ASSIGNMENT -3

Use this document at your own risk. No authentic information and not verified. CELL BIOLOGY

ANSWERS

Ans1.

Types of Ribosome s

70S Ribosome s- The 70S ribosome s are comparatively smaller in size and have sedimentation coefficient 70S and the molecular weight 2.7 * 10^6 Daltons. They occur in prokaryotic cell of blue green algae and bacteria and also in mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.

80S Ribosome s- The 80S ribosome s have sedimentation coefficient of 80S and the molecular weight 40*10^6 daltons. The 80S ribosomes occur in eukaryotic cells of plants and animals. The ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are always smaller than 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes and are comparable to prokaryotic ribosomes in both size and sensitivity to antibiotics .

Ans 2. Glycolysis is responsible for production of ATP(adenosine triphosphate) through degradation of glucose. It does not use molecular oxygen and occurs in cytosol in cells. it can happen in aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is hypothesized that reason glycolysis can proceed without molecular oxygen is that mechanism was initiated before earth s atmosphere contained the element. There has not been any reasons for the process to convert to simply aerobic mechanisms. Glycolysis not only produces ATP but also intermediates that are important for biosynthetic processes. Steps in Glycolysis:

1. First step is phosphorylation of glucose molecules by ATP which creates the sugar phosphate. The glucose molecules stays inside of the cell due to negative charges on the phosphate. These negative charges do not allow passage through plasma membrane. 2. The next involves the relocation of carbon oxygen from carbon 1 to carbon 2. This is done through a reversible isomerization and creates ketose. The hydroxyl group which is now located on first carbon is phosphorylated through ATP. The fructose 1,6 biphosphate which happens to be a six carbon sugar is cleaved. The cleaving causes creation of two to three carbon molecules . 3. One of the previously produced 3 carbon molecules, glyceraldehyde immediately proceeds through glycolysis. However dihydroxyacetone is restructured or isomerized to become glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate and can not proceed through glycolysis. 4. Next in step six both glyceraldehydes are oxidized to form an NADH and a proton. Then the enzymephosphoglycerate kinase uses the power of glyceraldehyde oxidation to create an ATP molecule. The phosphate ester linkage is moved from carbon 3 to carbon 2 through enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase. This results in molecule 2 phosphoglycerate. From this molecule, one molecule is extracted forming phosphoenolpyruvate.

5. This extraction of water allow for the formation of a very high energy phosphate linkage. This linkage transfers energy to ADP forming ATP. The final molecules is two molecules of NADH, four molecules of ATP and two molecules of three carbon sugars. 6. From step six onwards there is energy generation going on indicating beginning of ATP and NADH synthesis. In aerobic organisms, NADH molecules produced transfer their electrons or energy into the electron transport chain. In anaerobic organisms, fermentation takes place instead of electron transport chain. There were five different key reactions that were described above. Phospohoryl transfer is transfer of phosphoryl group from ATP to an intermediate in glycolysis or the transfer of phosphoryl group to an ADP from an intermediate aided by kinase.

STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS

Ans 3. Microtubules consists of a long, unbranched, hollow tubules 24- 25 nm in diameter several micrometers long and 6 nm thick wall having 13 subunits or protofilaments. Thus the wall of microtubule consists of 13 individual linear or spiraling filamentous structures about 5 nm in diameter which in turn composed of tubulin. These protofilaments have a centre to centre spacing of 4.5 nm. Application of negative staining

techniques has shown that microtubules have a lumen 14 nm wide and protofilament or subunit structure in wall. Chemical CompositionBiochemically, protofilament of microtubule is made of protein called tubulin. Tubulin is an acidic protein with mol. wt. of 55,000 and sedimentation coefficient of 6S. It occurs in two forms called alpha tubulin and Beta- tubulin, each containing 450 amino acids. Tubulins in the form of dimmers polymerizes into the microtubules. Thus heterodimers of tubulins assemble to form linear protofilaments with beta- tubulin of one dimer in contact with alpha- tubulin of next. Since all the 13 protofilaments have aligned parallerly with same polarity, microtubules are polar structures having a plus or fast growing end or minus or slow growing end. The minus ends are bound tightly to microtubule organizing centres from which their assembly or polymerization starts.

