02 BRM Fulll Chapter

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UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH
1.1 RESEARCH
1.1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research
Research is a systematic activity to achieve the truth. It includes the identification of study area,
the procedure for collecting data, analyzing the data and finding the conclusion or truth based
upon the scientific procedure. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
One can also define research as a scientific and systematic procedure for obtaining pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is a careful, systematic and scientific
investigation or inquiry for search of new facts in any branch of knowledge.
According to Redman and Mory. “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
According to Fred Kerlinger, Research is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to
provide information for solving a problem”.
According to Francis Rummel, “research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new

information or relationships to expand and to verify existing knowledge.
According to Robert Ross, Research is essentially an investigation a recording and analysis of

evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
Research can also be defined as logical and systematized application of the fundamentals of
science and scientific techniques which provide precise tools, specific procedures and techniques
to the general and overall questions of a study, rather than philosophical means for getting and
ordering the data prior to their logic and manipulation.
1.1.2 Features of Good Research
Features of good research are as follows:
1. Well Defined Problems: nature and scope of the problem to be studied must be stated
clearly, or must be well defined and formulated.
2. Systematic: A good research should always be a systematic and critical investigation into
a phenomenon.
3. Purposive: A research is not a mere compilation, but a purposive investigation; so it
should always aims at describing interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

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4. Scientific: This is one of the basic features of researches that it should always be based on
scientific method. The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to
explore observations and answer questions and hence it provides a logical and systematic
model to conduct a research.
5. Objectivity: A research should be objective and logical, applying possible tests to validate
the measuring tools and the conclusion.
6. Observable or Empirical: Good research should be based upon observable experience or
empirical evidence.
7. Solution Seeking: Research should always be directed towards findings answers to
pertinent questions and solutions to problems.
8. Generalisability: It should emphasis on the development of generalization, principles or
theories.
9. Unbiased: The purpose of a good research should not to arrive at an answer, which is
personally pleasing to the researcher, but rather one, which will stand up the test of
criticism.
10. Trans-disciplinary: A good research should always encompass a broad sp
1.1.3. Objectives of research
The objectives of research are as follows:
1. Research Extends Knowledge: Research extends knowledge of human beings, social life
and environment. Scientists and researchers build up the wealth of knowledge through
their research findings. They search answers for various types of questions: what, where,
when, how and why of various phenomena, and enlighten us. The bodies of knowledge
have been developed by research in general and pure or fundamental research in
particular.
2. Research unravels the Mysteries or Nature: Research brings to light hidden
information that might never be discovered fully during the ordinary course of life.
3. Research establishes Generalisations and General Laws: research establishes
generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of
knowledge. The knowledge of isolated events is connected together to draw
generalizations and general laws. Laws of demands, and principles of organization such as
unity of command, scalar principals, theory of consumer behavior and motivation theories
are some examples for such generalizations laws and theories.
4. Research Verifies and Tests: Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory and
these help in improving knowledge and ability to handle situations and events. Empirical
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research goes far beyond the passive role of verifying and testing theory. Research plays
an active role as it performs at least four major functions – initiates, formulates, deflects ,
and clarifies theory.
5. General Laws Developed through Research: General laws are developed through
research which may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen.
6. Research Analyse Inter-relationship: Research aims to analyse inter- relationships
between variables and to derive causal explanations and thus enables to have a better
understanding of the world in which we live.
7. Applied Research Aims at finding solution: Applied research aims at finding solutions
to socio-economic problems (e.g., social unrest, unemployement, poverty) health
problems, human relations problems in organizations and so on.
8. It Aims to Develop Tools concepts: Research aims at developing new tools, concepts,
and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena.
9. Research Aids in Planning: Research aids in planning and thus contributing to national
development. Research – social science research in particular – aids planning in the
following ways:
i) Research brings out factual data on prevailing situations and problems for drawing
up plans and schemes on a realistic basis.
ii) Research uncovers needed facts on which sound decisions can be made before
committing resources.
iii) Research studies enable the planners to evaluate alternative strategies and choose
the most appropriate strategy for development of the various sectors like
agriculture, industry, education health social welfare etc…
iv) The dissemination of research finding creates a general awareness of the country’s
current situation and problems among the public which inspire them to participate
in formulation and implementation of development schemes.
10. Rational Decision Making : Analytical research studies internal and external
environment of business and non-business organizations providing factual data for rational
decision making and formulation of strategies and policies.
1.1.3 Research Process
Research Process consists of a number of closely related activities. But such activities
overlap continuously and do not follow a strictly prescribed sequence. Various steps involved in a
research process are not mutually exclusive. Nor are they separate and distinct. They do not
necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly
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anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps.
However the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process which is shown in the figure 1.1
1. Defining research problem

2. Extensive literature survey
3. Formulation of hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Testing of hypothesis
10. Generalisations and interpretation and
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the result
1. Defining Research Problem: The first step in research is defining a research problem. It is
most important stage in applied research, as poorly defined problems will not yield useful
results. It is rightly said that, “A problem well defined is half-solved”. Poorly defined
problems cause confusion and do not allow the researcher to develop a good research design.
After a problem has been chosen, the nest task is to formulate it precisely. This too needs a
good deal of care on the part of marketing researchers.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the
problem and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated, the next step is to write down
a brief summary. For this the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals, published
or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to g to. Academic journals conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.
3. Formulation of Hypotheses : Now the researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypothesis are
developed is particularly important, since they provide the focal point for research.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it
has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of

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research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
4. Preparing the Research Design : Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research should be conducted. A research design specifies the methods and procedures for
conducting a particular study. The researcher should specify the approach he intends to use
with respect to the proposed study. The function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
5. Determining Sample Design: The researcher must decide the way of selecting a “sample” or
the sample design. A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a give population.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability sample do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
6. Collecting the Data: The next step is to determine the sources of data to be used. The
researcher has t decide whether he has to collect primary data or depend exclusively on
secondary data. Sometimes, the research study is based on both secondary and primary data.
Any statistical data can be classified under two categories depending upon the sources
utilized. These categories are,
i. Primary sources of data
ii. Secondary sources of data
The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for the first time, and
thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else and which have been passed through
the statistical process.
7. Execution of the Project: The researcher should see that the project is executed is a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well
as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviews,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals, which explain clearly the job of
the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
8. Analysis of Data : After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as

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establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Researcher should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well-defined statistical formulae.
9. Testing-if Hypothesis: After analysing the data the researcher has to the hypothesis, various
tests such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose.
The hypothesis may be tested through the use of on or more of such tests, depending upon
the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, Generalisations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.
10. Generalisation and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at Generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions, which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Although report writing needs some skill, which
can be developed with practice, the researcher should follow the main principles of writing a
report.
1.1.5. Scope of Research
Research has a wide scope and draws upon the research findings of related disciplines
such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science, biology, mathematical and other
sciences. Business research may focus on theory or specific operational problems. In the former
case the objective would be to discover/illustrate precepts or principles and in the latter case the
objective would be to provide solutions to current problems. Topics of research in functional areas
of business are given below. The main scope and areas in business research are as under:

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Scope of Research in Management
Accounting and Finance Human Resource Development and

Organisation Behaviour
Marketing Research
Organisational Research
Industrial Research
Production Research
1) Accounting and Finance : In the area of accounting and finance, the tentative list of
important topics in which research in carried-out are as under:
i. Practices and procedures of budget control system
ii. Inventory costing methods and practices
iii. Depreciation method and their impact on earnings
iv. Transfer pricing methods and their impact on earnings
v. Individual investment behavior
vi. Capital structure and capital budgeting decisions
vii. Mergers and acquisitions and their impact on company’s earnings
2) Human Resource Development and Oranisation Behaviour: HRD and organisation
behaviour constitutes very important areas in business field. Major areas in which research is
carried-out in this field are:
i. Employee behaviours
ii. Employee attitudes
iii. Leadership traits
iv. Performance appraisal system, and
v. Assessment centre and evaluation
3) Marketing Research: In the area of marketing business research is heavily practiced. So
much is the application that there is a separate branch of marketing research which looks after
the area of applications of research in the field of marketing. Marketing research is undertaken
to assist the marketing function. Marketing research stimulates the flow of marketing data
from the consumer and his environment to marketing information system of the enterprise.
Market research involves the process of:
i. Systematic collection

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ii. Compilation
iii. Analysis
iv. Interpretation of relevant data for marketing decisions
This information goes to the executive in the form of data. On the basis of this data the
executive develop plans and programmes. Advertising research, packaging research,
performance evaluation research, sales analysis, distribution channel, etc., may also be
considered in management research. Research tools are applied effectively for studies
involving:
i. Demand forecasting
ii. Consumer buying behaviour
iii. Measuring advertising effectiveness
iv. Media selection for advertising
v. Test marketing
vi. Product positioning
vii. Product potential
4) Oranisational Research: The organisational research is an inter-disciplinary field. Since the
men who carry-out research in organisations come from a variety of backgrounds they tend to
bring with them different tools, concepts and different methodological approaches.
There is a growing recognition that knowledge of research methods may be useful for students
preparing for careers as practicing managers. In recent years empirically based knowledge
about organisation has grown at the phenomenal rate. The organisation research enables the
managers to get exposed to a number of theories and research findings having relevance to
organisations.
Although the roles of managers and there search scientists are often viewed as very different,
many of the day-to-day problems of managers are similar to those faced by researcher. If the
managers are conversant with the research methods, they can improve their problem-solving
efficiency. For example, a manager is confronted with the problem of high absenteeism in one
department. Once the problem is identified and the need to take corrective action has been
recognized, the manager must collect reliable an authentic information about the problem. The
manager may often have hunches about the problem, which are similar to the hypothesis of
the researcher. If the manager has sound knowledge of research methods, he can scientifically
approach the problem, Otherwise, he may try as a fledgling to act on the hunches resulting in
an inefficient and costly process of trial and error used while studying a problem. It is needless
to say that knowledge of research process is highly indispensable to managers,

