MATHEMATICS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

How does the different degrees of Taylor polynomial affect the

accuracy of the function approximating the pendulum's velocity?
Personal Code: hrl051
Session: May 2022

1
Introduction 2

Theory 3
Approximating the Function of the Pendulum’s velocity 3
Measuring Inaccuracy 4

Calculation 5
Approximating the Function of the Pendulum’s Velocity using the Taylor Expansion 6
Measuring Inaccuracy 8
METHOD 1 - Measuring area of inaccuracy using integration 8
METHOD 2 - Statistic: Calculating Average difference, Standard deviation, Range, and
Interquartile range 14

Conclusion & Interpretation 17

Areas of Further Studies 19

Appendix 20
Appendix 1 - Calculation of Sample Standard Deviation 20
Appendix 2 - Arranged data of inaccuracy in ascending order. 21

Bibliography: 22

2
 1. Introduction

During grade 10, my physics teacher introduced me to a simpler problem revolving around the
velocity of a pendulum, as a sneak peek at the future syllabus. Although looking back it wasn’t as complex
as I remembered it to be, I was quite taken aback by the visual complexity, which made me wonder if there
was a way to simplify a trigonometric function. Despite not continuing with physics, I was constantly
reminded of this simple curiosity every time I saw a trigonometric function. Given the opportunity to conduct
a personal investigation in our IA, I took the opportunity to delve into the topic of approximating a function
and fulfill my curiosity to approximate the function of the pendulum's velocity.

As I researched the topic, I learned about the Taylor Series. The Taylor series is a mathematical tool
that estimates what a function looks like, generally by turning a non-polynomial function to a polynomial
function that is much more practical, by creating an infinite series of derivatives at a point of a function.
However, to create a series of infinite terms would rather actually be impractical, thus in this investigation to
analyze the effectiveness and practicality of the Taylor Series in approximating a function, I decided to
investigate “How does the different degrees of Taylor polynomial affect the accuracy of the function
approximating the pendulum's velocity?”

“𝑣(𝑡) =− ω𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡) ”1

Given the function to calculate pendulum’s velocity is relative to time 𝑡, velocity, in this case, is the
dependent variable and time is the independent variable. “ω” is the angular velocity and “A” (amplitude) in
this case are the controlled variables. As they are variables that can influence the velocity relative to time,
they will be kept as a controlled variable. In this investigation, ω will be 0.3 rad/s and A is will be 7.
“𝑣(𝑡) =− 2. 1𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡) ”

Graph 1: Graph of the sine function “v(t)=-2.1sin(0.3t) ”

In this investigation, I will use the Taylor expansion to approximate the function to the pendulum's
velocity up to the 6th polynomial degree. Being a sine function, it is continuous in nature, and for the sake
of simplicity, I will be taking the first one and a half period of the function, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 10π as the domain, and
bases the approximation in the center of the domain, thus at the point: 𝑡 = 5π.

I will measure the accuracy of the approximation, by quantifying the degree of inaccuracy of each
Taylor polynomial, and compare the numerical figures of the result to conclude the investigation. I will
quantify inaccuracy using two methods under the concept of measuring areas between two curves using
definite integral, and measuring inaccuracy and variability using statistics.

1
The function of the Velocity of the Pendulum
3
2. Theory

A. Approximating the Function of the Pendulum’s velocity

a. Taylor Series
Taylor Series is a mathematical tool that expands a function to an infinite sum of
terms expressed in the polynomial form in terms of the derivative of a single point of the
function, to estimate a function at that particular point. Generally, as the series expands up to
a higher degree of Taylor Polynomial, the approximation becomes more and more accurate
at the point of approximation, although this is not true in some cases.
∞ 𝑛
𝑓 (𝑎) 𝑛
∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝑛=0
𝑎= Center Point of Approximation
𝑛= Degree of Taylor Polynomial
b. Polynomial Expansion
From the Taylor Expansion formula, we can see that it includes a Polynomial
𝑛
Expansion;(𝑡 − 𝑎) . To keep the process of formulation simple, I will first expand the
polynomial (𝑡 − 𝑎) up to the 6th polynomial degree.
2 2 2
● (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 − 2𝑎 + 𝑎
3 3 2 2 3
● (𝑡 − 𝑎) = (𝑡 − 3𝑎𝑡 + 3𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑎 )
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
● (𝑡 − 𝑎) = (𝑡 − 4𝑎𝑡 + 6𝑎 𝑡 − 4𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑎 )
5 5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5
● (𝑡 − 𝑎) = (𝑡 − 5𝑎𝑡 + 10𝑎 𝑡 − 10𝑎 𝑡 + 5𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑎 )
6 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6
● (𝑡 − 𝑎) = (𝑡 − 6𝑎𝑡 + 15𝑎 𝑡 − 20𝑎 𝑡 + 15𝑎 𝑡 − 6𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑎 )

