet. But the crust of the earth is constantly changing.

 Big forces are continuously at work, shaping and reshaping the rocks of the
crust- thrusting them into enormous folds, twisting them and cracking them. This
process is generally slow. But sometimes the earth shakes violently, then-

Long crakes are formed on its’ surface,

Monuments topple, buildings crash &

Thousands of people die.

 These momentary shocks experienced by the earth at various locations and

different times are called EARTHQUAKES.
 Definition
Technically, Earthquakes may be defined as:
“ Vibrations induced in the earth’s crust due to internal or external causes that
virtually shakes up a part of the crust and all the structure and living and non-
living things existing on it.”

Origin
Seismology is derived from the Greek word ‘SEISMO’ meaning ‘SHAKING’ &
‘LOGOS’ meaning ‘SCIENCE’. In fact, the name ‘Seismology’ means ‘Shaking
Knowledge’.
When we use these knowledge and ideas in design and construction to safeguard
structures from seismic forces and prevent earthquakes hazard from becoming a
disaster then it is known as ‘EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING’.
An Irish civil engineer named Robert Mallet covered all aspects of earthquakes. He
is responsible for the birth of both the subjects MODERN SEISMOLOGY and
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING.
SOME TERMMINOLOGY USED IN EARTHQUAKE
 FOCUS: The place or point or zone of origin of an earthquake below the surface of the
earth. It may lie a few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers below the surface.
 EPICENTER: The point or place on the surface vertically above the focus of a
particular earthquake. Vibrations, first of all reach this place and maximum damage
generally occurs in that location. Majority of the earthquakes of the past had their focii
lying within 50km, only few between 300-700km.
 SEISMIC WAVES: During each earthquake, elastic waves are generated at the focus
and they travel in all directions with characteristics velocity. They are called Seismic
waves.
 MAGNITUDE: It is the term expressing the rating of an earthquake on the basis of
amplitude of seismic waves recorded as seismogram. Charles F. Richter in 1935, first
developed a scale of magnitude for local use and later on improved upon and used
internationally.
 INTENSITY: It is another term expressing rating of an earthquake in a qualitative
manner, on the basis of its effects on living and non-living things of the region
experienced by it. Modified Mercally Scale is most commonly used to measure the
intensity of an earthquake.
 INSTRUMENT USED TO MEASURE EARTHQUAKE
• Seismograph is the only micro-seismic instrument to record the earthquake in a
continuous manner.
• Developmental history of some micro-seismic instruments used so far are-
I. Seismoscope
II. Seismograph
III. Seismometer
 Seismoscope- It is a device which indicates the occurrence of an earthquake but does
not record it. It was first invented in China by Chang Heng in A.D. 132.
 Seismograph- It is a device which indicates the occurrences of earthquake and also
shows a permanent continuous record of earth- motion in the form of Seismogram. It
was developed in Italy in Mid nineteenth Century and later modified and developed
in Japan in year 1880, then in Italy and in Europe.
 Seismometer- It is a seismograph whose physical constants are known sufficiently
for calibration actual ground motion which can be calculated from the Seismogram.
Pendulum type of seismograph is in modern use.
 First horizontal Seismograph has been developed, then vertical Seismograph and
today most of the Seismographs are with electronic devices and analyses are done
with the help of computer.
 EARTHQUAKE ZONING OF INDIA
 On seismic basis India can be divided into 3 zones:
a) Zone of maximum intensity: This zone covers all the north eastern states
including Assam, northern Bihar, upper stripes of U.P, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir.

b) Zone of intermediate intensity: This zone includes southern flat land of Haryana,
Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Rajasthan, M.P, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, northern parts of
Gujarat & Maharastra.