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5) Industrial Research: An industrial research laboratory is presumable a pragmatic
organization. Its objectives are directly connected with the future welfare of a particular
company. The specific objectives of industrial research are:
i. To improve the quality of products
ii. To develop new materials, process or devices for capturing new markets
iii. To develop new uses for existing materials, processes or devices
iv. To effect savings in cost
v. To abate dangers
vi. To assist in standardization and
vii. To improve customer and public relations
6) Production Research: A good production organization is never static, it keeps on changing.
If the production unit is successful, the changes turn about to be improvements. But the
changes always bring difficulties, it not troubles. Thus the research plays a logical and
continuing role of production research in te production picture.
Production research activities normally fall into three classifications:
i. Investigation of new production methods
ii. Investigation of methods of stadardisation and control
iii. Specialised “trouble shooting”
1.1.6. Research Approach
A research approach can vary significantly depending on what is to be research, if it is a scientific

method, it would be appropriate to research similar methods or other scientists who have
attempted the experiment. However, if the research was in to social policy, e.g., it would be better
to carry-out surveys look into past surveys, etc. It is essential for the researcher tot consider what
it is he would like to find out, and then decide on the most appropriate method of finding that out.
The general research approach acts as an overall guide for conducting the research work. The
research questions determine the requirements for the research approach.
Two major approaches exist in research literature, i.e. qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative
methods are used to find and confirm and presence and absence of an element, while quantitative
methods are used to measure the degree of an element already present. Quantitative research
involves use of statistical analysis to obtain findings, while qualitative research includes gathering
of data through open-ended questions that provide direct quotations. The interview is an essential
part of the investigation. The research used both quantitative technique by empirically testing
hypotheses through statistical method and quantitative method using semi-structured interviews
with manager. The use of both methods enhances the understanding of social phenomenon.
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1.1.6.1. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research design is the standard experimental method of most scientific disciplines.
These experiments are sometimes referred to as true science, and use traditional mathematical and
statistical means to measure results conclusively.
They are most commonly used by physical scientists, although social sciences, education and
economics have been known to use this type of research. It is the opposite of qualitative research.
Quantitative experiments all use a standard format, with a few minor inter-disciplinary
differences, of generating a hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This hypothesis must be
provable by mathematical and statistical means, and is the basis around which the whole
experiment is designed.
Randomization of any study groups is essential, and a control group should be included, wherever
possible. A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time, or statistical
analysis becomes cumbersome and open to question. Ideally, the research should be constructed
in a manner that allows others to repeat the experiment and obtain similar results.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
1) It is usually based upon numerical measurements and thus tends to use numbers and
statistical methods as key research indictors and tools.
2) It tends to be associated with analysis
3) It tends to be associated with large-scale studies and with a specific focus, often
condensing information from a large number specific occurrences to search for general
description or to investigate causal hypotheses.
4) It tends to be associated with researcher detachment, producing ‘objective’ numerical data
that is independent of the researcher; it is very controlled, exact approach to research.
5) It tends to be associated with pre-determined research design, using measurement and
analyses in a systematic and logically ordered fashion that may be-replicated relatively
easily by other researchers.
6) Validity and reliability can be measured numerically using statistical tests
7) A common perception of quantitative research is that the emphasis is on proof rather than
discovery.

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Advantages of Quantitative Research
1) Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or

disproving a hypothesis. The structure has not changed for centuries, so is standard across
many scientific fields and disciplines.
2) After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the results
can be legitimately discussed and published.
3) Quantitative experiments also filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the
results gained can be seen as real and unbiased.
4) Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible direction for
follow-up research to take.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
1) Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and require a lot of time to
perform. They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is complete randomization
and correct designation of control groups.
2) Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis, which can be difficult,
due to most scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a whole
scientific discipline and cab be difficult for non-mathematicians.
3) In additions, the requirements for the successful statistical confirmation of results are
very stringent, with very few experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis; there
is usually some ambiguity, which requires re-testing and refinement to the design. The
means another investment of time resources must be committed to fine-tune the results.
4) Quantitative research also tends to generate only proved or unproven results, with there
being very little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social sciences, education,
anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes
or no response.
Techniques of Quantitative Research
1) Observation: Observation is an activity of a person which senses and assimilates the

knowledge of the phenomenon or the recording of data using instrument. It can also be
referred as datum collected during this activity.
2) Survey: Survey means a planned effort to collect the desired information from a
representative sample of the relevant population generally known as respondents. It can

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also be defined as systematic gathering of data from respondents through
questionnaires.
3) Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating the independent variable.
Experiments require one or more experimental groups that are exposed to the
experimental treatment(s) and a control group that is not exposed. After the researcher
randomly assigns participants to either an experimental group or a control group, it
measures the dependent variable. Test marketing also called market testing, is an
application of a controlled experiment, done in limited but carefully selected parts of
the marketplace called test markets. It involves a replication of a planned national
marketing program in the test markets.
1.1.6.2. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers

studying human behaviour and habits. It is also very useful for product designers who want to
make a product that will sell. For example a designer generating some ideas for a new product
might want to study people’s habits and preferences, to make sure that the product is
commercially viable. Quantitative research is then used to assess whether the completed design is
popular or not.
Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in that it is often

used to generate possible leads and ideas which can be used to formulate a realistic and testable
hypothesis. This hypothesis can then be comprehensively tested and mathematically analysed,
with standard quantitative research methods.
For these reasons, these qualitative methods are often closely allied with survey design techniques
and individual case studies, as a way to reinforce and evaluate findings over a broader scale.
One example of a qualitative research design might be a survey constructed as a precursor to the
paper towel experiment. A study completed before the experiment was performed would reveal
which of the multitude of brands were the most popular. The quantitative experiment could then
be constructed around only these brands, saving a lot of time, money and resources.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1) Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a

particular context and the interaction.
2) In qualitative research the primary instrument for data collection and analysis.

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3) Qualitative research usually involves fieldwork. The researcher must go to the people,
setting, site, institution, in order to observe behaviour in its natural setting.
4) Qualitative research uses an inductive research strategy. This type of research builds
abstraction, concepts, hypothesis or theories rather than tests existing theory.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
1) Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex be answered
by a simple yes or no hypothesis.
2) These types of designs are much easier to plan and carry out, useful when budgetary
decisions have to be taken into account
3) The border scope covered by these designs ensures that some useful data is always
generated, whereas as unproved hypothesis in a quantitative experiment can mean that a
lot of time has been wasted.
4) Qualitative research methods are not as dependent upon sample sizes as quantitative
methods; a case study, e.g., can generate meaningful results with a small sample group.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
1) Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments, qualitative

methods still require a lot of careful through and planning, to ensure that the results
obtained are as accurate as possible
2) Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analysed in the same comprehensive way as
quantitative results, so can only give a guide to general trends.
3) It is a lot more open to personal opinion and judgment, and so can only ever give
observations rather than results.
4) Any qualitative research design is usually unique and cannot be exactly re-created,
meaning that they do lack the ability to be peer reviewed.
Techniques of Collecting Qualitative Data
Quantitative research techniques are of following types:
1) Depth Interview: Depth interview is a qualitative research technique that involves

conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore
their perspectives on a particular idea, programme, or situation. For example, we might
ask participants, staff, and others associated with a programme about their experiences
and expectations related to the programme, the thoughts they have concerning

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programme operations, processes, and outcomes, and about any changes they perceive in
themselves as a result of their involvement in the programme.
2) Focus Group: Focus groups originate from sociology studies. They have been
extensively used in marketing research. Focus group studies are generally conducted to
evaluate the potential of a new product idea or concept. A focus group comprises several
persons. Who are led by a trained moderator. The moderator’s task is to lead the team in
generating and exchanging ideas on a particular issue.
The process starts by issuing a topic for discussion among participants by the moderator.
In such discussions, the moderator’s role will be to silently watch the proceedings and
ensure that the discussion is going on as expected. However, the moderator needs to
intervene to ensure that all individuals in the group participate. Once the focus group’s
observations and recommendations are obtained, the information is evaluated by the
moderator. This forms the basis for further research.
3) Projective Techniques: A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect from of

questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs,
attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of concern. In projective techniques, respondents
are asked to interpret the behaviour of other rather than describe their own behaviour. In
interpreting the behaviour of others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations,
beliefs, attitudes or feelings into the situation. Thus respondents attitude are uncovered by
ananlysing their responses to scenarios that are deliberately unstructured, vague and
ambiguous.
1.1.6.3. Qualitative versus Quantitative Data Analysis
Basis of
Qualitative Data Analysis Quantitative Data Analysis
Difference
1 Interpretation It relies on interpretation and logic, This analysis relies on statistics,
Qualitative researches present their Quantitative researchers use graphs and
analyses using text and arguments tables to present their analysis
2 Procedures and Qualitative analysis has no set rules, Quantitative analysis follows agreed
Rules but rather guidelines are there to upon standardised procedures and rules
support the analysis
3 Occurrence Qualitative analysis occurs Quantitative analysis occurs only after
simultaneously with data collection data collection is finished
4 Methodology Qualitative analysis may very Methods of quantitative analysis are

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methods depending on the situations determined in advance as part of the
study design
5 Reliability Qualitative research is validity, but is
Their reliability is easy to establish and
less reliable (or consistent). They
that they generally involve
have a corresponding weakness n
sophisticated comparisons of variables
their ability to compare variables in
in different conditions.
different conditions.
6 Questions Open-ended questions and probing
Specific questions obtain
yield detailed information that
predetermined responses to
illuminates nuances and highlights
standardized questions
diversit.
7 Information Provides information on the
More likely provides information on
application of the program in a
the broad application of the program
specific context to a specific
population
8 Suitability More suitable when time and
Relies on more extensive interviewing
resources are limited
1.1.7. Significance of Research
Research is a very important source of making sound decisions and also affects future
operations of the organization. The following are the major areas in which research plays an
important role in making effective decision:
Significance of Research
Making Future Forecast Understanding Marketplace
Understanding Perceived Value of

Goods Improving the Quality of
Decision Making
Solving Operational and Planning

Expanding Existing Business
Problems
Exploring New Business Broadening and Deepening

Technological Capabilities

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1) Making Future Forecast: It helps management in using descriptive and diagnostic research
to predict the results of a planned marketing decision. Also research helps management in
formulating business plan for the future, based on what may have happened in the past. If
carried out successfully it can help a company make informed pans on how to become more
visible in its sector.
2) Understanding Marketplace: Market research helps managers to focus on the paramount
importance of keeping existence customers, aids them in better understanding the
marketplace, and alerts them to marketplace trends.
3) Understanding Perceived Value of Goods: Marketing research helps managers gauge the
perceived value of their goods and services as well as the level of customer satisfaction. It also
helps a business determine whether a procedure should be changed or if more is needed to be
done to meet the needs of the customer base.
4) Improving the Quality of Decision Making: Managers can sharpen their decision making by
using market research to explore the desirability of various marketing research and explore the
desirability of various marketing alternatives,
5) Solving Operational and Planning Problems: Research has its special significance in
solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry. Operations
research and market research, along with motivational research are considered crucial and
their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions.
6) Expanding Existing Business: Existing business support includes modifying products,
improve customer acceptance or adapting them to different market standards or regulations,
using different or new raw materials or improvements in the manufacturing processes and
dealing with regulatory activities such as safety, considerations and environmental
compliance. Business support also includes developing new products and manufacturing
processes to improve competitive position within the exiting business structure.
7) Exploring New Business: It involves providing opportunities for new business using existing
or new technologies. The new business may be new to the company or new to the world.
Similarly the new technologies may be new to the world or new only to the company.
8) Broadening and Deepening Technological Capabilities: It may concern existing or new
technologies, depending on the perceived opportunities and the company’s competitive
position.
1.1.8. Limitations of Research
In India, research based decision making has just made a beginning. There are still a
number of gaps in understanding between the researchers and its users.