B. Measuring Inaccuracy
In this investigation I will measuring the inaccuracy under two methods:

a. Areas between curves - Definite Integral

The first method I will use to quantify the inaccuracy will be using the concept of
Definite Integral to measure the Areas between curves. Theoretically, the total area
calculated represents the inaccuracy, as it shows the total distance away from the actual
function. Thus the greater the total area the more inaccurate the approximation is. This
method effectively quantifies the absolute total area of inaccuracy.
10π
∫ [𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑝𝑛(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
0
b. Statistics
The second method I will use to quantify the inaccuracy will be based on a statistical
approach. In this method, I will collect data on the error between the approximations and the
actual function. The data of error of each approximation will be found by finding the
difference between a point at a fixed interval. Using the collected statistical data, I will
calculate 4 measures of accuracy:

i. Average difference
The average difference measures the average inaccuracy of the approximation at
each interval.
4
 ii. Sample Standard Deviation
Sample standard deviation is a measure of variability. The sample standard deviation
will measure the dispersion of the inaccuracy within the sample. I am using sample
standard deviation as the domain assessed is only a sample of the entire function
iii. Range
Range calculates the difference between the largest and smallest of inaccuracies.
The range is an effective measure of variability to compare the variance in the
inaccuracy of different approximations
iv. Interquartile range
Interquartile range is another measure of variability, However, unlike range, the
interquartile range is not heavily influenced by the outliers. The interquartile range is
measured by calculating the variability of the inaccuracy of the approximations
through the range within the upper and lower quartile.

I will use two different methods of measuring the degree of inaccuracy to have more
balanced and well-rounded findings to the research question. Given that the first method
measures the total areas of inaccuracy, it effectively quantifies the degree of accuracy.
However, this method does not take into account the variability of the inaccuracy across the
domain, which is an important measure of the degree of accuracy of an approximation, as
higher variability suggests that points are dissimilar and there are more chances of outliers.
Thus, to measure the variability I will collect 6 data for each Taylor Polynomial, to measure
the variability of the inaccuracy, and accurately measure the accuracy of each Taylor
Polynomial.

As this investigation will have calculations that give numerical figures with many decimal places, I
will keep the decimal under three decimal places throughout the essay to keep the figure accurate
and orderly. However if the numerical figure is less than a hundredth, I will use scientific notation to
maintain accuracy.

3. Calculation
To keep the calculation simple, I will first formulate the derivative of 𝑣(𝑡) up to the 6th derivative, and
find its corresponding value at t=15.708:
𝑑
● 𝑣'(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(− 2. 1𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
𝑑
𝑣'(𝑡) =− 2. 1 𝑑𝑡
(𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
𝑣'(𝑡) =− 2. 1 × 0. 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
𝑣'(𝑡) =− 0. 63𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
𝑣'(15. 708) =− 0. 63𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3 × 15. 708)
−6
𝑣'(15. 708) = − 6. 942 × 10

𝑑
● 𝑣''(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(− 0. 63𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡))
𝑣''(𝑡) =− 0. 63 × 0. 3(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
𝑣''(𝑡) = 0. 189𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)
𝑣''(15. 708) = 0. 189𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3 × 15. 708)
𝑣''(15. 708) =− 0. 189

𝑑
● 𝑣'''(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(0. 189𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
𝑣'''(𝑡) = 0. 189 × 0. 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
𝑣'''(𝑡) = 0. 057𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
5
 𝑣'''(15. 708) = 0. 057𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3 × 15. 708)
−7
𝑣'''(15. 708) = 6. 248 × 10

4 𝑑
● 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(0. 0567𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡))
4
𝑣 (𝑡) = 0. 057 × 0. 3(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
4
𝑣 (𝑡) =− 0. 017𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)
4
𝑣 (15. 708) =− 0. 017𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3 × 15. 708)
4
𝑣 (15. 708) =− 0. 017

5 𝑑
● 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(− 0. 01701𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
5
𝑣 (𝑡) =− 0. 017 × 0. 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
5 −3
𝑣 (𝑡) =− 5. 103 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)
5 −3
𝑣 (15. 708) =− 5. 103 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3 × 15. 708)
5 −8
𝑣 (15. 708) =− 5. 623 × 10

6 𝑑 −3
● 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
(− 5. 103 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡))
6 −3
𝑣 (𝑡) =− 5. 103 × 10 × 0. 3(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡))
6 −3
𝑣 (𝑡) = 1. 531 × 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)
6 −3
𝑣 (15. 708)) = 1. 531 × 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3 × 15. 708)
6 −3
𝑣 (15. 708)) =− 1. 531 × 10

Approximating the Function of the Pendulum’s Velocity using the Taylor Expansion

First degree Taylor Polynomial

1 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝1(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝1(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
𝑝1(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) +𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝑝1(𝑡) = 𝑣(15. 708) + 𝑣'(15. 708)(𝑡 − 15. 708)
−6
𝑝1(𝑡) = 2. 1 − 6. 942 × 10 (𝑡 − 15. 708)
−6
𝑝1(𝑡) =− 6. 942 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 100