c) Zone of minimum intensity : The triangular Peninsular part of India, has been
considered a stable land from ancient time with respect to earthquake incidence.
 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Causes of earthquake can be classified into:
A. NON – TECTONIC
B. TECTONIC
A. Non-tectonic causes can be classified into :
i. Surface cause
ii. Volcanic cause
iii. Human cause
i) Surface causes: Occur over the ground surface giving an impact : A huge land slide
or a rock fall, violent sea waves hitting the coastal area .
ii)Volcanic causes: Sudden out burst or explosions of lava .e.g. (Mount St. Helena
eruption in 1980).
iii) Human cause : Main human activity contribute to this-
a) Constructing large dams and building ,
b) Drilling and injecting liquid into well,
c) By coal mining and oil drilling
a. In case of dams, foundation and abutments rocks should be strong and stable.
More serious is the reservoir, full of water. Several dams of the world, the
reservoir basin is having been inactive or in the zone of poor seismicity,
experiencing earthquakes as it filled with water. Indian earthquake of this
kind was KOYNA earthquake.
The SHIVAJI-SAGAR reservoir of Koyna dam, Maharastra lies on the pre-Cambrian rocks
of peninsular India, which is a very poorly seismic area. Filling of water started in
1962. Earthquake started, increased frequency in 1963, reservoir partly filled,
magnitude below 4. In 1965, water filled to maximum level, shocks became more
intense and frequent.
 From sept. 13 to Dec. 10 1967 magnitude increased from 5 to 7.5. After that shocks
gradually decrease. Resulted in the death of 200 persons, injured more then 1500 people
and was felt for more than 1500 km area that classified as most stable and aseismic
peninsular part of India. Epicenter in all these shocks within the reservoir area.
 Causes:- 1. presence of Pre-existing faults, making them active again.
2. Increase in pore pressure, lower the shearing strength of the rock formation,
resulting in release of strength.
b. The greatest earthquake in Australia’s history was also induced by humanity through
coal mining .The city of New Castle was built over a large sector of coal mining areas.
The earthquake was originated from a fault, which reactivated due to the millions of
tones of rock removed in the mining process.
C. In 1961, the U.S military dug a deep well near Denver, Colorado, to dispose of
radioactive wastewater. A short time later, tremors were felt in the area which continued
for seven-year period thereafter. Similar events have occurred when fluids were injected
into deep oil wells to enhance petroleum production.
 TECTONIC CAUSES
 Tectonic is a Greek word meaning force. Tectonic causes can be explained by two
processes:
A. Elastic Rebound theory
B. Plate tectonic theory
A. ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
Quick and sudden release of strain energy by the rocks. Satisfactory explanation was
proposed by H.F. Reid after elaborate studies of San Francisco earthquake of April
18, 1906.
In the most simplified form, the earthquake mechanism may be explained:-
The preparatory process, a non-hydrostatic stress field is created in a certain region. A
number of ‘foreshocks’ are recorded during this phase.
The rupture phase, rupture takes place along the fault and all or part of the stored
energy is released as seismic waves. Main shock.
The post failure adjustment, during which a state of equilibrium involving series of
‘aftershocks’ recorded for many months.
Elastic Rebound Theory Explained

FAULT TYPES
Major Plates of the World
Internal Structure of the Earth
 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
 Our earth’s crust is broken into a number of large fragments called plates.
 They are in a slow sliding type of movements over the underlying hot plastic part.
 The plate movements are not uniform and not in the same direction.
 The movements of these plates are of mainly three types :
i. Divergent movement – the boundaries of two adjoining large plates move
away from each other.
ii. Convergent movement –The plate boundaries move towards each other and
may confront and collide. One plate may move under
or sub duct below the other .
iii. Transform movement – Zones of adjoining boundaries just slide past each
other in a horizontal direction, e.g San Andres fault .
In convergent movement, different conditions of collision are possible. They
are: Two oceanic plate,
One oceanic and one continental plate,
Two continental plate.
Reverse fault can produce major earthquake having M- 8 or more. Strike-slip
fault can produce earthquake M-8. Normal fault produce less than M-7.
Tectonic Plate Movement
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
Effects varies with the distance from the epicenter.
Richter classifies the effects of earthquakes into two: Primary and Secondary.
Primary effects includes- creation of slopes, fissures, warping of strata, emergence or
subsidence of coastlines, changes in the courses of river, origin of new springs,
creation of sand dyke etc.
Secondary effects includes- landslides; building, bridges, dams, poles and posts,
fences may be slightly or heavily damaged; loose objects may overturned;
telegraphic & electric cables and water pipes may get broken; tsunamis may occur.
CONCLUSION
The earthquakes are un-preventable and un-predictable. Man cannot change the
location, frequency or magnitude. But we can do much to reduce or minimize the
loss of life and property in future earthquakes by using the knowledge in design and
construction.
Facts: The smallest quake felt by human is about M 1.5 and smallest earthquake
capable of causing structural damage is about M 4.5. Longest lasting earthquake is
Alaska quake of 27th March, 1964, continued for at least for five minutes and
M 8.6.
Plate movement