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It may be made clear that research is there to help in decision making and is not a
substitute of decision making. Some of the limitations are given below:
1) Research can provide a number of facts, but it doesn’t provide actionable results.
2) Some problems just cannot be researched, e.g., a precise estimate of sales directly
attributable to advertising.
3) It cannot provide the answer to any problem but can only provide a set of guidelines.
Thus, management will have to consider research findings in the light of other factors
such as production, finance and personnel, in arriving at the decision.
4) Managers normally do not include research in the overall problem or total decision
making. Partial decisions on specific issues and without proper timing and budget may
not help in satisfactory solutions.
5) Manages rely more on intuition and judgment rather than on research.
1.1.9. Research in an Evolutionary Perspective
It has taken a long time to determine how the world should be investigated. The earliest
ways focused on the Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, who maintained that men and women
have different numbers of teeth. He did not check this, and merely provided lengthy arguments as
to why this should be so. However, arguments cannot determine whether a statement is correct.
Proof is required. Since then, the world has learnt to carry-out experiments and perform
observations. This approach means that results are universal and may be reproduced. Thus, the
scientific method was born, which was subsequently followed by research in the behavioural
sciences. The empirical and social sciences borrowed from probability theory and statistics,
decision theory, game theory, utility theory, and operations research. Philosophers of science have
addressed general methodological problem such as the nature of scientific explanation and the
justification of induction.
This was followed by a two-hundred-year battle between the established church and
empiricism. The shift in the Western mind from medieval to modern thought was underpinned by
the growth of science. This was mainly achieved by the early scientists. Copernicus challenged
the view that the Earth was at the centre of the universe, suggesting that empirical evidence
favoured the theory that the earth orbited the sun. Francis Bacon argued for the use of experiment
rather than deduction as a means to increasing knowledge, Kepler’s use of observation and
mathematics enabled him to supplant the Pythagorean theories of perfect heavenly spheres by
showing how planes move in ellipses. Galilei was placed under house arrest for agreeing with
Copernicus. Descartes believed he had a rational foundation for science based on his arguments

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for his own existence and that of God. He tried to reconcile Cartesian rationalism, a belief in God
and a support for empiricism Newton’s discoveries greatly advanced our understanding of nature
and its patterns.
It has been claimed that the scientific method provides the most persuasive form of
research. It is unprejudiced, not having to believe the ideas of the researcher, and allows for the
possibility to redefine or redo the experiment to determine whether results are true or not. In his
exposition of scientific theory, Hawking suggests that any goo theory should satisfy two
requirements:
1) It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that
contains only few arbitrary elements.
2) It must make definite predictions about the results of future observations.
According to Hawking, any physical theory is always provisional in the sense that it is only a
hypothesis – you can never prove it. Thus, no matter how many times the results of subsequent
experiments agree with the theory, you cannot predict whether the next time the result may not
contradict the theory. However, to disprove a theory you only have to find a single observation
that contradicts it. Thus, a new theory generally is an extension of previous theory. In practice, a
new theory may be devised following upon ad-ons o the previous theory, through modifications or
even abandonment.
Newton’s laws of gravity, which in essence have been proved incorrect by Einstein’s
predictions, are an example of such modification or abandonment. In 1666, Newton proposed his
theory gravitation. This theory was, and still is, one of the greatest intellectual discoveries of all
time. The theory explained all observed facts and made predictions that were later tested and
found to be correct within the accuracy of the instruments being used. However, during the 19th
century, with more accurate instruments testing Newton’s theory, slight discrepancies were
uncovered. Einstein proposed his theory of relativity, thus in a way negating Newton’s
discoveries. Does this mean that the truth according to Newton has changed for the truth
according to Einstein – and this despite the fact that it is still the same universe? No, it does not.
When a theory is believed to be true, it is so because it agrees with all known experimental
evidence.
When an accepted theory cannot explain new data, researchers strive to develop a new
theory. With the increase in knowledge, this is becoming more and more difficult, since the new
theory not only has to explain the new data, but also assimilate the past. This is not a simple
process. It requires many propositions and hypotheses studied and rejected. Validity is discussed;
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hypotheses are rejected, reformulated or acknowledged (although they may be based on different
assumption).
For Example, according to Copernicus’ theory of the solar system, the planets move in
circles around the sun. In Kepler’s and Copernicus’s theory was subsequently replaced by
Kepler’s. However, it may be that different theories have the same predictions. If the predictions
of a long –standing theory are found to disagree with new experimental evidence, the theory may
be discarded as a description of really but still continues in applications within a limited range of
parameters. Such an more general and accurate description of the principles of the universe.
Knowledge creation is fundamental to social development and is an age old concept.

Research can lead to specific inventions, or add to the development of technologies or develop
new frameworks and knowledge.
1.2. Business Research
1.2.1. Meaning and Definition of Business Research
Business research refers to any type of researching done when starting or running any kind
of business. For example, starting any type of business requires research into the target customer
and the competition to create a business plan.
Conducting business market research in existing businesses is helpful in keeping in touch with
consumer demand. Small business research begins with researching an idea and a name and
continues with research based on customer demand and other businesses offering similar products
or services. All business research is done to learn information that could make the company more
successful.
According to McDaniel and Gates, “Business research is the planning, collection and analysis of
data relevant to business decision-making and the communication of the results of this analysis to
management”.
According to Zikmund, “Business research is a management tool that companies use to reduce
uncertainty. It is a manager’s source of information about organizational and environmental
conditions, and covers topics ranging from long-range planning to the most ephemeral tactical
decisions”.

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Business research is a systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and
analyzing data for decision-making. The research must be systematic, not haphazard. It must be
objective, to avoid the distorting effects of personal bias. The aim of applied research is to
facilitate managerial decision-making. On the other hand, basic or pure research is used to test and
build specific theories and concepts.
Business research is an important management activity that helps companies to determine

which products will be most profitable for companies to produce. Several steps are necessary
when conducting business research; each step must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best
decision is made for the company.
1.2.2. Objective of Business Research
There are five major objectives of business research
1) Explore Action: This is done when the researcher is trying to generate ideas about
something
2) Description: This is done when the researcher wants to describe the characteristics of
something or some phenomenon.
3) Explanation: This is done when the researcher wants to show how and why a
phenomenon operates as it does. If he is interested in causality, he is usually interested in
explanation.
4) Prediction: This is the objective when the primary interest is in making accurate
predictions. Note that the advanced sciences make much more accurate predictions than
the newer social and behavioural sciences.
5) Influence: This objective is a little different. It involves the application of research results
to impact the world. A demonstration program is an example of this. One convenient and
useful way to classify research is into exploratory research, descriptive research,
explanatory research, predictive research, and demonstration research.
1.2.3. Types of Business Research
Every business undertakes research so that it an take right decisions at the right time. No
matter what kind of business one is in, one is expected to find out something out there that
impacts running of the business.
Here are eight types of business research one will have to do at some stage in the business
career.

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Types of Business Research
Exploratory Descriptive
Evaluative
Diagnostic
Investigative
Normative
Predictive
Prescriptive
1) Exploratory: When the purpose of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or

acquire new insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem or develop
hypothesis, the exploratory studies (also known as formulative research) come in hand.
Therefore a need for an exploratory research is felt to gain experience that will be helpful in
formulating relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation. It is important to beat in mind
that exploratory study merely leads to insights for formulating hypothesis. Its approaches do
not consider it important to test or demonstrate them.
2) Descriptive: Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and
characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research
answers the questions who, what, where, when and how. The description is used for
frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. In short descriptive research deals with
everything that can be counted and studied. But there are always restrictions to that. The
research must have an impact to the lives of the people around the researcher.
3) Evaluative: This type of research I also known as “analytical”, due to the fact that one is
expected to do lot more analysis. In evaluative research one has full freedom to bring in
variables that were not known previously. A feasible example is to analyse the present office
lay-out in overall efficiency. One still uses existing data, but can bring a new factor to
evaluate it. In addition to factors already in use such as convenience, seamless integration,
process flow, traffic, flow, lighting and ventilation, natural setting, one can also bring in
ergonomics and aesthetics to evaluate the office lay-out. In evaluative research one is
expected to air constructive criticism of the subject matter so that the management can make
considered judgment or informed decision on the basis of the findings.

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4) Diagnostic: Though sounds more of clinical nature, diagnostic research is often undertaken in
business areas to solve chronic issues that remain unsolved for quite some time. One example
is employee absenteeism. In this type of research one is both an insider and outsider. One has
to be passionate in solving the issue and at the same time display a sense of neutrality. This is
because one is handling sensitive matter of employees and even more discreet matter such as
absenteeism. One approaches this assignment with open mind and seeks to get in-depth
knowledge by identifying symptoms, causes and effect. One will distinguish between chaff
and grain symptoms and causes, under-lying reasons and obvious explanations. The data
gathering must be discreet and borders on confidentiality. In most cases one will select a
sample from a large group or work on selected employees of a critical department.
5) Investigative: A minuscule version of a diagnostic research, this type narrows down the field
of inquiry to a specific factor or phenomenon. An apt example is carelessness of an employee
that caused a fire in the factory. One is expected to survey the factory, understand the cause,
identify the party involved and file evidence against such an employee. One will assess the
cost of damage, obtain explanation from the party concerned, and ascertain the extent of
contributory negligence on the part of management. One will conclude with what action is to
be taken against the party concerned and what steps to be taken to avoid such accident in
future.
6) Normative: This is completely different research from the previous ones. Here one studies
and analyses issues to set norms, standards or parameters. Often thee are expressed in
quantitative forms. Where qualitative form is selected norms would tend to be general
requirements or maxims. Norms can range from broader aspects such as values and
characteristics to narrow aspects of eligibility. Setting accounting and auditing standards in a
business is a perfect example of a normative research.
7) Predictive: This research type is also known as causal research as it sets out to trace the cause
and effect of a phenomenon. In businesses, predictive research can take the form of “If-when”
scenarios. Basically a predictive research indicates the set of results when a particular cause
takes place. Predicting such results have nothing to do with soothsaying but anchored on the
scientific method of testing a hypothesis. Loosening credit control leading to pile of bad debts
is a tested example of predictive research.
8) Prescriptive: A prescriptive research is based on designing a specific solution to a known
issue. Generally such a known issue emanates from the gap between what is desired and what
is currently available. A business researcher embarks on doing this, after examining the
relevant data and variables that impact and influence the situation; after critically evaluating
the business as a whole; after exhausting all other possibilities of solutions that are found in

