Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Numerical study on serpentine design flow channel configurations for T

vanadium redox flow batteries
Ehtesham Ali, Hwabhin Kwon, Jungmyung Kim, Heesung Park
⁎

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Changwon National University, South Korea

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: A flow channel is a significant factor determining the performance of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). In
Vanadium redox flow battery this study, we use a three-dimensional numerical model to investigate the complexities of the fluid dynamics and
Cell voltage electrochemical reactions of VRFBs considering a number of serpentine design flow channels. The results show
Electrolyte flow rate that cell voltage increases with the reduction in the number of flow channels and increase in the electrolyte flow
Serpentine design
rate during the discharging process. The higher electrolyte flow rate significantly improves the uniformity of
Power-based efficiency
vanadium concentration at both electrodes. We observe that the pressure drop in the VRFB cell decreases with
increasing number of flow channels. Moreover, the electrolyte disturbance and flow resistance reduces when the
number of flow channels increases, which lead to a smaller pressure drop. As a result, the pumping power
derived from the pressure drop decreases with the increase in the number of flow channels. The maximum
power-based efficiency calculated for the quadruple serpentine design flow channel at an electrolyte flow rate of
60 ml/min is 97.18%. This serpentine design shows the lowest pumping power and achieves the optimum
power-based efficiency. The proposed numerical approach provides comprehensive insights into serpentine
design flow channel configurations for VRFBs.

1. Introduction A typical VRFB cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and an ion

In recent years, the number of energy storage systems for re-
generative energy is consistently increasing because of the worldwide
consumption of energy and the challenges to attenuate climate change.
Redox flow batteries are considered as a promising large-scale elec-
tricity storage technology for emergency power backup and inter-
mittent power systems as well as for stabilizing the electricity supply
grid [1–4], because of their properties such as long life cycle, power
rating, high energy efficiency, and flexibility [5–11]. To advance the
redox flow battery technology, although great considerable progress
was made in the past years with respect to VRFBs. The challenges which
are associated with improving the performance of the battery in terms
of system efficiency, capacity and power, and also the difficulties in
optimizing the battery structures and improving the operation are still
investigated and need to be resolved. The VRFB was invented by Sky-
llas-Kazacos and coworkers in the mid-1980s and was comprehensively
investigated [12–15]. VRFBs are attractive when coupled to renewable
energy resources due to their long discharge time and large energy
storage capacity. For a clean future, the primary focus with respect to
research and development is on renewable energy sources such as wind,
tidal and solar [16–20].
exchange membrane. The membrane (separator) allows the diffusion of
ions to maintain the neutrality, but it prevents the two different elec-
trolyte solutions from cross mixing. It is a key component of VRFBs
since it decides the life span, cost and efficiency of VRFB systems
[21–23]. During the charging-discharging process, the redox reactions
occur on the surface of electrodes and the vanadium electrolytes in the
two electrolyte tanks are circulated by using pumps. As a flow-type
VRFB cell, the transportation of electrolytes in the porous electrodes
significantly affects the VRFB performance. Flow channels were in-
itially applied in fuel cells; however, different types of flow channels are
now introduced into the VRFB system, including interdigitated, ser-
pentine, and parallel flow channels [24–31]. The effects of these flow
channels were widely investigated and reported in literature in contrast
to the VRFB cell structure without the flow channels [32–35]. For ex-
ample, Xu et al. [32] investigated the performance of VRFBs by com-
paring their cell structure with and without flow channels. They con-
cluded that the VRFB with flow channels has a higher energy efficiency
and a larger pressure drop than that without flow channels. Lee et al.
[36] numerically investigated the effect of the serpentine flow channel
size and flow rate on VRFB performance. They pointed out that the
increasing electrolyte flow rate improves the electrochemical