Second degree Taylor Polynomial

2 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝2(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1 2
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝2(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
+ 2!
2 2
𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡 −2𝑎𝑡+𝑎 )
𝑝2(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) +𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 2
2 2
𝑣''(15.708)(𝑡 −2(15.708)𝑡+(15.708) )
𝑝2(𝑡) = 𝑣(15. 708) + 𝑣'(15. 708)(𝑡 − 15. 708) + 2

6
 2
−6 −0.189(𝑡 −31.416𝑡+246.741)
𝑝2(𝑡) = 2. 1 − 6. 942 × 10 (𝑡 − 15. 708) + 2
2
𝑝2(𝑡) =− 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217

Third-degree Taylor Polynomial

3 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝3(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1 2 3
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝3(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
2 2 3 2 2 3
𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡 −2𝑎𝑡+𝑎 ) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡 −3𝑎𝑡 +3𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 )
𝑝3(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) +𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 2
+ 6
2 3 2 2 3
𝑣''(15.708)(𝑡−15.708) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡 −3(15.708)𝑡 +3(15.708) 𝑡−(15.708) )
𝑝3(𝑡) = 𝑣(15. 708) + 𝑣'(15. 708)(𝑡 − 15. 708) + 2
+ 6
2 −7 3 2
−6 −0.189(𝑡 −31.416𝑡+246.741) 6.248×10 (𝑡 −47.124𝑡 +740.223𝑡−3875.81)
𝑝3(𝑡) = 2. 1 − 6. 942 × 10 (𝑡 − 15. 708) + 2
+ 6
−7 3
𝑝3(𝑡) = 1. 041 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 095 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217

Fourth Degree Polynomial

4 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝4(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1 2 3 4 4
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝4(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
2 2 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 2 2 3 4
𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡 −2𝑎𝑡+𝑎 ) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡 −3𝑎𝑡 +3𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 ) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −4𝑎𝑡 +6𝑎 𝑡 −4𝑎 𝑡+𝑎 )
𝑝4(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 2
+ 6
+ 24
4 3 2 2 3 4
−7 3 2 0.017 (𝑡 −4(15.708)𝑡 +6(15.708) 𝑡 −4(15.708) 𝑡+(15.708) )
𝑝4(𝑡) = 1. 041 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217 + 24

−4 4 3 2
𝑝4(𝑡) = 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933

Fifth degree Taylor Polynomial

5 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝5(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1 2 3 4 4 5 5
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝5(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ 5!
2 2 3 2 2 3
𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡 −2𝑎𝑡+𝑎 ) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡 −3𝑎𝑡 +3𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 )
𝑝5(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 2
+ 6
+
4 4 3 2 2 3 4 5 5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5
𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −4𝑎𝑡 +6𝑎 𝑡 −4𝑎 𝑡+𝑎 ) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −5𝑎𝑡 +10𝑎 𝑡 −10𝑎 𝑡 +5𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 )
24
+ 120

0.01701 4 3 2
𝑝5(𝑡) = 24
𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933
−8 5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5
−5.623 × 10 (𝑡 −5(15.708)𝑡 +10(15.708) 𝑡 −10(15.708) 𝑡 +5(15.708) 𝑡−(15.708) )
+ 120

−10 5 −4 4 3 2
𝑝5(𝑡) =− 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933

7
Sixth degree Taylor Polynomial
6 𝑛
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑛
𝑝6(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑛!
(𝑡 − 15. 708)
𝑛=0
1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡−𝑎)
𝑝6(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ 5!
+ 6!

2 2 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 2 2 3 4
𝑣''(𝑎)(𝑡 −2𝑎𝑡+𝑎 ) 𝑣'''(𝑎)(𝑡 −3𝑎𝑡 +3𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 ) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −4𝑎𝑡 +6𝑎 𝑡 −4𝑎 𝑡+𝑎 )
𝑝6(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑎) + 𝑣'(𝑎)(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 2
+ 6
+ 24
5 5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5 6 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6
𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −5𝑎𝑡 +10𝑎 𝑡 −10𝑎 𝑡 +5𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 ) 𝑣 (𝑎)(𝑡 −6𝑎𝑡 +15𝑎 𝑡 −20𝑎 𝑡 +15𝑎 𝑡 −6𝑎 𝑡+𝑎 )
+ 120
+ 720
−8
5.623 × 10 5 −4 4 3 2
𝑝6(𝑡) =− 120
𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933
−3 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6
−1.531×10 (𝑡 −6(15.708)𝑡 +15(15.708) 𝑡 −20(15.708) 𝑡 +15(15.708) 𝑡 −6(15.708) 𝑡+(15.708) )
+ 720

−6 6 −4 5 −3 4 3 2
𝑝6(𝑡) =− 2. 126 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 00 × 10 𝑡 − 7. 16 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 120𝑡 − 0. 987𝑡 + 4. 181𝑡
− 10. 007

Measuring Inaccuracy
METHOD 1 - Measuring area of inaccuracy using integration

In the first method, I will find the inaccuracy of the Taylor Polynomials approximations by finding the area
between the actual and approximated Function of the Pendulum’s velocity. To calculate the area between
the two curves, I will first individually calculate the area under the actual function and the area under each
of the Taylor polynomial approximations.