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available literature. Hence, a prescriptive research is the most original in terms of outcome.
Designing an organizational system is a fitting example of a prescriptive research
1.2.4. Applications of Business Research
Various areas of business where research can be applied are discussed below:
Applications of Business Research
Decision –Making Tool

Management Planning
Problem-Solving
Control Technique
Large-Scale Production
Complex Market
Pattern of consumption
Market Complex
Suitable Marketing Operations

Pricing
Marketing Strategy
Distribution
Sales Promotion
1) Decision-Making Tool: Research is useful for taking marketing management decisions. It

provides necessary information and data in analysed and processed for making marketing
decision. With advanced technology, higher production functions and an increasing marketing
complex, market research has become an indispensable tool for taking appropriate decisions.
2) Management Planning: Research is used for management planning. It deals with marketing
opportunities, i.e., those opportunities which are viable to be exploited by management. Thus,
management can assess the resources that will be useful for the business.
3) Problem-Solving: Starting from problem identification to formulation of alternative
solutions, and evaluating alternatives in every area of management, is the problem-solving
action of research. Problem-solving research focuses on the short-range and long-range
decisions that must be taken with respect to the elements of the marketing mix, viz. product,

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price, place and promotion. It can help managements bring about prompt adjustment and
innovations in the above areas of management.
4) Control Technique: Research is used a control technique of management to find out the
weaknesses and shortcoming of the management decisions to re-orient the planning and
performance techniques.
5) Large-Scale Production: Research helps large-scale production by providing suitable
decisions to be undertaken by the producers to exploit the existing production resources to
meet the growing markets. The resources of production and market potentials are properly
assessed by research.
6) Complex Market: The advancement of science and technology and the standard of living of
consumers necessitate closer touch with the growing markets. The size and specialisation
within the business unit and the intervention of numerous middlemen between the
manufacturer and customers created a wide communication gap. The widening gap requires
marketing research marketing research to fill up the communication gap between the
consumer and the producer.
7) Pattern of Consumption: The pattern of consumption is to be assessed by the management.
The study of buyers’ behaviours, attitudes and capacity to purchase is very important in
research. The purchasing power of a consumer depends upon his disposable personal income.
Thus, the total purchasing power of a country or geographical area can be assessed by the
disposable income of the place. The research reveals all the factors which influence the pattern
of consumption.
8) Market Complex: The marketing activities are influenced by several internal and external
environments. Internal environments include price, promotion and production and place
(distribution), whereas the external environments include economic, sociological, political,
legal and government motives.
9) Suitable Marketing Operations: Marketing operations decide production functions, and
marketing operations can be better decided by the findings of marketing research. Marketing
functions are concerned with the maximizing of profit, and production functions have to
minimise the cost of production. The blending of these two functions will give a higher
margin to the company.
10) Pricing: Pricing is not arbitrary for follow-up action of competitors. It has to be judiciously
fixed which is done effectively with the study of various marketing variables. The pricing
objectives, market share, payment procedures, market demand, elasticity of demand,
competitor’s attitudes, price, volume relationship and changes in various market variables are
studied by undertaking marketing research to frame suitable pricing policies.

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11) Marketing Strategy: Marketing management has to lay down appropriate marketing
strategies to meet competition to pursue growth in the market and to attain origanisational
objectives.
12) Distribution: Research helps the members of the channel of distribution to formulate suitable
policies and programmes to solve their problem
13) Sales Promotion: Research can decide suitable media of sales promotion after a study of the
various channels of promotion. The costs and benefits of advertising, personal selling and
wide publicity should be studied to decide the most appropriate media of sales promotion.
1.2.5. Significance of Business Research
Significance of business research are discussed below: of business where research can be applied
are discussed below:
Applications of Business Research
Testing New Products
Ensuring Adequate
Measuring Advertising
Distribution
Effectiveness
Studying the Competition
1) Testing new Products: Business research tests the potential success of new products.
Companies must know what types of products and services customers want before they
market them. For example, a restaurant chain may initially interview focus groups to test half
dozen types of fish meals. The focus groups will likely consist of small groups of customers.
The objective of the focus group may be to determine which fish meal customers like the best.
The company may even use customer input in naming the entrée and ask how much
consumers would spend for the meal. Eventually, the company may test the fish meal
thorough surveys with larger groups of people.
2) Ensuring Adequate Distribution: Companies may also use business research to ensure the
adequate distribution of their products. For example, a telephone directory publisher may
conduct a distribution follow-up study to make sure phone directories have been delivered to
all residential customers. Publishers of telephone directories base their advertising rates on
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distribution. Therefore, ensuring that all residences receive phone books is crucial to the
success of the publisher’s business clients. Similarly, a consumer products company may want
to talk to retailers about all the different brands they sell. The results of the business research
will help marketing managers determine where they need to increase their product
distribution.
3) Measuring Advertising Effectiveness: Companies use business research to determine the
success of their advertising. For example, a milk manufacturer may want to know what
percentage of the population saw its most recent television commercial. The milk company
may fine that more people become aware of its advertising the longer the television ad runs.
The milk company may need to run its television advertisements at different times if few
people have seen the commercial. Companies also use business research to see if consumers
recall the message or slogan of their commercials.
4) Studying the Competition: Companies often use business research to study key competitor
in their markets. Companies will often start with secondary research information or
information that is already available. For example, a software company may want to know the
percentage of customers in the market who purchase its products versus competitors’
products. The researchers can then study the purchasing trends in the industry, striving to
increases their company’s share of the market. Companies will often need to increase their
market share in an industry to increase sales and profits.
1.2.6. Limitations of Business Research
Limitations of business research are discussed below:
Limitations of Business Research
Time Constraints
Availability of Data
Knowledge of Research Tools

Cooperation of Management and
Employees
Benefits versus Costs

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1) Time Constraints: Conducting research systematically takes time. In many instances,
management concludes that, because a decision must be made immediately, there will be no
time for research. As a consequence, decisions are sometimes made without adequate
information or thorough understanding of the situation. This may act as a trade-off with the
quality of the research.
2) Availability of Data: There may be difficulties in data collection like:
i. Data may be insufficient
ii. Lot of variance in data, so large sample size may be required
iii. Lack of resources like finance, time & manpower for data collection
iv. Available secondary data may not be relevant
3) Knowledge of Research Tools: Proper and appropriate knowledge of statistical tools are
required to carry out research.
4) Cooperation of Management and Employees: While conducting in-house research support
of top management and related staffs or respondents are required. Many times they think that
research is a futile exercise. Lack of coordination among different departments with the
researcher is also seen in many organizations.
5) Benefits versus Costs: Conducting research activities to obtain these benefits requires
expenditure; thus, there are both costs and benefits in conducting business research. In any
decision-making situation, managers must identify alternative courses of action, and then
weigh the value of each alternative against its cost. It is useful to think of business research as
an investment alternative.
When deciding whether to make a decision without research or to postpone the decision in
order to conduct research managers should ask:
i. Will the pay-off or rate of return be worth the investment?
ii. Will the information gained by business research improve the quality of the decision of
the decision to an extent sufficient to warrant the expenditure? And
iii. Is the proposed research expenditure the best use of the available funds?

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1.3. TYPES OF RESEARCH
1.3.1. Introduction
Research may be very broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and
its analysis for advancement of knowledge in any subject. Research attempts to find answer
intellectual and practical questions through application of systematic methods. Research
comprises a systematic method of exploring actual persons and groups, focused primarily on their
experience within their social worlds, inclusive of social attitudes and value and the mode of
analysis of these experience within their social worlds, inclusive of social attitudes and value and
the mode of analysis of thee experiences permits starting proposition in the specific form. In short,
the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem is research. There are several ways to classify the research which are shown in the figure
1.2.
Types of Research
On Basis of
Application Extent of Theory Time

Objectives
Dimension
Pure Cross
Applied
Exploratory Conclusive Theoretical
Research Sectional
Research
Research Research
Empirica
Longitudinal
Descriptive
Figure 1.2: Types of Research

Casual

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1.3.2. On the Basis of Application
On the basis of application research is of two types:
1) Pure Research
2) Applied Research
1.3.2.1. Pure Research
Pure research, also called basic research is concerned with quest for knowledge and to
know more about the phenomenon without concern for its practical use and also with developing
and testing hypotheses and theories. Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or
issue, without regards for a specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain a better
understanding of the overall concept. It is said, there is nothing so practical as a good theory, for
example, the development of a model of a coaching behavior. Such research in itself has no
immediate value beyond contributing to an area of intellectual injury.
Advantages of Pure Research
1) It results in general knowledge and an understanding of nature and its laws

2) Provides the means of answering a large number of important practical problems
3) Pure research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows
4) This research also leads to innovation in every aspect of human life and knowledge
applications
Disadvantages of Pure Research
1) It may not give a complete specific answer to practical problems

2) There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from pure research
3) It is time consuming and costly
4) It is based on theoretical aspect, but with no practical idea
1.3.2.2. Applied Research
This research is concerned with search for was of using scientific knowledge to solve
practical problems. It focuses on analyzing and solving and real life problems. The findings
become basis of framing programme and policies, based on principles of pure research. According
to Horton and Hunt, this research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to
solve practical problems. Because this research is generally conducted on large-scale basis, it is
expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the support of some financing agency like

30
government, public corporation, World Bank, UNICEF, UGC, ICSSR, etc. Many a time, this type
of research is conducted on interdisciplinary basis also.
An example of this may be a sports organization that wishes to explore a potential market.
They could commission research to determine demand for sports-related services or products, or
carry out research to explain why individual drop out from a particular fitness programme after a
short period of time.
A sociologist who seeks to find out why crime is omitted or how a person becomes a
criminal is working for pure research. If this sociologist then tries to find out how a criminal can
be rehabilitated and his deviant behavior can be controlled, is doing applied research.
Advantages of Applied Research
1) Social benefits to society

2) Economic gains
3) Applied research might also provide basic researchers with knowledge about novel research
techniques and methodologies.
4) Has the potential to solve real problems
5) Can create innovation
6) The research is purposeful, so more likely to secure funding
Disadvantages of Applied Research
1) Needs to be carried out quickly in order to solve problems

2) Assumes that all problems can be solved
3) As if deals with real people, methods may have to be adopted, impacting the robustness of
the study
4) Initial solutions may be very limited and not generalisable and that appropriate solutions for
accomplishing the desired outcome may not be produced at all.
Pure / Basic Research Applied Research

1 Aims to illustrate the theory by enriching Aims to solve a problem by enriching the field
the basis of a discipline of application of a discipline
2 Studies a problem usually from the focus Often several disciplines collaborate for
of one discipline solving the problem
3 Seeks generalisations Often studies individual cases without the
objective to generalize