STRUCTURE OF MICROTUBULES

Part B Ans 4. Mitochondria are known as power house of cells. They are organelles that act like digestive system that takes in nutrients, break them down and creates energy for the cell in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). This process of creating cellular energy called as Cellular Respiration. These are main seat of aerobic respiration, where respiratory substrates are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. The ATP molecules produced are used for various functions of cell.

ATP is a nucleoside comprised of a central ribose sugar, a purine adenine base and a chain of three phosphate groups. It is an immediate energy source in the cell and is formed during three stages. The first stage begins by harvesting chemical

energy from oxidation of a glucose molecule. This process takes place in the cytoplasm and is known as glycolysis. Since the energy within organic molecules is stored within the individual atoms, it can only be released by breaking the bonds which hold the atoms together. This requires an 'energy spend' of two ATP molecules to assist the breakdown of glucose into intermediate substrates called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphates. Further breakdown enables the coenzyme NAD+ to pick up high-energy electrons and hydrogen ions, forming two NADH molecules. It also releases energy allowing phosphate group to bond with ADP, forming two molecules of ATP in a process called substrate level phosphorylation. Further breakdown to pyruvate generates an additional two molecules of ATP, giving glycolysis an overall energy 'profit' of two ATP. The next stage of cellular respiration also yields ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. This stage, known as the Citric Acid Cycle, completes the oxidation of glucose and takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. Pyruvate diffuses through the cell membrane and undergoes several chemical reactions to form Acetyl Co-A, producing carbon dioxide as a waste product. NADH and FADH2 also carry electrons during this stage as well. Another two molecules of ATP are produced which can be immediately used by the cell for energy. The majority of ATP produced by our body is formed by the third and final stage of cellular respiration in a process called oxidative phosphorylation. This is known as the electron transfer stage in which NADH and FADH2 give up the electrons they gained from glycolysis and the Citric Acid Cycle, releasing energy. ATP is then generated by an enzyme called ATP

synthase which uses a hydrogen ion gradient to capture the energy released from the high-energy electrons. In this way, oxidative phosphorylation yields 34 molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose. Thus, all the chemical energy harvested from the original glucose molecule is now as ATP in the form of potential energy, ready to be used for cellular work. It is the molecular arrangement of ATP which then allows the release of this potential energy. The breakdown of ATP to ADP and consequent regeneration is what affords each cell the currency to survive and carry out the cellular work for a particular function. Since all three phosphate groups are negatively charged, the molecule is unstable and readily gives up it's terminal phosphate group through hydrolysis to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and an inorganic phosphate molecule. This reaction is exergonic, releasing approx triangle 13 kcal.mol. A reaction is described as exergonic when it releases energy into its surroundings and occurs spontaneously, giving products that have less potential energy than their reactants. An endergonic reaction requires an input of energy from its surrounding and products have more potential energy than reactants. It is the ability of ATP to couple endergonic and exergonic reactions that makes life able to continue. By giving up a phosphate group in the exergonic transformation of ATP to ADP, this allows other reactants to pick them up and gain energy to allow an endergonic reaction to take place. This process is known as energy coupling in the cell.

Ans 5.

Ans 6. Functions of Microtubules1. Mechanical Function- The shape of the cell e.g. RBC and some cell processes or protuberances such as axons and

dendrites of neurons, microvilli etc. have been correlated to the orientation and distribution of microtubules. 2. Morphogenesis- During cell differentiation, the mechanical function of microtubules is used to determine the shape of the developing cells. for example enormous elongation in nucleus of spermatid during spermiogenesis is accompanied by the production of and orderly array of microtubules that are wrapped around the nucleus in a double helical arrangement. 3. Cellular polarity and motility- the determination of intrinsic polarity of certain cells is also related to microtubules. Direction gliding of cultured cells is found to be depend on microtubules. 4. Contraction- these also play an important role in contraction of spindle and movement of chromosomes and centrioles as well as in cilliary and flagellar motion. Functions of MicrofilamentsMicrofilaments are found to be involved in movement associate with furrow formation in cell division, cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells e.g. Nitella and cell migration during embryonic development.