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Changwon National University, 20 Changwondaehak-ro, Changwon City 51140 South Korea
E-mail address: heesungpark@changwon.ac.kr (H. Park).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101802
Received 11 June 2020; Received in revised form 11 August 2020; Accepted 18 August 2020
Available online 02 September 2020
2352-152X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Ali, et al.
performance of the battery and a maximum power-based efficiency of
96.6 % was calculated for the 1.9 mm channel size at a 60 ml/min flow
rate. Messaggi et al. [37] investigated the performance of the inter-
digitated and serpentine flow channel. Their results indicated that the
interdigitated flow channels have a higher ability to uniformly dis-
tribute the electrolytes, while the serpentine flow channels exhibit a
better performance at a high pressure drop. Xu et al. [34] numerically
determined the performance of a VRFB cell considering flow channels.
They observed that the VRFB with flow channels showed a 5% higher
energy efficiency than that without flow channels. Khazaeli et al. [38]
numerically studied the effect of electrolyte flow rate on VRFB perfor-
mance. They concluded that increasing the flow rate from 10 to 70 ml/
min improved the cell voltage by 50 mV. Tang et al. [39] considered the
VRFB performance based on pressure losses and electrolyte flow rate.
They established that the electrolyte flow rate incrementally improved
the concentration distribution uniformity within the VRFB cell. How-
ever, this approach leads to a large pumping loss and decreases the
system efficiency. To mitigate this problem, a flow channel was in-
troduced into the VRFB cell structure which improved the mass trans-
port and lowered the pumping loss. Zhang et al. [40] numerically va-
lidated the effect of flow field designs on VRFB performance. They
compared the interdigitated flow field and serpentine design applying
different numbers of flow fields. They reported that the interdigitated
flow field performs well with regards to pumping power and distribu-
tion of vanadium ions at the electrodes. Also, the serpentine design with
a different number of flow fields showed less pumping power and
pressure drop.
In the present study, a three-dimensional stationary model of ser-
pentine flow channels based on computational fluid dynamics and
electrochemical reactions was developed. Based on the simulation re-
sults, the VRFB flow channel design and operating conditions were
optimized to improve the VRFB performance and power-based effi-
ciency of the system. The impact of electrolyte flow rate on the elec-
trical characteristics and efficiencies of VRFBs was also numerically
studied. The three-dimensional numerical simulations were carried out
at different conditions. This study was conducted to contribute to the
fundamental understanding of serpentine designs containing a different
number of flow channels and to improve the electrochemical perfor-
mance and power-based efficiency of VRFB systems which should be
beneficial for optimizing VRFB designs.
2. Numerical modeling
2.1. Electrochemical reactions and redox process
A schematic diagram of the VRFB is depicted in Fig. 1, which shows
two porous electrodes, two current collectors, an ion exchange mem-
brane, two electrolyte storage tanks and two pumps to circulate the
electrolyte solution. A distinctive feature of a VRFB system is that it
only employs vanadium ions as reactive species to avoid cross con-
tamination. The electrolytes are made of sulfuric acid solutions which
contain vanadium ions of different valences. The V 2 +/V 3 + and V4 +/V5 +
redox couples are stored in a negative and positive electrolyte tank. The
reactions that occur in the porous electrodes of the VRFB during
charging/discharging process are expressed as follows:
Positive electrode:
VO2 + + H2 O e VO+2 + 2H+ ;charge (1)
VO2 + + H2 O e VO+2 + 2H+;discharge (2)
Negative electrode:
V 3+ +e V 2 +;charge (3)
V 3+ +e V 2 +;discharge (4)
The oxidation-reduction reactions of V 2 +/V 3 + and V4 +/V5 + occur at
2
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
the negative and positive electrodes, respectively, and the charging and
discharging processes can be described as follows. During the charging
process of the battery, V 3+ is reduced to V 2 + at the negative electrode,
whereas V4 + is oxidized to V5+ at the positive electrode. During dis-
charging, these reactions occur in the reversed direction. During op-
eration, proton transfer from one electrode to the other through an ion
exchange membrane and electron transfer through the external load
proceeds to form an electrical circuit. To describe the relative amount
of vanadium ion concentration in the electrodes, we define the state of
charge as follows:
C V2 + C V5 +
SOC = =
C V3 + + C V2 + C V 4 + + C V5 + (5)
2.2. Model description
The three-dimensional numerical VRFB model is based on a sim-
plified single cell structure as shown in Fig. 2. The VRFB cell is com-
posed of two porous electrodes, a proton exchange membrane to se-
parate the two porous electrodes, two current collectors and the
electrolyte flow channels. The flow channels are located at both sides of
the VRFB cell to constantly provide the electrolyte. The geometrical
parameters of the VRFB cell are listed in Table 1. This type of three-
dimensional model saves time and computational cost without losing
accuracy.
2.3. Governing equations
2.3.1. Transport in electrodes
In the battery, the V4+/V5+ ion couple and H+, HSO4 , SO24 ions
coexist in the electrolyte solution of the positive electrode, while the
V2+/V3+ ion couple and H+, HSO4 , SO24 ions coexist in the electrolyte
solutions of negative electrode. Generally, the mass conservation
equation of each species i is formulated as:
( ci ) + ·( Dieff ci z i i Fci + u ci ) = Si
t I (6)
Where ɛ is the electrode porosity, c is the concentration of species, D
is the diffusion coefficient, z is the valence of species, к is the ionic
mobility of species, ϕ is the ionic potential, u is the electrolyte velocity,
F is the Faraday constant and Si is the source term. The source terms are
listed in Table 2. The electrolyte solution is electroneutral [41]:
z i ci = 0
i (7)
Where zi is the valence of species i, and ci is the concentration of
species i.
The term Dieff is the effective diffusivity of species i, which are de-
fined by the Bruggeman equation as follows:
Dieff = 1.5D
i (7)
Where Di is the diffusivity of species, and ε is the electrode porosity.
For the fluid flow through the porous electrode, the superficial elec-
trolyte velocity ( u ) is expressed using Darcy's law:
K
u = p
µ (9)
Where K is the permeability coefficient of the electrode, p is the
pressure, and μ is the dynamic viscosity of the electrolyte. The per-
meability of the porous medium is described by the Kozeny-Carman
equation as follows [42]:
d 2f 3
K=
K ck (1 )2 (10)
Where Kck is the Kozeny-Carman constant and df is the fiber dia-
meter.
E. Ali, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of VRFB.