Graph 2. x-intercepts of the Function of the velocity of the pendulum

As some areas are below the y-axis, the integrated values of areas below the x-axis would be negative.
Therefore, integrating the entire domain would not give the actual area. From graph 2, it can be seen that
10π 20π
area under the domain 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3
and 3
≤ 𝑡 ≤ 10π would be negative. Thus, I will divide the domain
into three smaller domains, based on the points where the curve cuts the x-axis, and calculate the absolute
value of each smaller domain before adding them, to accurately calculate the total area under the curve.

| 10π | | 20π | |10π |

| 3 | | 3 |
= | ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡| + | ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡| + || ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡||
| 0 | | 0 | | 0 |
| | | |
| 10π | | 20π | |10π |
| 3 | | 3 | | |
= | ∫ − 2, 1𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)𝑑𝑡| + | ∫ − 2, 1𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)𝑑𝑡| + | ∫ − 2, 1𝑠𝑖𝑛(0. 3𝑡)𝑑𝑡|
| 0 | | 10π | | 20π |
| | | 3 | | 3 |

8
 20π
| 10π
3 |
| 3 | | 10π|
= |[7𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)]0 | + |[7𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)] 10π | + |[7𝑐𝑜𝑠(0. 3𝑡)] 20π |
| | | 3 |
| 3 |

= 14 + 14 + 14
= 42

The area under the Taylor Polynomial Approximation

Graph 3. X-intercepts of the First Degree Taylor Polynomial

Since the points are above the y-axis, I will integrate the entire domain.
10π
−6
= ∫ (− 6. 942 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 100)𝑑𝑡
0
−6 2 10π
= [− 3. 471 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 100𝑡]0 = 65. 976

Graph 4. X-intercepts of the Second Degree Taylor Polynomial

|10.992 2 | |20.426 2 |
= | ∫ (− 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡|| + || ∫ (− 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡||
|
| 0 | |10.992 |
| 10π |
2
+ || ∫ (− 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡||
|20.426 |

= |||[− 0. 032𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]0

10.992|
|| + |||[− 0. 032𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]10.992|||
3 2 3 2 20.426

+ |||[− 0. 032𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]20.426|||

3 2 10π

= 95. 689 + 13. 227 + 95. 645 = 204. 561

9
 Graph 5. X-intercepts of the Third Degree Taylor Polynomial
|10.991 −7 3 2 |
= || ∫ (1. 041 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡||
| 0 |
|20.427 |
−7 3 2
+ || ∫ (1. 041 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡||
|10.991 |

| 10π −7 3 2 |
+ || ∫ (1. 041 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 095𝑡 + 2. 969𝑡 − 21. 217)𝑑𝑡||
|20.427 |
= |||[2. 603 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 0315𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]0 ||
−8 4 3 2 10.991
|
+ |||[2. 603 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 0315𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]10.991|||
−8 4 3 2 20.427

+ |||[2. 603 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 0315𝑡 + 1. 485𝑡 − 21. 217𝑡]20.427|||

−8 4 3 2 10π

= 95. 693 + 13. 228 + 95. 629 = 204. 550

Graph 6. X-intercepts of the Fourth Degree Taylor Polynomial

|5.454 −4 4 −3 3 2 |
= || ∫ 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 4. 450 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
| 0 |
|10.401 −4 4 −3 3 2 |
+ || ∫ 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 4. 450 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
| 5.454 |

10
 |21.009 −4 4 −3 3 2 |
+ || ∫ 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 4. 450 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
|10.401 |
|25.969 −4 4 3 2 |
+ || ∫ 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 0445𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
|21.009 |
| 10π |
−4 4 3 2
+ || ∫ 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 0445𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||.
|25.969 |
= |||[1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 111𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 + 21. 933]0 |||
−4 4 3 2 5.454

+ |||[1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 111𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 + 21. 933]5.454 |||

−4 4 3 2 10.401

| −4 4 3 2 21.009 |
+ |[1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 111𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 + 21. 933]10.401 |
| |
| −4 4 3 2 25.969|
+ ||[1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 111𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 + 21. 933]21.009||

+ |||[1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 111𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 + 21. 933]25.969|||

−4 4 3 2 10π

= 42. 818 + 3. 393 + 14. 043 + 3. 421 + 42. 766 = 106. 441

Graph 7. X-intercepts of the Fifth Degree Taylor Polynomial

|5.459 −10 5 −4 4 3 2 |
= || ∫ − 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
| 0 |
|10.334 −10 5 −4 4 3 2 |
+|| ∫ − 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
| 5.459 |
|21.622 −10 5 −4 4 3 2 |
+|| ∫ − 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
|10.334 |
|25.368 −10 5 −4 4 3 2 |
+|| ∫ − 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
|21.662 |
| 10π −10 5 −4 4 3 2 |
+|| ∫ − 4. 686 × 10 𝑡 + 7. 088 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 045𝑡 + 0. 955𝑡 − 8. 019𝑡 + 21. 933𝑑𝑡||
|25.368 |