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4 Works on the hypothesis that variables Recognises that other variables are constantly
not measured remain constant changing
5 Tries to say why things happen Tries to say how things can be changed
1.3.3. On the Basis of Objective
On the basis of fundamental objective research are designed in following ways:
1) Exploratory Research
2) Descriptive Research
3) Casual or Experimental Research
1.3.3.1. Exploratory Research
When the objective of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or acquire new
insights into it in order to formulate a more precise problem or develop hypothesis, the
exploratory studies is very helpful. If the theory happens to be too general or too specific, a
hypothesis cannot be formulated. Therefore a need for an exploratory research is felt to gain
experience that will be helpful in formulating relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation.
Exploratory research is characterized by flexibility and versatility with respect to the

methods because formal research protocol and procedure are not employed. It early involves
structured questionnaires, large sample, and probability sampling plans. Rather researchers are
alert to new ideas and insights as they proceed. Once the new idea or insight is discovered, they
may redirect their exploration in that direction. That new idea is pursued until its possibilities are
exhausted or another direction is found. For this reason, the focus of the investigation may shift
constantly as new insights are discovered. Thus the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher
plays a major role in exploratory research.
For example, a researcher in the field of Psychology is interested in studying the influence of
social environment on mental health. The researcher is restrained from formulating any precise
hypothesis for investigation based on the writings on this topic. In such a case the exploratory
study is usually most suitable.
The following are the three approaches to the exploratory study:
1. Survey of Literature: A review of the literature helps to identify the hypothesis which
may serve as a guide for further investigation

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2. Experience Survey: A small portion of existing knowledge and experience is put into
written form. Everyday experience provides opportunity to obtain information required to
formulate hypothesis
3. Case Study: The focus may be on individuals or situations or groups or communities. The
method of study may lay stress on the examination o the existing records. I may be
unstructured interviewing or participant observation or some other approach.
It is important to bear in mind that exploratory study merely leads to insights for
formulating hypothesis. Its approaches do not consider it important to test or demonstrate them.
Advantages of Exploratory Research
1) The principal advantage of exploratory research is that it increases a researcher’s

understanding of a subject
2) Offers flexibility of sources employed. For example, secondary sources, such as published
literature or data, informal discussions, formal structured interviews, pilot studies or case
studies.
3) Exploratory research can be very advantageous in directing subsequent research approaches.
A greater understanding of a subject helps hone subsequent research questions and can
greatly increase the usefulness of a study’s conclusions.
4) Exploratory research in some cases can save great deal of time and money by flagging dead
ends early.
Disadvantages of Exploratory Research
1) Not usually useful for decision-making by themselves

2) It usually costs a lot
3) It may be unsuccessful (failed experiments etc.)
4) The results may come out negative
5) Exploratory research is not typically generalisable to population at large
6) Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature or data
1.3.3.2. Descriptive Research
Research in which the primary purpose is to “paint a picture” using words or numbers and
to present a profile, a classification of types, or an outline of steps to answer questions such as
who, when, where, and how. It presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social
setting, or relationship. Much of the social research found in scholarly journals or used for
33
making policy decisions is descriptive. Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is
marked by a clear statement of the problem, specific hypotheses, and detailed information needs.
The survey conducted in the department store patronage project, which involved personal
interviews, is an example of descriptive research. Other examples of descriptive research are:
1) Market share studies, which describe the size of the market, buying power of the consumers,
availability of distributors, and consumer profiles
2) Market share studies, which determine the proportion of total sales received by a company
and its competitors
3) Sales analysis studies, which describe sales by geographic region, product line, type and size
of the account.
4) Image studies, which determine consumer perceptions of the firm and its products
5) Product usage studies, which describe consumption patterns
6) Distribution studies, which determine traffic flow patterns and the number and location of
distributors
7) Pricing studies, which describe the range and frequency of price changes and probable
consumer response to proposed price changes
8) Advertising studies, which describe media consumption habits and audience profiles for
specific television programs and magazines
Advantages of Descriptive Research
1) Data collection techniques employed in this research present several advantages as they
provide a multifaceted approach for data collection
2) Descriptive research provides as insight into life experiences in a way that other research
methods can not
3) It is less expensive and time consuming
4) It collects a large amount of data for detailed study
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
1) Descriptive research requires more skills

2) It does not identify the cause behind a phenomenon
3) Response rate is low in this research
4) Confidentiality is the primary weakness of descriptive research. Often subjects are not
truthful as they feel the need to tell the researcher what they think the researcher wants to
her
5) Descriptive research also presents the possibility for error and subjectivity
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6) This research can only be conducted when the research objectives are clear and the
problems are unambiguous
1.3.3.3. Causal Research
Casual research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships. In

casual studies it is typical to have an expectation of the relationship to be explained, such as
predictation about the influence of price, packaging, advertising and the like of sales. Thus,
researcher must be knowledgeable about the research subject.
Managers continually make decisions based on assumed casual relationships. These

assumptions may not be justifiable, and the validity of the casual relationships should be
examined via formal research. For example, the common assumption that a decrease in price will
lead to increased sales as market share does not hold in certain competitive environments. Casual
research is appropriate for the following purposes:
1) To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are
the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon
2) To determine the nature of the relationship between the casual variables and the effect to be
predicted
Like descriptive research, casual research requires a planned and structured design. Although
descriptive research can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not
appropriate for examining casual relationships. Such an examination requires a casual design, in
which the causal or independent variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled environment.
A relatively controlled environment is one in which the other which the other variables that may
affect the dependent variable are controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this
manipulation on one or more dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main
method of causal research is experimentation.
Features of cause-and-effect method of research of Causal / Experimental research are:
1) Although this research is primarily possible in areas of physical sciences, with the help of
hypothesis, may also be carried out in social sciences
2) Makes use of quantification the findings, application of the statistical and mathematical tools
and measurement of the results thus quantified
3) Causal research is used to obtain evidence of ‘cause-and-effect’ ‘(causal) relationships
4) In causal studies it is typical to have an expectation of the relationship to be explained, such
as predictation about the influence of price, packaging, advertising, and the like on sales.
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Advantages of Causal Research
1) Helps marketers see how their actions shall affect business in future
2) Helps control extraneous variables which is usually lesser in other research methods
3) Involves manipulating the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent
variable. This makes it possible to determine a cause and effect relationship
4) Because of strict conditions and control the researcher can set up the experiment again and
repeat or ‘check’ their results. Replication is very important as when similar results are
obtained this gives greater confidence in the results.
Disadvantages of Causal Research
1) Elimination of extraneous variables is not always possible

2) Experimental situation may not relate to the real world
3) It may be unethical or impossible to randomly assign people to groups
4) Possibility for error and subjectivity also exists
5) Although large sample is used for this research, it does not represent the voice / opinions of
all the members of the population
1.3.4. On the Basis of Extent of Theory
Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas
through analyzing existing th3eory and explanation. These new ideas are not tested through
collecting evidence in the form of primary data. Theoretical research is held to be a classical way
of adding something of value to the body of knowledge.
In the business and management studies would theoretical research is not always well-
received. In fact some academic researchers would argue that the process described as theoretical
research should not be regarded as “proper” academic research. The basis of such a claim is that
this type of theoretical research does not have a test component. This fact is used by those who are
not enthusiastic about theoretical research, to imply that they theories can be postulated without
any “proof”. However this type of thinking is a misunderstanding of the nature of research. All
research processes requires conceptualization.
One of the primary roles of theoretical research is to re-work already established ideas in
order to improve insights into the subject matter. Such improvements could well-constitute adding
something of value to the body of knowledge.

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Theoretical research does not rely on data or evidence collection, analysis and synthesis. It
is sometimes often said to be more difficult. Theoretical research relies heavily on creativity and
imagination. Although thee attributes are still required for empirical research they are often
required to a greater extent in theoretical research.
Advantages of Theoretical Research
1) Theoretical research advances the fundamental limits of understanding, which has led to
important advances in the past and will continue to lead to important advances in future
2) This research helps pervade education and thereby invades industry
3) It provides a common body of understanding that practitioners automatically employ in
attacking technical tasks
4) This research is valuable as without the theory there would be nothing to apply
Disadvantages of Theoretical Research
1) This research is often purely theoretical with the goal of increasing human understanding of
certain phenomena or human behavior but does not try to solve or treat these problems
2) This research is based on existing work or literature, therefore, reliability of such sources
affects the conclusions of theoretical research
3) The new ideas developed from this research are not tested through collecting evidence in
form of collected primary data
1.3.4.2. Empirical Research
Empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than theoretical

reasoning. It supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data. Thus a
researcher who develops a theory of ‘spot fan violence’ through visiting a library and developing
their own explanation through reading existing work will be undertaking theoretical research. The
researcher who takes this one step further and collects data to test their explanation will be
undertaking empirical research. For example, computer simulations generate scores from random
number routines. Cases and measures are not involved analytical researchers use mathematical
operations to work from initial assumptions to conclusions. There are no cases, measures, or
scores.
Empirical research involves three activities, which are as follows:

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1) Measurement: It involves activities associated with measuring the factors that form the
expected relationship. In other situations, a researcher may begin with measures already
developed and assess their suitability for a study at hand.
2) Research Design: it establishes procedures to obtain cases for study and to determine how
scores will be obtained from those cases.
3) Analysis: Empirical research also involves analysis of scores. Analyses are performed to
describe scores on single measures and especially, to identify relationships that may exist
between sores across different measures.
Advantages of Empirical Research
Some of the benefits of empirical research which academics may perceive to possess are as
follows:
1) Helps understand and respond to dynamics of situations (context)

2) Respects contextual differences
3) Builds upon what is already known to work
4) Meets accepted professional standards of research
5) Integrates professional knowledge with empirical data to inform instructional development
decisions
6) Establishes relationship between intervention and behavioural response
Disadvantages of Empirical Research
Some of the disadvantages, which academics may, correctly or incorrectly, perceive

empirical research to possess are as follows:
1) Since empirical research requires soliciting participation and “data gathering” from various
off-campus business firms, the time required for atleast these phases of the research studies
are only partly under the control of the researchers. Thus, the researchers may feel that the
less control they have over the time required for each phase of the research, the longer the
expected completion time, the greater the variation in the time required to complete the work,
and thus the greater the “risk” associated with the project’s completion.
2) Field research requiring on-site visits by the researchers may require cash outlays for travel,
lodging and other expenses not required in conceptual research, which can usually be
accomplished in the local academic setting
3) They cannot gain access to the types of firms necessary for their studies