Table 1
Geometrical VRFB cell parameters.
Term Value Unit

Cell height 50 mm
Cell width 50 mm
Electrode thickness 3 mm
Membrane thickness 0.2 mm
Channel size 2 mm

Table 2
Source terms of the governing equation.
Source term Positive electrode Negative electrode

V2 + concentration equation, s v 2 + - j/F

V3 +concentration equation. s v 3 + - -j/F
V 4 +concentration equation, s v4 + j/F -
V5 +concentration equation, s v 5 + -j/F -
H+concentration equation, s H+ -2j/F -

2.3.2. Transport in membrane

The transport process of the proton is considered for the proton-
conducting membrane, which is the only mobile ion, and the current
conservation equation is expressed as follows [41]:

mem
NH+ =
F mem (11)

Where σmem is the conductivity of the membrane, ϕmem is the electric

potential of the membrane, and F is the Faraday constant.
Fig. 2. Three-dimensional VRFB model.

3
E. Ali, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802

2.3.3. Transport in flow channel Table 3

Navier-Stokes equations were applied to investigate the electrolyte Operating parameters used in the simulation.
flow in flow channels and manifold domains for the incompressible Parameter Value Unit Reference
fluid, which are defined as follows [43]:
−7
Positive rate constant 6.8 × 10 m/s [36]
(u · ) u = p+µ 2u
(12) Negative rate constant 1.7 × 10−7 m/s [36]
Positive transfer coefficient 0.55 - [36]
·u = 0 (13) Negative transfer coefficient 0.45 - [36]
Positive standard potential 1.004 V [36]
Where u is the velocity of the electrolyte, ρ is the electrolyte den- Negative standard potential -0.255 V [36]
sity, μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and p is the electrolyte Pump efficiency 0.9 - Assumed
pressure.

2.3.4. Electrochemical kinetics Table 4

Electrochemical properties used in the simulation.
The Butler-Volmer laws were used for the transfer current densities
of the positive electrode j1 and negative electrode j2, which describe the Parameter Value Unit Reference
reversible electrochemical reactions [44]:
Initial vanadium concentration 1500 mol/m3 [43]
j1 Initial proton concentration 4000 mol/m3 [43]
Initial sulfate concentration 4500 mol/m3 [43]
c s 4+ (1 1) F 1
c Vs 5 + V2 + diffusion coefficient 2.4 × 10 10 m2/s [36]
V
= As Fk1 (c V 4 +)(1 1) (c 5 +) 1 exp exp
V
cV 4+ RT cV 5+ V3 + diffusion coefficient 2.4 × 10 10 m2/s [36]
V 4+ diffusion coefficient 3.9 × 10 10 m2/s [36]
1F 1 V5 + diffusion coefficient m2/s [36]
3.9 × 10 10
RT (14) H+ diffusion coefficient 9.312 × 10 9 m2/s [36]
SO42 diffusion coefficient 1.065 × 10 9 m2/s [36]
j2 HSO4 diffusion coefficient 1.33 × 10 9 m2/s [36]

c s 2+ c s 3+ Universal gas constant 8.3145 J/mol K -

V (1 2) F 2 V Faraday constant 96485 C/mol -
= As Fk2 (c V2 +) (1 2 ) (c 3 + ) 2
V exp exp
c V2 + RT c V3 + State of charge (SOC) 0.8 - -
Kozeny-Carman constant 4.28 - [45]
2F 2 Density 1354 kg/m3 [36]
RT (15) Specific surface area 1.62 × 104 1/m [36]
Electrode conductivity 1000 S/m [36]
Where j1 and j2 are the transfer current densities of the positive and Viscosity 4.928 × 10 3 Pa·s [36]
negative electrodes, k1 and k2 are the reaction rate constants, α1 and α2 Carbon fiber diameter 1.76 × 10−5 M [45]
Porosity 0.90 - -
are the charge transfer coefficients, As is the specific surface area of the
electrode, η1and η2 represent the activation overpotentials of the posi-
tive and negative reactions, which are defined as:

1 = s l E1 (16)

2 = s l E2 (17)
Where ϕs is the electrode potential, ϕl is the electrolyte potential, E1
and E2 are the standard equilibrium potentials for positive and negative
redox reactions, which are expressed by the Nernst equation:

RT c 5 + × (c H+)2
E1 = E10 + ln V
F c V 4+ (18)

RT c 3+
E2 = E20 + ln V
F c V2 + (19)
Where E10 and E20 are the positive and negative standard potentials.
The cell voltage is calculated as follows [31]:

RT c 5 + c 2 + (c H+)2
Ecell = E0,1 E0,2 + ln V V 1 2 IARcell
F c V 4 + c V3 + (20)
Where I denotes the electrical current density, A is the surface area
of the cell, and Rcell represents the electrical resistance of the cell.