= |||[− 7. 81 × 10
−11 6 −4 5 4 3 2 5.459|
𝑡 + 1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 114𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 0095𝑡 − 21. 933𝑡]0 ||

11
 + |||[− 7. 81 × 10 𝑡 + 1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 114𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 − 21. 933𝑡]5.459 |||
−11 6 −4 5 4 3 2 10.334

+ |||[− 7. 81 × 10 𝑡 + 1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 114𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 − 21. 933𝑡]10.334|||

−11 6 −4 5 4 3 2 21.622

+ |||[− 7. 81 × 10 𝑡 + 1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 114𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 − 21. 933𝑡]21.622|||

−11 6 −4 5 4 3 2 25.368

+ |||[− 7. 81 × 10 𝑡 + 1. 418 × 10 𝑡 − 0. 114𝑡 + 0. 318𝑡 − 4. 010𝑡 − 21. 933𝑡]25.368|||

−11 6 −4 5 4 3 2 10π

= 42. 841 + 3. 2266 + 16. 395 + 1. 006 + 48. 454 = 111. 922

Graph 8. X-intercepts of the Sixth Degree Taylor Polynomial

|10.482 −6 6 −4 5 −3 4 3 2 |
= || ∫ − 2. 126 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 00 × 10 𝑡 − 7. 16 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 120𝑡 − 0. 987𝑡 + 4. 181𝑡 − 10. 007𝑑𝑡||
| 0 |
|19.658 |
−6 6 −4 5 −3 4 3 2
+ || ∫ − 2. 126 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 00 × 10 𝑡 − 7. 16 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 120𝑡 − 0. 987𝑡 + 4. 181𝑡 − 10. 007𝑑𝑡||
|10.482 |
| 10π −6 6 −4 5 −3 4 3 2 |
+ || ∫ − 2. 126 × 10 𝑡 + 2. 00 × 10 𝑡 − 7. 16 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 120𝑡 − 0. 987𝑡 + 4. 181𝑡 − 10. 007𝑑𝑡||
|19.658 |
= |||[− 3. 086 × 10 𝑡 + 3. 333 × 10 𝑡 − 1. 432 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 301𝑡 − 0. 329𝑡 + 2. 091𝑡 − 10. 007𝑡]0 ||
−7 7 −5 6 −3 5 4 3 2 10.482
|
+ |||[− 3. 086 × 10 𝑡 + 3. 333 × 10 𝑡 − 1. 432 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 301𝑡 − 0. 329𝑡 + 2. 091𝑡 − 10. 007𝑡]10.482|||
−7 7 −5 6 −3 5 4 3 2 19.658

+ |||[− 3. 086 × 10 𝑡 + 3. 333 × 10 𝑡 − 1. 432 × 10 𝑡 + 0. 301𝑡 − 0. 329𝑡 + 2. 091𝑡 − 10. 007𝑡]19.658|||

−7 7 −5 6 −3 5 4 3 2 10π

= 32. 184 + 11. 285 + 79. 326 = 122. 795

12
Measuring area of Inaccuracy
After finding the absolute value to the area of the actual and approximated curves, I will calculate
the area of inaccuracy by subtracting the area under the approximated Taylor polynomial from the area
under the actual function.

Inaccuracy in First degree Taylor Polynomial

= 65. 976 − 42
= 23. 976

Inaccuracy in Second degree Taylor Polynomial

= 204. 561 − 42
= 162. 561

Inaccuracy in Third-degree Taylor Polynomial

= 204. 550 − 42
= 162. 55

Inaccuracy in Fourth degree Taylor Polynomial

= 106. 441 − 42
= 64. 441

Inaccuracy in Fifth degree Taylor Polynomial

= 111. 922 − 42
= 69. 922

Inaccuracy in Sixth degree Taylor Polynomial

= 122. 795 − 42
= 80. 795

Based on the assumption that the area between the actual and approximated curves is the error of
the approximation, the calculation shows that the first polynomial has the least error, followed by fifth,
fourth, sixth, third, and lastly second degree polynomials.