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4) Even if they gain access to business firms, such firms may be reluctant to release any or all
the data necessary for the studies
5) They do not possess the requisite skills necessary to design such empirically based studies, to
gather and analyse the oftentimes voluminous data efficiently, or to interpret the results in a
manner meaningful to and rewarded by both the business and academic words. The time and
effort required to learn or upgrade these necessary skills is indeed an extra burden to
academics.
1.3.5. On the Basis of Time Dimension
On the basis of time dimension Research can be of two types:
1) Cross-sectional Research
2) Time-Series Research
3) Panel Study
4) Cohort Study
1.3.5.1. Cross-Sectional Research
In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time. Cross-sectional

research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. A cross-sectional design provides a
snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. It may reveal how
those variables are represented in a cross-section of a population. Cross-sectional research can be
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to
research.
Advantages of Cross-Sectional Research
1) Data on many variables

2) Data fro a large number of subjects
3) Data from dispersed subjects
4) Data on attitudes and behaviours
5) Answers questions on who, what, when, where
6) Good for exploratory research
7) Generates hypotheses for future research
8) Data useful to many different researchers
Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Research
1) Increased chances of error

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2) Increased cost with more subjects
3) Increased cost with each location
4) Cannot measure change
5) Cannot establish cause and effect
6) No control of independent variable
7) Difficult to rule-out rival hypotheses
8) Static, time bound
1.3.5.2. Time-Series Research
A time design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals (weeks, months,
years, etc.) in the form of aggregate measures of a population. Measurements are taken on each
variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. For example, the Consumer Price Index (CPI), the FBI Uniform Crime Rate,
unemployment rates, poverty rates, etc.
Time series designs are useful for:
1) Establishing a baseline measure

2) Describing changes over time
3) Keeping track of trends and
4) Forecasting future (short term) trends
Time series data are nearly always presented in the form of a chart or graph. The horizontal (or x)
axis is divided into time intervals, and the vertical (y) axis shows the values of the dependent
variable as they fluctuate over time.
Researchers inspect a time series graph to look for four types of patterns:
1) Long-term trends (increases or decreases over the whole time span)

2) Cyclical variations (short-term, valley-to-valley or peak-to-peak cycles)
3) Seasonal variations (due holidays or weather) and
4) Irregular fluctuations
Advantages of Time-series Research
1) Data easy to collect

2) Easy to present in graphs
3) Easy to interpret
4) Can forecast short-term trends
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Disadvantages of Time-series Research
1) Data collection method may change over time

2) Difficult to show more than one variable at a time
3) Needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations
4) Assumes present trends will continue unchanged
1.3.5.3. Panel Study
It is a powerful type of longitudinal research. It is more difficult to conduct than time-

series research. In a panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or
organization across time periods. Participants, who are examined over repeated time points may
be affected by having previously completed the measure being used. (This is know as
sensitization). Therefore it is sometimes necessary to include a control group matched on age and
gender with which to compare the panel group at each tie interval. Panel research is formidable to
conduct and very costly. Tracking people over time is often difficult because some people die or
cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel study are very valuable. Even
short-term panel studies can clearly show the impact of a particular life event.
Advantages of Panel Study
1) The group to be involved is usually smaller than in case of typical individual interview study.
This help in saving time and cost involved in covering a large number of persons.
2) It provides an exceptional opportunity for study of the causes and the effects of change. The
researcher can determine changes both in the aggregate and in individual opinions.
3) With the panel technique it is possible to identify those who themselves hanged or
experienced the change in their community
4) Repeated study can also be done upon different samples selected at different times from the
same population and the difference in the people in the attitude opinion etc. can be noted.
Disadvantages of Panel Study
1) Repeated visits to the same respondents can be source o change itself. The respondent
becomes sensitive to the interview’s interest and prepares himself to return of researcher
2) Real changes in the panel cannot be distinguished from sample bias. Difference in answers
from one interview to other might have been because of respondents’ misunderstanding of
questions or because of change in his mood and not because of relevant variables.

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3) Respondent’s morality is one of the disadvantages associated with panel study. This means
that the same respondents might not be available for repeated studies. Respondents may be
unavailable for future interviews.
4) The panel members may become sensitive to the repeated interviewing. This usually
happens if the study is a long-term one, i.e. extending over several months.
1.3.5.4. Cohort Study
It is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact same people, a category
of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time period is studied. Cohort analysis
is “explicitly macroanalytic” which means researchers examine the category as a whole for
important features. In cohort study, the individuals examined over time may not be the same but
they should be representative of a particular group (or cohort) of individuals who have shared a
common experience. When cohort analysis design is used, a table is constructed to display the
results with column for the time interval of data collection (the cohort interval), for example age
group such as 15-20 years, 21-25 years etc.
Advantages of Cohort Study
1) Allows compete information on the subject’s exposure, including quality control of data,
and experience thereafter
2) Gives an opportunity to study multiple outcomes related to a specific exposure
3) This study is intuitive and methodology and results are easily understood by non-
specialists
4) Can establish timing and directionality of events
5) Less costly than experimental studies in general
6) In prospective cohort study researcher has good control over what information is to be
collected and at what intervals.
Disadvantages of Cohort Study
1) Though less expensive than experimental studies, still requires higher costs
2) It is resource intensive and difficult because it requires monitoring of large number of
subjects over a period of time.
3) Selection of random sample for a cohort study is pretty tricky
4) People may refuse to participate and loss of their individual characteristics or personalities
can affect the results of the study.

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1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS
1.4.1. Introduction
A research problem in general refers to some difficulty which researcher experiences in

the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants a solution for the same.
Research problem is a problem that someone would like to research, anything that a person find
unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that need to be changed. A
research problem involves areas of concern to researchers, for condition they want to improve,
difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they want to seek answers.
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive,
confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving
the Who or what, the where, the when and the why of the problem situation. There are many
problem situations that may give rie to research.
There sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the

experience of others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific
literature. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating and exiting theory, at clarifying
contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or
unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing
practical problems.
1.4.2. Components of Research Problem
For a research problem to exist, there are a number of core elements that have to be inherent.
There must be:
1) Individual or Community: An individual or community or an organization / institution to

which the problem could be attributed. These occupy a certain geographical area. For
instance, teacher/parental factors affecting student’s performance in private secondary schools
in Embu Municipality. In this study, there are individuals (parents, teachers, students), there
are institutions (private secondary schools) and there is the area of study (Embu Municipality)
2) Objectives for pursuing the Problem: There must be some objectives pursuing the problem.
Otherwise it would be repugnant to reason and common understanding to undertake the
research. For example: To find out teacher / parental factors affecting the students academic
performance in private secondary schools in Embu Municipality.

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3) Lines of Action: There must be at least two lines of action to be taken to attain the objective.
For example, poor academic performance may be attributed to negative teacher factors and
parental factors. Thus altering negative teacher factors and parental factors become the lines
of action to be pursued. Here, the underlying question is “what is the cause of this problem –
poor academic performance?” It is in answering this question that one must pursue some lines
of action through stating some variables (teacher factors and parental factors).
1.4.3. Precautions in Identifying Research Problem
The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem
1) The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning
2) The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive
3) The assumptions are to be recognized for the study
4) The problem should have practical importance in the field of education
5) The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale
1.4.4. Selecting the Problem
Once the researcher has identified two or more problems or opportunities, the next
question for him is to select a problem based on priority, limited finance and time constraints. He
should choose the problem which is likely to add value to the research. Choosing a relatively less
important problem would amount to wasting time and resources. A research problem rightly and
rationally selected helps the researcher to complete the project within the prescribed time limit
and the budgeted amount. The right selection of a research problem will boost the morale of the
researcher. In the selection of a problem a researcher should take the following precautions:
1) Researcher’s Interest: The researcher should possess probing attitude, tenacity of spirit
and dedication to thoroughness. AS researcher will be able to imbibe these three virtues, if
he has personal interest in the results of study. If the researcher has little interest, the
project will become a sheer drudgery.
2) Topic of Significance: if a student selects a problem which could be applied in practice,
he may be able to attract the attention of the people in the practical field of study. The
results of the study will also be used by the people in the business. If the student selects a
significant theoretical problem, he can keep in touch with leading scholars in the field. The
constant touch of the researcher with scholars will stimulate his thinking and enthusiasm.

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3) Novelty of the Idea: A novel problem may offer scope for new ways of looking at the
problem. A novel problem conceived by the researcher is a sign ensuring his promising
research career.
4) Researcher’s Resources: The resources of the researcher are his intelligence, training and
experience and other facilities such as funs, clerical and technical assistance, library
facilities and availability of time. Time is the foremost factor in choosing a problem. A
research can be conducted within three months and the same research can be pursued for
three years also. Therefore, the topic must be selected in such a way as to enable the
researcher to finish the study within the prescribed period.
5) Availability of Data: The researcher has to examine whether the data for the project are
available in plenty. If the study is based on secondary data. The researcher has to fine out
whether the data is within his reach. If the research is based on primary data, the
researcher has to see whether the respondents will answer the questions. It will be difficult
to obtain sensitive data such as sales, profit and union-management relations.
6) Benefits of the Research: The results of a research study may give intellectual
satisfaction to the researcher. He gets recognition for his work from his colleagues and
outside scholars. The researcher can also publish his thesis. The institutions sponsoring
research studies derive benefit from the study. The research study is a service done to the
profession institution and society. All these provide a strong motivation to select a
problem and pursue research.
7) Feasibility of the Study: The factors such as availability of equipments, subjects, library
facilities and time should be noted before selecting a problem.
A researcher need not be in a hurry in choosing a problem. Spending considerable time in

selecting a topic could not be a waste at all. It could save enormous time in the later stages.
A young researcher is often tempted to think that his study must result in some
extraordinary findings. Too high ambition in this sphere is dangerous, since it may lead to the
selection of an unmanageable problem. Today a thesis is judged not a terms of its revolutionary
findings and original discoveries, but in terms of the candidate’s methods of work and analytical
abilities.
Social scientists with different values choose different topics for investigation. They
should guard against bias which might enter into their research. Personal whims of the researchers
inevitable influence the choice of the topic. The only means by which the rationality of scientific
procedure can be maintained is the awareness as to where and how the bias creeps in.