2.4. Parameters for simulations

The operating parameters and electrochemical properties employed
in the numerical model to simulate the VRFB performance are listed in
Table 3 and 4.
2.5. Boundary conditions
The determination of flow channel parameters and specifications in
Fig. 3. Flow channel designs for the numerical simulation.
the design of flow channels plays a key role to improve performance.
Four different serpentine flow channels were considered to investigate
VRFB performance. The schematic diagrams of the channels are shown
in Fig. 3. A non-slip boundary condition was applied on the wall
boundaries of the flow channels and the porous media. The mass flow

4
E. Ali, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802

Table 5 developed in our previous studies [36, 43]. The relative error tolerance
Boundary conditions for the simulation. was to set to 1 × 10⁻6 [39].
Parameter Value Unit
2.7. Mesh independence analysis
Electrolyte flow rate 60 – 180 ml/min
Outlet Outlet pressure -
The types of mesh chosen for the numerical model can affect the
Current density 60 mA/cm2
Operating temperature 298 K solving process and the simulation results. To obtain reliable numerical
Operating pressure 1 - simulation results and reduce computational time, it is important to
select an optimal mesh type and grid number for the numerical model.
The grids generated for the numerical model was a tetrahedral struc-
inlet and outlet pressure boundary conditions were defined for the tured mesh as shown in Fig. 4. Six meshes with different number of
positive and negative flow channels. A parametric sweep was per- grids were considered for the grid independence analysis to study the
formed which was a flow rate sweep ranging from 60 to 180 ml/min. consistency of the simulation results. The grid independence analysis
The flow rate sweep was conducted to determine the consistency of the was conducted by changing the grid numbers ranging from 55096 to
three-dimensional model for pressure drop and overall VRFB perfor- 361755. The simulation results obtained were compared with the grid
mance. The initial values of the boundary conditions used in the si- number 194312 as shown in Fig. 5. Hence, considering the accuracy of
mulation are presented in Table 5. results, computational time and cost, a grid number of 194312 was
considered for the numerical simulation.
2.6. Numerical details
3. Results and discussion
All equations of the numerical model were solved by using COMSOL
Multiphysics® software with the combination of built-in negative and In the present study, we focused on the channel number of the
positive electrodes, flow channels and an ion exchange membrane serpentine design and analyzed the VRFB performance and the power-
based on the finite-element method. The boundary conditions and based efficiency with respect to the varying number of serpentine
governing equations employed were based on the approaches channels. The flow channel is an important key parameter for the VRFB

Fig. 4. Generated mesh for the numerical simulation.