13
METHOD 2 - Statistic: Calculating Average difference, Standard deviation, Range, and Interquartile
range
For the second method, I will be calculating the y-coordinate at a specific interval (every 1 unit of
time) of x-coordinate of the approximated Taylor Polynomial, and by comparing it with the y-coordinate of
the original Function at the same interval of x-coordinate, thus collecting a data measuring the error of the
approximation. Using this data I will calculate the average difference to measure the average error in the
approximation.
Table 1. Y- coordinate of each function at an interval of 1 unit of time
t v(t) p1(t) p2(t) p3(t) p4(t) p5(t) p6(t)
1 -0.621 2.100 -18.343 -18.353 14.885 14.825 -6.700
2 -1.186 2.100 -15.657 -15.677 9.429 9.370 -4.738
3 -1.645 2.100 -13.161 -13.191 5.385 5.327 -3.631
4 -1.957 2.100 -10.853 -10.893 2.526 2.470 -3.010
5 -2.095 2.100 -8.735 -8.785 0.647 0.593 -2.619
6 -2.045 2.100 -6.805 -6.865 -0.443 -0.494 -2.286
7 -1.813 2.100 -5.065 -5.135 -0.919 -0.967 -1.911
8 -1.418 2.100 -3.513 -3.593 -0.936 -0.980 -1.452
9 -0.897 2.100 -2.151 -2.241 -0.633 -0.673 -0.906
10 -0.296 2.100 -0.977 -1.077 -0.134 -0.169 -0.300
11 0.331 2.100 0.008 -0.103 0.457 0.427 0.320
12 0.929 2.100 0.803 0.683 1.051 1.027 0.902
13 1.444 2.100 1.410 1.279 1.576 1.558 1.390
14 1.830 2.100 1.827 1.687 1.979 1.968 1.735
15 2.053 2.100 2.056 1.905 2.222 2.218 1.901
16 2.092 2.100 2.095 1.935 2.285 2.288 1.861
17 1.944 2.100 1.946 1.776 2.164 2.175 1.609
18 1.623 2.100 1.607 1.427 1.873 1.893 1.150
19 1.156 2.100 1.080 0.890 1.443 1.472 0.507
20 0.587 2.100 0.363 0.163 0.921 0.959 -0.285
21 -0.035 2.100 -0.543 -0.752 0.372 0.421 -1.186
22 -0.654 2.100 -1.637 -1.856 -0.121 -0.063 -2.152
23 -1.215 2.100 -2.921 -3.150 -0.461 -0.392 -3.144
24 -1.667 2.100 -4.393 -4.632 -0.532 -0.452 -4.141
25 -1.970 2.100 -6.055 -6.303 -0.201 -0.109 -5.143
26 -2.097 2.100 -7.905 -8.164 0.683 0.786 -6.189
27 -2.037 2.100 -9.945 -10.213 2.285 2.400 -7.369
28 -1.795 2.100 -12.173 -12.451 4.789 4.917 -8.836
29 -1.392 2.100 -14.591 -14.878 8.397 8.537 -10.829
30 -0.865 2.100 -17.197 -17.495 13.326 13.479 -13.682
31 -0.261 2.100 -19.993 -20.300 19.811 19.977 -17.854
I will find the Distance between the y-coordinate of the actual function and approximation by subtracting the
y-coordinate of the approximation from the actual value of the y-coordinate. Then, I will first have to
14
calculate the absolute value of the distance between each y-coordinate of the approximation and the actual
function, as only the numerical value of the distance represents the inaccuracy.

Table 2: Distance between the y-coordinates of the Taylor Polynomial Approximation and the actual
function at an interval of 1 unit of x-coordinate
v(t)-p1(t) v(t)-p2(t) v(t)-p3(t) v(t)-p4(t) v(t)-p5(t) v(t)-p6(t)
2.721 17.722 17.732 15.506 15.446 6.079
3.286 14.471 14.492 10.615 10.556 3.553
3.745 11.516 11.546 7.030 6.972 1.986
4.057 8.896 8.936 4.484 4.428 1.053
4.195 6.640 6.690 2.742 2.688 0.524
4.145 4.760 4.820 1.602 1.551 0.241
3.913 3.252 3.322 0.894 0.846 0.099
3.519 2.095 2.175 0.483 0.439 0.034
2.998 1.253 1.343 0.264 0.224 0.009
2.396 0.681 0.781 0.162 0.127 0.004
1.769 0.324 0.434 0.126 0.096 0.011
1.171 0.126 0.247 0.121 0.097 0.028
0.656 0.035 0.165 0.132 0.114 0.055
0.270 0.003 0.143 0.149 0.138 0.095
0.047 0.003 0.147 0.169 0.165 0.152
0.008 0.003 0.157 0.193 0.196 0.231
0.156 0.001 0.169 0.220 0.231 0.336
0.477 0.016 0.196 0.250 0.270 0.473
0.944 0.077 0.267 0.286 0.315 0.649
1.513 0.224 0.423 0.334 0.373 0.872
2.135 0.507 0.717 0.408 0.456 1.151
2.754 0.983 1.202 0.533 0.591 1.497
3.315 1.706 1.935 0.753 0.822 1.929
3.767 2.726 2.965 1.135 1.215 2.474
4.070 4.085 4.333 1.769 1.861 3.173
4.197 5.808 6.067 2.780 2.883 4.092
4.137 7.908 8.176 4.321 4.437 5.332
3.895 10.378 10.656 6.584 6.711 7.042
3.492 13.198 13.486 9.789 9.930 9.436
2.966 16.332 16.629 14.191 14.345 12.817
2.362 19.731 20.038 20.072 20.239 17.593

15
Average Distance
Table 3: Average Distance between the y-coordinates of the Taylor Polynomial Approximation and the
actual function
𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡)

2.551 5.015 5.174 3.487 3.508 2.678

The average distance measures the average error in the approximations. However, it does not necessarily
fully measure the accuracy of the approximation. To fully measure the degree of accuracy of the
approximations it is important to calculate the variability in the error, to measure the degree of accuracy
more wholly.