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1.4.5. Defining Research Problem
It is important to define the problem in a precise manner. A well-defined problem is 50%

solution. A well-defined problem gives the researcher a proper direction for carrying-out
investigation. It also helps in utilizing the resources provided for the research effectively. A
researcher can focus his efforts on collecting relevant information, if the problem is defined
properly. Some research problems such as conducting a survey on the newspaper reading habits of
a given set of the population can be clearly defined. But if a company wants to define a research
problem such as declining sales, it needs to explore the research problem further through
exploratory research. Research problem definition involves stating the general problem and
identifying the specific components of the marketing research problem. Only when the marketing
research problem has been clearly defined can research be designed and conducted properly. Off
all the tasks in a marketing research project, none is more vital to the ultimate fulfillment of a
client’s needs than a proper definition of the research problem. All the effort, time, and money
spent from this point on will be wasted if the problem is misunderstood or ill defined. This point
is worth remembering, because inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of
marketing research projects. Further, better communication and more involvement in problem
definition are the most frequently mentioned way to improving the usefulness of research. These
results lead to the conclusion that the importance of clearly identifying and defining the research
problem cannot be overstated.
1.4.5.1. Nature of Problem Definition
Nature of problem definition has been discussed below:
Nature of Problem Definition
Unsatisfactory State of Affairs Result of a Reasoning Process
Consists of a Research Objective and

Research Question
Involves Stating the General problem
and Components of Research
Contains Dual Functions
Indicates the Type of Phenomenon

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1) Unsatisfactory State of Affairs: Research problem is a problem that someone would like to
research, anything that a person find unsatisfactory or unsettling, a state of affairs that need to
be changed. A research problem involves areas of concerns of researchers, for condition they
want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they want to seek
answers.
2) Results of a Reasoning Process: The problem definition is the result of a reasoning process
conducted by the researcher in order to translate the phenomena to be examined into a
(scientific) researchable (and relevant) research problem. Therefore, a problem definition is
the researcher’s product, as he creates a certain formulation in order to define the problem
from his perspective (based on this present knowledge and experience). It is important not to
forget that a problem definition often contains quite some symbolism and tends to be rather
abstract.
3) Consists of a Research Objective and Research Question: A problem definition consists of
both a research objective and a logically derived research question; these precisely establish
what needs to be examined and why and under which (pre) conditions it should take place.
This question is often based on complex reasoning about phenomena in the organisation
guided by theoretical notions. These derive content and create meaning given its relevant
context.
4) Involves Stating the General Problem and Components of Research: Problem definition
involves stating the general problem and identifying the specific components of the marketing
research problem. Only when the marketing research problem has been clearly defined, can
research be designed and conducted properly. Of all tasks in a marketing research project,
none is more vital to the ultimate fulfillment of a client’s needs than a proper definition of the
research problem. All the efforts, time and money spent from this point on will be wasted if
the problem is misunderstood or ill defined. This point is work remembering, because
inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of marketing research projects.
5) Contains Dual Functions: A problem definition has a dual function. On the one hand, it is an
important way to achieve synchronization between the client, the university (tutor or
supervisor of the research project) and the researcher (student). A problem definition is also a
‘vehicle’ creating a possibility to communicative about what is perceived as the problem. It
helps to shape and focus the research.
6) Indicates the Type of Phenomenon: The research problem indicates the type of phenomenon
(individual, group, organization, social interaction or social object) and the aspects,

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characteristic or dimensions of the phenomenon that have to be researched. Research
questions are refined statements of the components of the research problem.
1.4.5.2. Process of Problem Definition
Defining a problem involves the tasks of laying down boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is crucial part of a research study and
must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this is frequently overlooked
which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a
systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose
involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other.
1) Statement of the Problem in a General Way: The research problem must address either a
specific practical operational issue or some scientific discovery. It can also be pertaining to
satisfaction or broadening of a particular intellectual curiosity. Whatever the area of research,
the problem definition should generally be at a logical level.
2) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The researcher must understand the origin and nature
of the problem in clear terms through discussions and study of the environment within which
problem is to be solved. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those
who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view.
3) Surveying the Available Literature: It is important to review and survey all the possible
literature that is available on the research area prior to defining the research problem. It
assists researcher to look into newer dimensions in that particular area and leads to
enhancement of knowledge. All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
4) Developing the Ideas through Discussions: Persons who have knowledge or have rich
experience in the area of research have proved to be good sounding board for a researcher.
Their advice and comment on research proposal help a researcher to have better clarity and
focus on his research topic. Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information. Various new ideas can be developed through such as exercise.
Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and other who have enough
experience in the same area or are working on similar problems.

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5) Rephrasing the Research Problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (with which the problem has got to be studied) has been
defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been
surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a
difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researchers puts the research problem is as specific
terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses.
6) Redefining the Research Problem: Many a times, problem redefinition happens once the
steps listed above are undertaken. Researcher of ten redefines the problem in a manner which
is more viable and logical for the conduct of the research. This effort also helps in defining
hypothesis more sharply.
1.4.5.3. Necessity of Defined Problem
It is experienced that sometimes a vaguely defined problem introduces many difficulties in

proper decision-making as well as to conduct true and relevant research. A proper definition not
only arrives at an operational statement but it also uncovers the basic problem that underlines the
symptoms which are to be solved. The following are the main advantages problem definition:
1) The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study

2) The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of study
3) The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher
4) The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken-up into the
investigation through a problem involved into so many variable
5) The definition makes the research make the research work practicable
6) It orients, ie., bring into clear understanding of the relations and determines the position of
decision-maker and the researcher within the framework of classified marketing
7) It tries to relate the problem with other marketing problems by finding hidden difficulties and
new opportunities
8) Suggests the source data and facilitates their interpretation
9) Determine the action needing priority and the one which needs more detailed investigation
10) Enables the decision model to be well conceived
11) Identifies the data relevant to the problem
12) Pinpoints the gaps in the knowledge that may call for formal research

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1.5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.5.1. Introduction
The research objectives define the type and extent of information needed to achieve the
research objectives. The data needs are further clarified by the type of research design chosen as
well as by the nature of research e.g whether the problem at hand is that of exploratory or
preliminary research or causal and conclusive research and so on. Research objectives set the
purpose and focus of your research with the fundamental questions that will be addressed.
A research objective can be specified broadly, or narrowly. One common pitfall in field of
marketing research is to specify too many objectives for a single marketing research project. The
thinking seems to be, “we are doing a study anyway, so let us find out everything we can.
“Sometimes this strategy backfires, and the data collection task turns unwieldy, it products a mass
of data that is not really needed at that point of time. In general, it is a good idea to be focused in
doing marketing research and haw a few, clearly stated objectives. About four or five objectives
in most cases are adequate to do a useful marketing research study.
1.5.2. Framing Research Objectives
While framing research objectives, researches must keep in mind following important
qualities:
1) Precise: To be precise means that the terminology is understandable to the marketing manager
and that it accurately captures the essence of each item to be researched.
2) Detailed: Detail is provided by elaborating, perhaps with examples, each item
3) Clear: The objective is clear if there is no doubt as to what will be researched and how the
information will be presented to the manager
4) Operational: Finally, the research objective must be operational. But this we mean that the
research objective should define how the construct being evaluated is actually measured.
These definitions are referred to as operational definition.
1.5.3. Types of Research Objectives
The type of information sought from market research will determine how much time and effort a
business should invest in it.
The objectives of market research may include:
1) Market Attractiveness Evaluation:

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i) Market sizing – estimating the size of a total market, how much is accessible by the
business, and / or what market share ambitions would be realistic.
ii) Competitive presence and customer preference
iii) Customer spending patterns, budget cycles and intent
iv) Channel trends, preferences and allegiances
2) Customer Insight: Specific customer needs, aspirations, buying behaviours, usage patterns,
decision models preferences, favourability, intentions, etc.
3) Competitive Forces: Current and potential basis of competition in a market
4) Communications Planning: What information sources do prospective customers pay
attention to, how to reach them, opportunities / vehicles for influencing target customers and
which are most effective.
5) Product Testing: Evaluation of product improvement, alternatives, packaging etc.
6) Concept Testing: Evaluation of potential products and solutions, clarification of needs, wants
and preferences
7) Advert Testing: Evaluation of alternative brand promises, impact / cut through ability,
persuasiveness, strength of call to action, out-take versus intent, etc.
8) Customer Satisfaction: Measurement of quality of customer experience, perceptions,
reaction, loyalty, intent, etc.
9) Pricing: Testing of price / feature / quality / packaging / positioning combinations, price
points, promotions, loyalty schemes, terms and conditions, etc.
10) List Building: Compilation of information about prospective customers for direct marketing
purposes (Sometimes may not be compatible with ethical guidelines followed by many market
research practitioners)
1.6. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
1.6.1. Meaning and Definition of Hypotheses
The term hypothesis derives from the Greek, “hyposthenia” meaning “to put under” or “to
suppose”. Hypotheses are a tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon or
scientific problem that can be tested by further observation, investigation and / or
experimentation. It refers the process of selecting and using a sample statistics to draw an
inference about a population parameter based on a subset of it – the sample draw from the
population.

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A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter. This assumption
may or may not be true. A hypothesis is a statement about the population parameter. Hypotheses
Testing / Significance Testing is a procedure that helps us to decide whether the hypothesized
population parameter value is to be accepted or rejected by making use of the information
obtained from the sample.
According to Prof. Morris Hamburg, “A hypotheses in statistics is simply a quantitative

Statement about a population”.
According to Palmer O Johnson, “A hypotheses is islands in the uncharted sears of through to

be used as bases for consolidation and recuperation as we advance into the unknown”.
The research process begins and ends with the hypothesis. It is core to the entire procedure
and therefore, is of the utmost importance. Hypotheses can be formulated in several ways yet it
always performs the basic function of predicting the final outcome of the investigation. The
hypotheses usually occur after inductive reasoning in which the researcher performs a series of
observations in order to form a theory. This hypothesis is then part of the first stage of the
research process.
Working hypotheses is more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. A
basic fact about testing hypotheses is that a hypothesis may be rejected but that the hypotheses
never can be unconditionally accepted until all possible evidence is evaluated. In the case of
sampled data, the information set cannot be complete. So, if a test using such at does not reject a
hypothesis, the conclusion is not necessarily that the hypotheses should be accepted.
1 It is a broad statement drawn on a theory It is a more specific statement drawn on

theory
2 It states the relationship between two It operationalises the relationship and put it
concepts into empirical testable form
3 Proposition deals with pure concepts for Hypothesis must be testable and measurable
which no laboratory has in currently
available
1.6.2. Characteristics of Hypothesis
1. Clear and Precise: Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable

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2. Capable: Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of un-testable
hypothesis, many a time the research programmers have bogged down. Some prior study may
be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one
A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn can be
confirmed or disproved by observation”.
3. State Relationship between Variables: Hypothesis state relationship between variables, if it

happens to be a relational hypothesis.
4. Limited in Scope: Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher
must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and researcher should
develop such hypotheses
5. Simple: Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same
is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
6. Consistent: Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent
with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges
accept as being the most likely
7. Amenable: Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should
not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one
cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
8. Ability to Explain: Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted
generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus
hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain, it should have empirical reference.
1.6.3. Sources of Hypothesis
Hypotheses may be developed from various sources. Some of the important sources are the
following:

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Sources of Hypothesis
Intuition Other Studies
Theory
Background Knowledge
Experience
Analogies
Scientific Theories
1) Intuition: A hypotheses arises from intuition. These hypotheses have no clear connection
with the large body of social science. The intuition is associated with an individual, who is
influenced by environment
2) Other Studies: A hypotheses also arises form other studies. The findings of a study may be
formulated as hypotheses. The hypotheses followed in one study previously can be used in
the present study.
3) Theory: Theory is a fertile seed-bed of hypotheses. For example, individuals who are rising
in status are likely to be favourably inclined towards individual and objects that are helping
their upliftment in life. The researcher may identify the variables which influence the status
of the said individuals.
4) Background Knowledge: The researcher must go through and collect all information related
to his problem research by consulting already established facts, theories, and other forms of
related literature. This kind background knowledge helps the researcher in understanding the
important aspects of the problem, as may have taken-up by previous researchers with clues
for solution.
5) Experience: A researcher may get enough insight to the problem by his own experiences
also. He may have a general understanding of an existing problem, its probable causes and
also the solutions. Such experiences may help him to make a considerable review or analysis
of the problem.
6) Analogies: A researcher may also analyze two similar situations or events or reasons for a
particular problem. In this case a researcher himself makes an argument about the two
situations and come to a decision.