5
E. Ali, et al.
Fig. 5. Grid independence analysis.
Fig. 6. Comparison of numerical and experimental results.
performance which significantly affects the distributions of the elec-
trolyte fluid flow.
3.1. Model validation
The electrode area used here to investigate the numerical model was
50 × 50 mm, with a thickness of 3 mm. For validation, the simulated
discharge cell voltages of the battery were compared with the experi-
mental data at a constant current density of 60 mA/cm2. The details of
the VRFB cell structure and the experimental setup are reported in our
previous paper [46]. The operating conditions were identical to those of
the experimental study. The comparison of the simulation and experi-
mental data is shown in Fig. 6 [36]. Fig. 6 shows that the numerical
model captures well the experimental data trend. The state of charge
(SOC) dependent simulation results were compared with the experi-
mental results. This clearly indicated that the numerical simulation
results fitted the experimental results well. The error between the nu-
merical and experimental results is more obvious in the low SOC
6
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
domain due to the inaccuracy of the reactant concentration evaluation
during the experiment.
3.2. Effects of flow channels and flow rate
The effects of the different serpentine flow channel designs and
electrolyte flow rates on the VRFB performance were numerically in-
vestigated. The flow channel is an important parameter which affects
the VRFB performance in different ways. Serpentine flow channel de-
signs with varying number of channels were investigated in this study.
The numbers of channels were 1 to 4, namely channel 1, channel 2,
channel 3 and channel 4. A series of numerical simulations were con-
ducted varying the electrolyte flow rate and number of channels. The
electrolyte solutions and current density were similar to that used in the
numerical model validation and the SOC of the VRFB was kept at 0.8 at
the beginning of the simulation. The effects of electrolyte flow rate and
channel numbers on the cell voltage were studied at the discharging
current density of 60 mA/cm2 and a vanadium ion concentration of
1500 mol/m3. It should be noted that the electrolyte flow rate at the
positive and negative side of the flow channels in the simulation were
equal. The variation of the overpotential against the electrolyte flow
rate for the serpentine design flow channels 1–4 is shown in Fig. 7(a),
while Fig. 7(b) exhibits the cell voltage curves against the electrolyte
flow rate. The flow rate of the electrolyte solution is an important key
factor affecting the VRFB performance. The highest value of the over-
potential 0.0311 V was noticed at the electrolyte flow rate of 60 for
channel 4. Meanwhile, the calculated overpotential for the channels
1–3 ranged from 0.0289 to 0.0296 V. The increment of electrolyte flow
rate reduced the calculated overpotential, which resulted in a high cell
voltage. The cell voltage increased with increasing electrolyte flow rate.
Channel 1 shows a slightly higher cell voltage compared to channels
2–4 at electrolyte flow rates of 60 to 180 ml/min. The difference in cell
voltage at the flow rate of 180 ml/min for channel 1–4 was con-
siderably smaller than that at lower flow rate of 60 ml/min. The effect
of electrolyte flow rate on cell voltage shows that the ionic convective
diffusion is a dominating factor with respect to VRFB performance.
Fig. 8(a) presents the variation of the V2+ ion concentration against
the electrolyte flow rate for channels 1–4, while Fig. 8(b) shows the
E. Ali, et al.
Fig. 7. (a) Numerically calculated overpotential for channels 1–4 against the electrolyte flow rate, and (b) the numerically calculated cell voltage for channel 1–4
against the electrolyte flow rate.
Fig. 8. (a) Numerically calculated V2+ ion concentration for channels 1–4 against the electrolyte flow rate, and (b) the numerically calculated V5+ ion concentration
for channels 1–4 against the electrolyte flow rate.
variation of the V5+ ion concentration against the electrolyte flow rate
for channel 1–4. The V2+ and V5+ concentration increased with the
increment in electrolyte flow rate. Fig. 9 provides the contours of the
V2+ ion concentration at the electrolyte flow rate of 180 ml/min and
initial vanadium concentration of 1500 mol/m3. Noticeably, increasing
the channel number from 1 to 4 reduced the uniformity of the vana-
dium ion concentration at the electrode. Channel 1 shows with respect
to other channels a more uniform vanadium ion concentration at the
electrode. The average molar V2+ concentration was 1187.2 mol/m3 at
channel 1 and decreased from 1181.3 mol/m3 to 1164.1 mol/m3
changing from channel 2 to 4. The contours of the V2+ concentration
presented in Fig. 9 indicate that the VRFB with channel 1, 2 and 3
provided a more uniform concentration resulting in higher V2+ con-
centrations. Reducing the channel number improved the cell voltage
due to the increased molar concentration. The average molar con-
centration increased along the electrolyte flow direction as the elec-
trolyte flow rate increased.
Pressure drop is an important factor when considering the number
of flow channels. However, to understand the relation between the
pressure drop and the number of flow channels for given electrolyte
7
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
flow rates, further investigations were needed. Fig. 10 shows the con-
tours of the pressure distribution for channel 1 to 4. The pressure drop
in the VRFB cell decreased as the number of flow channels increased
from 1 to 4. Thus, the electrolyte disturbance and flow resistance de-
creased with increasing number of flow channels, which led to a smaller
pressure drop. This result showed that the pressure significantly de-