Sample Standard deviation

The first measure of variability I will measure is the sampled standard deviation. Sampled standard
deviation is found by using the formula:2
𝑁
2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
Table 4: Sample standard deviation of the inaccuracy of each Taylor Polynomial Approximation
𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡)

1.449 6.061 6.069 5.268 5.294 4.145

Range
The second measure of variability I will calculate is by calculating the range of the data. To find the
range, I will be subtracting the highest error value from the lowest error value.
Table 5: The range of the data of inaccuracy of each Taylor Polynomial Approximation
𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡)

4.189 19.730 19.895 19.951 20.143 17.589

Interquartile range
The last measure of variability I will calculate to measure the accuracy of the approximation will be
the Interquartile range of the data. The interquartile range is the distance between the first quartile (25%)
and the third quartile (75%). To find the interquartile range I will first have to rearrange the data from the
smallest to the biggest value3

After sorting the data, I will calculate the nth term of the first and third quartile.
1 3
𝑄1 = (𝑁 + 1) × 4
𝑄3 = (𝑁 + 1) × 4
1 3
𝑄1 = (31 + 1) × 4 𝑄3 = (31 + 1) × 4
𝑄1 = 8𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑄3 = 24𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

2
Calculation of Sample Standard Deviation is done in Appendix 1
3
Arranged Data is done in Appendix 2
16
 Given that there are 31 terms in the data, the first quartile will be the 8th term, and the third quartile
will be the 24th term. And by subtracting the value of the 8th and 24th terms of the data, I will be able to
calculate the Interquartile range of the error of the approximation
Table 6: The interquartile range of the data of Inaccuracy of each Taylor Polynomial Approximation
Q1 (8th term) Q3 (24th term) IQR (Q3-Q1)

𝑝1(𝑡) 1.171 3.895 2.724

𝑝2(𝑡) 0.126 8.896 8.770

𝑝3(𝑡) 0.267 8.936 8.669

𝑝4(𝑡) 0.220 4.484 4.264

𝑝5(𝑡) 0.224 4.437 4.213

𝑝6(𝑡) 0.099 3.553 3.454

4. Conclusion & Interpretation

To sum up the result of the calculations, I will arrange the 6 Taylor Polynomial approximations in the
order of most to least accurate based on each measure of inaccuracy

Table 8: Orders of approximations in terms of accuracy in ascending order in each method

Order from Method 1 Method 2
most to least
accurate Area of Average Standard of Range Interquartile
Inaccuracy difference Deviation range

1 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡)

2 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡)

3 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡)

4 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡)

5 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡)

6 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡)

After modeling the approximation and looking at the numerical figure, I saw that the approximation
only changes its shape for every 2 degrees of Taylor Polynomial, meaning that 0th and first degree, second
and third-degree, fourth and fifth-degree…, are pairs of very similar approximations that have a very slight
difference. This is further consolidated by the different measures of inaccuracy as the pairs always have a
similar degree of variability of inaccuracy.

17
 Table 9: Rearranged Orders of approximations in pairs in terms of accuracy in ascending order
Order from Method 1 Method 2
most to least
accurate Area of Average Standard of Range Interquartile
Inaccuracy difference Deviation range

1 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡) 𝑝1(𝑡)

2 𝑝5(𝑡), 𝑝4(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝6(𝑡)

3 𝑝6(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡), 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡), 𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡),𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝5(𝑡),𝑝4(𝑡)

4 𝑝3(𝑡), 𝑝2(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡), 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝2(𝑡), 𝑝3(𝑡) 𝑝4(𝑡),𝑝5(𝑡) 𝑝3(𝑡),𝑝2(𝑡)

For the first method, the order of accuracy of the Taylor Polynomial approximation was: 𝑝1(𝑡), 𝑝5(𝑡)
and𝑝4(𝑡) , 𝑝6(𝑡), 𝑝3(𝑡) and 𝑝2(𝑡). The result shows that the first degree of the Taylor Polynomial is the most
accurate approximation, and based on this method, there isn’t a strong correlation between the accuracy
and degree of Taylor polynomials. This is because this method doesn’t consider the variability and the
distribution of the inaccuracy, which is an important measure of the degree of accuracy of an
approximation. Thus, I have conducted further analysis.

The second method quantifies the inaccuracy while also measuring the variability of the inaccuracy.
The average quantifies the average inaccuracy and the result contrasts with the first method. The first
degree Taylor Polynomial remained the most accurate, but the sixth degree Taylor Polynomials was the
second most accurate. To measure the variability, I have calculated the standard deviation, range, and
Interquartile range. The range showed that there is no strong relation between the accuracy and the degree
of Taylor polynomials. However, this is because the value of the range is heavily influenced by the outliers
as the accuracy of the Taylor polynomial is more accurate towards the center point of the approximation.
On the other hand, the standard deviation and interquartile range are more effective measures of variability
as they are not influenced by the outliers, thus, accurately showing the dispersion of the approximation to
the actual function. Both the standard deviation and interquartile range shows that the first-degree Taylor
polynomial is the most accurate and we can also see that the rest of the approximations have a strong
direct relation to the accuracy, where the order of the accuracy of approximations increases along the
degree of Taylor Polynomial.