creased as the number of flow channels increased. Fig. 11(a) exhibits
the variation of pressure drop against the electrolyte flow rate for
channel 1 to 4, while Fig. 11(b) indicates the variation of pumping
power against the electrolyte flow rate for the channels. The pressure
drop increased with increasing electrolyte flow rate for all flow chan-
nels. Channel 1 displayed the highest pressure drop of 3759.28 Pa at the
electrolyte flow rate of 180 ml/min, while channel 4 provided the
lowest pressure drop at the electrolyte flow rate of 60 ml/min. Fig. 11
indicates that the pressure increase is caused by the lower number of
flow channels and higher electrolyte flow rates. These results specified
that a smaller electrolyte flow rate significantly reduces the pressure
drop in the flow channels. The same trend is observed for the pumping
power, as shown in Fig. 11(b). The required pumping power increased
with increasing electrolyte flow rate for all four channels. The pumping
E. Ali, et al.
Fig. 9. V2+ concentration of different flow channels. (a) Channel 1, (b) Channel 2, (c) Channel 3, and (d) Channel 4.
power was reduced with the incremental increase in flow channels. The
calculated pumping power for all four channels ranged from 0.36 mW
to 12.53 mW. The pumping power was calculated as follows:
P
Ppump = Q ·
pump
Where ΔP is the pressure drop, Q is the volumetric flow rate, and
ψpump is the efficiency of the pump, assumed to be 0.9 in the present
study.
To describe the flow characteristics at the porous electrode for the
different flow channels, the electrolyte velocity in the porous electrode
along the geometrical center line of the positive electrode was defined
and investigated. Three zones namely upstream zone, zone with flow
channel and downstream zone were observed along the x-axis as shown
in Fig. 4. The variation of electrolyte velocity along the x-axis at dif-
ferent electrolyte flow rates for channel 1 to 4 is shown in Fig. 12. The
electrolyte velocities in the zone with flow channels are significantly
larger than in the upstream and downstream zone due to the strong
fluid convection. With the increase in number of flow channels, the
electrolyte velocities slightly decreased in the flow channel zone,
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
whereas the electrolyte velocities were considerably lower in the up-
stream and downstream regions. The electrolyte velocities increased
with increasing electrolyte flow rate.
(24) 3.3. Effects of flow channels on the power-based efficiency
Efficiency is a parameter that assesses the performance of energy
storage systems. Decreasing the number of flow channels reduced the
overpotential providing a uniform molar concentration at the elec-
trodes and resulting in an improved cell voltage. However, the power
loss due to the pumping power and overpotential was investigated to
evaluate the optimum power-based efficiency of the VRFB cell. The
power-based efficiency (ψpower) was calculated as follows:
Pnet Ploss + Ppump
= =1
power
Ptotal Ptotal (22)
Where Pnet is the net output power, Ploss is the power loss during the
discharging process, Ppump is the consumed pump power, and Ptotal is the
total power. The power loss is expressed as follows:
8
E. Ali, et al.
Fig. 10. Pressure distributions for different flow channels. (a) Channel 1, (b) Channel 2, (c) Channel 3, and (d) Channel 4.
Ploss = IA ( + + ( Vmem) 2 ·
A mem
2)
1
mem
Where 1 + 2 is the total overpotential, δmem represents the mem-
brane thickness, ΔVmem denotes the voltage difference through the
membrane, and σmem indicates the electrical conductivity.
The variation of power-based efficiency against the electrolyte flow
rate for channel 1 to 4 is depicted in Fig. 13. It was observed that as the
electrolyte flow rate increased, the pump power improved and the
power loss decreased. The variation in the power-based efficiency is
due to the counterbalance between the increased pump power and the
reduced power loss. The power-based efficiency gradually decreased
with increasing electrolyte flow rate and the highest efficiency of
97.18% was noted at the electrolyte flow rate of 60 ml/min for channel
4. The reduction of power loss is fast at lower electrolyte flow rates
which prevailed over the increase in pumping power. The power-based
efficiency started to decline when the increase in pumping power ex-
ceeded the reduction in power loss. Hence, it indicated that there is an
optimum electrolyte flow rate at which the highest efficiency can be
achieved.
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
4. Conclusions
(23)
In this study, a three-dimensional model was developed and applied
to study a number of serpentine flow channel designs for a VRFB cell.
The VRFB cell performance with varying number of flow channels was
determined and it was validated whether a higher number of flow
channels is required for VRFBs. The results revealed that a higher
electrolyte flow rate and a lower number of flow channels significantly
improves the uniform molar concentration at the porous electrodes. A
lower number of flow channels provides a higher cell voltage, especially
at higher electrolyte flow rate due to the enhanced convective mass
transport of reactants. However, the pumping power to supply the re-
quired flow rate for the VRFB cell and the pressure drop through the
porous electrodes also increased. With the increase in number of flow
channels, the pumping power dropped, which resulted in a reduced
vanadium ion concentration at the electrodes. The simulation results
suggest that the VRFB using channel 4 with a flow rate of 60 ml/min
achieves the optimum power-based efficiency of 97.18%. Our numer-
ical approach will be applicable when an increased number of serpen-
tine design flow channels are required for commercial scale VRFB
9
E. Ali, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802