Both methods show that the first-degree Taylor Polynomial approximation is the most accurate
approximation. However, from the modeled graph, the first-degree Taylor Polynomial is only a linear
function that has no resemblance to the actual function. This is because the first degree of the Taylor series
to a function only takes the first derivative of the center point of approximation. Thus it is illogical to
establish the first-degree Taylor polynomial as the most accurate approximation

Thus, I will consider the sixth-degree Taylor Polynomial as the most accurate approximation, while
the second and third-degree polynomials are the least accurate. Therefore, a valid relation between
accuracy and the degree of Taylor polynomials can be that it becomes more and more accurate to the
actual function every 2 degrees of Taylor Polynomial. In conclusion, the degree of Taylor Polynomial
approximation has a direct relation to the accuracy of the approximations of the function of the Pendulum’s
velocity.

18
 5. Areas of Further Studies

For further investigation, although I have thoroughly investigated the inaccuracy of the Taylor
polynomial using 2 methods, the investigation only focused on the relation between the accuracy and the
degree of Taylor Polynomial approximating the Pendulum’s velocity. For further investigation, I can expand
the scope of the research question, by investigating different trigonometric functions or other
non-polynomial functions. This way I can determine a more accurate relation between accuracy of
approximation and degree of Taylor Polynomial not only under the approximation of the function of the
Pendulum’s velocity but rather in approximating non-polynomial equations in general. Furthermore, in terms
of the theory of the Taylor Series. A higher degree of Taylor Polynomial could have been taken, as I only
investigated up to the sixth degree of Taylor Polynomial, meaning that the result of the investigation is
supported only up to the 6th degree of Taylor Polynomial. Lastly, I perhaps could delve into more complex
standardized methods in measuring accuracy, as interpretation in the investigation is mainly based on
comparison to other approximations and general visual and human judgment, rather than a standardized
criterion to measure accuracy.

19
 6. Appendix
Appendix 1 - Calculation of Sample Standard Deviation
a. 𝑝1(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 62.975
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 1. 449

b. 𝑝2(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 1102.015
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 6. 061

c. 𝑝3(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 1105.029
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 6. 069

d. 𝑝4(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 840.895
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 5. 268

e. 𝑝5(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 832.648
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 5. 294

f. 𝑝6(𝑡)
𝑁 31
2 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥) ∑ (𝑥𝑖−𝑥)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 515.314
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑁−1
= 31−1
= 30
= 4. 145

20
Appendix 2 - Arranged data of inaccuracy in ascending order.
v(t)-p1(t) v(t)-p2(t) v(t)-p3(t) v(t)-p4(t) v(t)-p5(t) v(t)-p6(t)
0.008 0.001 0.143 0.121 0.096 0.004
0.047 0.003 0.147 0.126 0.097 0.009
0.156 0.003 0.157 0.132 0.114 0.011
0.270 0.003 0.165 0.149 0.127 0.028
0.477 0.016 0.169 0.162 0.138 0.034
0.656 0.035 0.196 0.169 0.165 0.055
0.944 0.077 0.247 0.193 0.196 0.095
1.171 0.126 0.267 0.220 0.224 0.099
1.513 0.224 0.423 0.250 0.231 0.152
1.769 0.324 0.434 0.264 0.270 0.231
2.135 0.507 0.717 0.286 0.315 0.241
2.362 0.681 0.781 0.334 0.373 0.336
2.396 0.983 1.202 0.408 0.439 0.473
2.721 1.253 1.343 0.483 0.456 0.524
2.754 1.706 1.935 0.533 0.591 0.649
2.966 2.095 2.175 0.753 0.822 0.872
2.998 2.726 2.965 0.894 0.846 1.053
3.286 3.252 3.322 1.135 1.215 1.151
3.315 4.085 4.333 1.602 1.551 1.497
3.492 4.760 4.820 1.769 1.861 1.929
3.519 5.808 6.067 2.742 2.688 1.986
3.745 6.640 6.690 2.780 2.883 2.474
3.767 7.908 8.176 4.321 4.428 3.173
3.895 8.896 8.936 4.484 4.437 3.553
3.913 10.378 10.656 6.584 6.711 4.092
4.057 11.516 11.546 7.030 6.972 5.332
4.070 13.198 13.486 9.789 9.930 6.079
4.137 14.471 14.492 10.615 10.556 7.042
4.145 16.332 16.629 14.191 14.345 9.436
4.195 17.722 17.732 15.506 15.446 12.817
4.197 19.731 20.038 20.072 20.239 17.593

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