Fig. 11. (a) Numerically calculated pressure drop for channels 1–4 against the electrolyte flow rate, and (b) the numerically calculated pumping power for channels
1–4 against the electrolyte flow rate.

Fig. 12. Numerically calculated electrolyte velocities at positive electrode along x-axis for channels 1–4 at different electrolyte flow rates. (a) Channel 1, (b) Channel
2, (c) Channel 3, and (d) Channel 4.

10
E. Ali, et al.
Fig. 13. Numerically calculated power-based efficiency for channel 1–4 at
different electrolyte flow rates.
systems.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ehtesham Ali: Methodology, Software, Writing - original draft.
Hwabhin Kwon: Software, Data curation. Jungmyung Kim:
Validation. Heesung Park: Supervision, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT, NRF-
2019R1A2C1002212) and (MSIP, NRF-2018R1A5A6075959).
References
[1] A.Z. Weber, M.M. Mench, J.P. Meyers, P.N. Ross, J.T. Gostick, Q. Liu, Redox flow
batteries: a review, J. Appl. Electrochem. 41 (2011) 1137–1164.
[2] P. Alotto, M. Guarnieri, M. Fedrico, Redox flow batteries for the storage of re-
newable energy: a review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 29 (2014) 325–335.
[3] K.L. Huang, X. Li, S. Liu, N. Tan, L. Chen, Research progress of vanadium redox flow
battery for energy storage in china, Renew. Energy. 33 (2008) 186–192.
[4] A. Cunha, J. Martins, N. Rodrigues, F.P. Brito, Vanadium redox flow batteries: a
technology review, Int. J. Energy Res. 39 (2014) 889–918.
[5] P. Leung, X. Li, C.P.D. Leo´n, L. Berlouis, C.T.J Low, F.C. Walsh, Progress in redox
flow batteries, remaining challenges and their applications in energy storage, RSC
Adv. 2 (2012) 10125–10156.
[6] P. Zhao, H. Zhang, H. Zhou, J. Chen, S. Gao, B. Yi, Characteristics and performance
of 10kW class all-vanadium redox-flow battery stack, J. Power Sources 162 (2006)
1416–1420.
[7] M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M.H. Chakrabarti, S.A. Hajimolana, F.S. Mjalli, M. Saleem,
Progress in flow battery research and development, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 (2011)
R55–R79.
[8] Q. Zheng, H. Zhang, F. Xing, X. Ma, X. Li, G. Ning, A three-dimensional model for
thermal analysis in a vanadium flow battery, Appl. Energy 133 (2014) 1675–1685.
[9] R.M. Dell, D.A.J. Rand, Energy storage – a key technology for global energy sus-
tainability, J. Power. Sources 100 (2001) 2–17.
[10] L. Joerissen, J. Garche, C. Fabjan, G. Tomazic, Possible use of vanadium redox-flow
batteries for energy storage in small grids and stand-alone photovoltaic systems, J.
Power. Sources 127 (2004) 98–104.
[11] T. Jirabovornwisut, A. Arpornwichanop, A review on the electrolyte imbalance in
vanadium redox flow batteries, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44 (2019) 24485–24509.
[12] M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Rychcik, R.G. Robins, A.G. Fane, M. Green, New all-vana-
dium redox flow cell, J. Electrochem. Soc. 133 (1986) 1057–1058.
[13] M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Kazacos, State of charge monitoring methods for vanadium
11
Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101802
redox flow battery control, J. Power Sources 196 (2011) 8822–8827.
[14] M. Skyllas-Kazacos, G. Grossmith, Efficient vanadium redox flow cell, J.
Electrochem. Soc. 134 (1987) 2950–2953.
[15] S. Corcuera, M. Skyllas-Kazacos, State-of-Charge monitoring and electrolyte re-
balancing methods for the vanadium redox flow battery, Eur. Chem. Bull. 1 (2012)
511–519.
[16] G. Kear, A.A. Shah, F.C. Walsh, Development of all-vanadium redox flow battery for
energy storage: a review of technological, financial and policy aspects, Int. J.
Energy Res. 36 (2012) 1105–1120.
[17] C.P.D. Leon, A.F. Ferrer, J.G. Garcia, D.A. Szanto, F.C. Walsh, Redox flow cells for
energy conversion, J. Power Sources 160 (2006) 716–732.
[18] L.F. Arenas, C.P.D. Leon, F.C. Walsh, Engineering aspects of the design, construction
and performance of modular redox flow batteries for energy storage, J. Energy
Storage 11 (2017) 119–153.
[19] A. Bhattacharjee, H. Saha, Design and experimental validation of a generalised
electrical equivalent model of vanadium redox flow battery for interfacing with
renewable energy sources, J. Energy Storage 13 (2017) 220–232.
[20] Y. Yan, M. Skyllas-Kazacos, J. Bao, Effects of battery design, environmental tem-
perature and electrolyte flow rate on thermal behaviour of a vanadium redox flow
battery in different applications, J. Energy Storage 11 (2017) 104–118.
[21] B. Jiang, L. Wu, L. Yu, X. Qiu, J. Xi, A comparative study of Nafion series mem-
branes for vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Membr. Sci. 510 (2016) 18–26.
[22] J. Xi, B. Jiang, L. Yu, L. Liu, Membrane evaluation for vanadium flow batteries in a
temperature range of -20-50 ⁰C, J. Membr. Sci. 522 (2017) 45–55.
[23] B. Jiang, L. Yu, Lantao Wu, D. Mu, L. Liu, J. Xi, X. Qiu, Insights into the impact of
the nafion membrane pretreatment process on vanadium flow battery performance,
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 12228–12238.
[24] C.W. Wong, T.S. Zhao, Q. Ye, J.G. Liu, Experimental investigations of the anode
flow field of a micro direct methanol fuel cell, J. Power Sources 155 (2006)
291–296.
[25] C. Xu, T.S. Zhao, A new flow field design for polymer electrolyte-based fuel cells,
Electrochem. Commun. 9 (2007) 497–503.
[26] S.S. Hsieh, H.C. Wu, B.S. Her, A novel design for a flow field configuration, of a
direct methanol fuel cell, J. Power Sources 195 (2010) 3224–3230.
[27] B.H. Lim, E.H. Majlan, W.R.W. Daud, M.I. Rosli, T. Husaini, Numerical analysis of
modified parallel flow field designs for fuel cells, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 42 (2017)
9210–9218.
[28] J. Wang, Theory and practice of flow field designs for fuel cell scaling-up: a critical
review, Appl. Energy 157 (2015) 640–663.
[29] A.P. Manso, F.F. Marzo, J. Barranco, X. Garikano, M.G. Mujika, Influence of geo-
metric parameters of the flow fields on the performance of a PEM fuel cell. A re-
view, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 37 (2012) 15256–15287.
[30] X.D. Wang, X.X Zhang, W.M. Yan, D.J. Lee, A. Su, Determination of the optimal
active area for proton exchange membrane fuel cells with parallel, interdigitated or
serpentine designs, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 34 (2009) 3823–3832.
[31] S. Toghyani, E. Afshari, E. Baniasadi, S.A. Atyabi, Thermal and electrochemical
analysis of different flow field patterns in a PEM electrolyzer, Electrochim. Acta 267
(2018) 234–245.
[32] Q. Xu, T.S. Zhao, C. Zhang, Performance of a vanadium redox flow battery with and
without flow fields, Electrochim. Acta 142 (2014) 61–67.
[33] S. Kumar, S. Jayanti, Effect of flow field on the performance of an all-vanadium
redox flow battery, J. Power Sources 307 (2016) 782–787.
[34] Q. Xu, T.S. Zhao, P.K. Leung, Numerical investigations of flow field designs for
vanadium redox flow batteries, Appl. Energy 105 (2013) 47–56.
[35] Q. Wang, Z.G. Qu, Z.Y. Jiang, W.W. Yang, Experimental study on the performance
of a vanadium redox flow battery with non-uniformly compressed carbon felt
electrode, Appl. Energy 213 (2018) 293–305.
[36] J. Lee, J. Kim, H. Park, Numerical simulation of the power-based efficiency in va-
nadium redox flow battery with different serpentine channel size, Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy 44 (2019) 29483–29492.
[37] M. Messaggi, P. Canzi, R. Mereu, A. Baricci, F. Inzoli, A. Casalegno, M. Zago,
Analysis of flow field design on vanadium redox flow battery performance: devel-
opment of 3D computational fluid dynamic model and experimental validation,
Appl. Energy 228 (2018) 1057–1070.
[38] A. Khazaeli, A. Vatani, N. Tahouni, M.H. Panjeshahi, Numerical investigation and
thermodynamic analysis of the effect of electrolyte flow rate on performance of all
vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Power Sources 293 (2015) 599–612.
[39] A. Tang, J. Bao, M. Skyllas-Kazacos, Studies on pressure losses and flow rate opti-
mization in vanadium redox flow battery, J. Power Sources 248 (2014) 154–162.
[40] B.W. Zhang, Y. Lei, B.F. Bai, T.S. Zhao, A two-dimensional model for the design of
flow fields in vanadium redox flow batteries, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 135 (2019)
460–469.
[41] A.A. Shah, M.J. Watt-Smith, F.C. Walsh, A dynamic performance model for redox-
flow batteries involving soluble species, Electrochim. Acta 53 (2008) 8087–8100.
[42] Q. Wang, Z.G. Qu, Z.Y. Jiang, W.W. Yang, Numerical study on vanadium redox flow
battery performance with non-uniformity compressed electrode and serpentine flow
field, Appl. Energy 220 (2018) 106–116.
[43] E. Ali, H. Kwon, J. Choi, J. Lee, J. Kim, H. Park, A numerical study of electrode
thickness and porosity effects in all vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Energy
Storage 28 (2020) 101208.
[44] X.L. Zhou, T.S. Zhao, L. An, Y.K. Zeng, L. Wei, Modeling of ion transport through a
porous separator in vanadium redox flow batteries, J. Power Sources 327 (2016)
67–76.
[45] C. Yuan, F. Xing, Q. Zheng, H. Zhang, X. Li, X. Ma, Factor analysis of the uniformity
of the transfer current density in vanadium flow battery by an improved three-
dimensional transient model, Energy 194 (2020) 116839.
[46] J. Kim, H. Park, Experimental analysis of discharge characteristics in vanadium
redox flow battery, Appl. Energy 206 (2017) 451–457.