54
7) Scientific Theories: Various scientific theories developed in the field of psychology,
sociology, education or any other subject may also provide the researcher the clarification
regarding the direction towards him research.
1.6.4. Important of Hypothesis
1) Finding Answer: Hypothesis supports the research to find and answer to a problem. It is
expressed in declarative form. The most important thing is it will provide a gi4eline to the
problem.
2) Identify Aim of Researcher: A hypothesis states what researchers are looking for. When
facts are assembled, ordered, and seen in a relationship they constitute a theory. The theory
is not speculation but is built upon fact. Now the various fact in a theory ay be logically
analyzed and relationships other than those stated in the theory can be deduced. At this point
there is no knowledge as to whether such deductions are correct. The formulation of the
deduction however constitutes a hypothesis; if verified it becomes part of a future theoretical
construction
3) Testing the Validity of Proposition: A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which
can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may seem contrary to or in accord with
common sense. It may prove to be correct or incorrect. It any event however, it lead to an
empirical test.
4) Defining Relationships: Hypothesis is to state a specific relationship between phenomena
in such a way that this relationship can be empirically tested. The basic method of this
demonstration is to design the research so that logic will require the acceptance or rejection
of the hypothesis on the basis of resulting data.
5) Other Needs:
i) It provides a direction to the research and prevents waste of time and effort of the
researcher
ii) It sets a limit to the researcher’s point of view
iii) It helps the researcher to look into a particular aspect of the problem thereby offering
certain issues and facts
iv) It provides the methods to be used in solving the problem
v) It acts as a framework or analysis and interpretation of the data to draw conclusions
vi) It suggests the areas of importance which need more attention or more collection of
facts by the researcher
vii) A hypothesis ensures the entire research process remain scientific and reliable and
following the principles of deduction

55
Thus, a hypothesis is a very important tool in a research study; hence all researches need to have a
hypothesis irrespective of the king or nature of the study. However it should not be thought that a
research cannot be conducted at all without creation of hypothesis. There are many descriptive as
well as historical researches that have been conducted without hypothesis. But certainly a research
can be more productive and accurate in terms of results if a researcher forms hypothesis before
proceeding with his research work.
1.6.5. Types of Hypothesis
1) Research Hypotheses: Substantive hypothesis, sometimes called research hypotheses are

tentative statements about the expected outcomes for the variables of the research study. An
example of a substantive or research hypotheses is, “As corrective, disciplinary methods are
increased in an elementary school, student achievement will decrease”. In research in science
education, hypotheses might be – “Laboratory instruction enhances the student’s
understanding of scientific processes over an instructional approach limited to lecture,
discussion, and theoretical problem solution”.
Notice that the research hypotheses are a directional hypothesis, i.e., it indicates the expected
direction of the results. The direction is implied by theory or previous research. The
hypotheses would not indicate the expected direction of the results in exploratory studies
where there is no strong rationale for an expected direction. When it is time to test whether the
data support or refute the research hypothesis, it needs to be translated into a statistical
hypothesis.
2) Statistical Hypothesis: It is given in statistical terms. Technically, in the context of inferential

statistics, it is a statement about one or more parameter that are measures of the populations
under study. Statistical hypotheses often are given in quantitative terms, e.g., “The mean
reading achievement of the population of third grade students taught by Method A equals the
mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B”
The two hypotheses in a statistical test are normally referred to as:
i) Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis which is stated for the purpose of possible
acceptance is called null hypothesis. It is usually denoted by the symbol for H0- example,
the null hypotheses may be expressed symbolically as:
H0 : 𝜇 =162cms
According to Prof. R.A. Fisher: “Null hypotheses are the hypothesis-which is tested for
possible rejection under the assumption that it is true”.
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The following may be borne in mind in setting the null hypothesis:
a) It we want to test the significance of the difference between a statistic and the parameter or
between two sample statistics then we set up a null hypothesis that’s difference is not
significant. This means that the difference is just due to fluctuations of sampling:
H0 : 𝜇 =X
b) If we want to test any statement about the population we set up the null hypotheses that it
is true. For example, if we want to find out that the population man has specified value 𝜇 0,
then we setup the null hypotheses that the average height of the soldiers is 162cms., i.e.,
H0 : 𝜇= 𝜇 0,
ii) Alternative Hypothesis: Any hypotheses which is complementary to the null hypotheses
is called an alternative hypotheses and is usually denoted by H1 or H2 for example, if we
want to test the null hypotheses that the average height of the soldiers is 162cms i.e,
H1 : 𝜇=162cms= 𝜇 0 (say)
Then the alternative hypotheses could be:
a) H1 : 𝜇 ≠ 𝜇0 (i.e., 𝜇 > 𝜇 0 or 𝜇 < 𝜇 0)

b) H1 : 𝜇 > 𝜇 0
c) H1 : 𝜇 < 𝜇 0
3) Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis: Directional hypothesis indicates the type of
direction of relationship between variables. It uses the words such as increase or decrease,
more than or less than, positive or negative. For example, high income consumers spend more
on consumer durables. Non-directional hypothesis postulate the relationship but does not offer
indication of direction. For example, there is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.
1.7. THEORY AND RESEARCH
1.7.1. Meaning of Theory
A theory is set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that

are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts). In this sense, we have many theories and
use them continually to explain or predict what goes on around us. To the degree that our theories
are sound and fit the situation, we are successful in our explanations and predictions.

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The challenge for the researcher is to build more comprehensive theories to explain and
predict how modifying the product and other variables will benefit the firm.
Theories are simply generalizations that help us better understand reality. If a theory does
not hold true in practice, then that theory holds no value. A theory is a formal, testable
explanation of some events that includes explanations of how things relate to one another.
1.7.2. Role of Theory in Research
A theory can develop scientific knowledge in research by thee criteria:
Role of Theory in Research
Prediction of Behaviour
Understanding Relationship
Other Roles
1) Prediction of Behaviour: A theory enables to predict the behavior or characteristics of one

phenomenon from the knowledge of another phenomenon. Accomplishing the first goal
allows the theorist to predict the behavior or characteristics of one phenomenon from the
knowledge of another phenomenon’s characteristics. A business researcher may theories that
older investors tend to be more interested in investment income than younger investors. This
theory, once verified, should allow researchers to predict the importance of expected dividend
yield on the basis of investors; ages. The ability to anticipate future conditions in the
environment or in an organization may be extremely valuable, yet prediction alone may not
satisfy the scientific researcher’s goals. Successfully forecasting an election outcome does not
satisfy one’s curiosity about the reason ‘why’ a candidate won the election. A researcher also
wants to gain understanding. In most situations, of course, prediction and understanding go
hand in hand. To predict phenomena one must have an explanation of why variables behave as
they do. Theories provide these explanations.
2) Understanding Relationships: To gain an understanding of the relationship among various
phenomena. A theory is a coherent set of general proposition, used as principle of explanation
of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena. A key element in our definition

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is the term proposition. Before one can see what a proposition is however, he must discuss the
nature of theoretical concepts.
3) Other Roles
i. Suggests a problem for study
ii. Gives a hypothesis to be tested
iii. Provides simple explanation about the observed relations regarding their relation to a
phenomenon
iv. Helps in being consistent with already founded body of knowledge and the observed
relations
v. Provide a device for verification and revision, and fourth, stimulate further research in
areas needing investigation
vi. A theory specified the concepts appropriate to the research problem, the definitions of
these concepts, their measurement if applicable and the ways in which these concepts
are related to one another.
vii. Provides a conceptual model for delimiting the scope of the study
viii. Helps in the selection of variable or identification of classes of data to be collected
ix. Makes research findings intelligible
1.7.3. Components of Theory
Theory development is essentially a process of describing phenomena at increasingly

higher levels of abstraction. In other words, as business researchers, we need to be able to think of
things in a very abstract manner, but eventually link these abstract concepts to observable reality.
To understand theory and the business research process, it will be useful to know various
components and how they are related. Theory has following five components:
Components of Theory
Concepts
Constructs
Definition
Variables
Proposition and Hypothesis
1) Concepts: To understand and communicate information about objects and events, there must
be a common ground on which to do it. Concepts serve this purpose. A concept is a generally

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accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects,
conditions, situations and behaviours. Classifying and categorizing objects or events that have
common characteristics beyond any single observation creates concepts.
We see a man passing and identify that he is running, walking, skipping, crawling or hopping.
These movements all represent concepts. We also have abstracted certain visual elements by
which we identify that the moving object is an adult male, rather than an adult female or a
truck or a horse. We use numerous concepts daily in our thinking, conversing, and other
activities.
2) Constructs: A construct is a theoretical dimension that has been or potentially could be

operationalized by one or more variables. The terms ‘concept’ and ‘construct’ are often used
in place of one another, but some authors make certain distinctions between the two concept is
usually regarded as the more general of the terms. In that case all constructs are concepts, but
all concepts are not constructs. ‘Pain’, e.g., is a construct that is also a concept. But ‘ideal
mother’ would be regarded by many researchers as a concept buy not a construct.
3) Definitions: Confusion about the meaning of concepts can destroy a research study’s value
without the researcher or client even knowing it. If words have different meanings to the
parties involved, then the parties are not communicating well. Definitions are one way to
reduce this danger. Researchers struggle with two types of definition: dictionary definitions
and operational definitions. In the more familiar dictionary definition, a concept is defined
with a synonym. For example, a customer is defined as a patron; a patron in turn, is defined as
a customer or client of an establishment; a client is defined as one who employs the services
of any professional and, loosely, as a patron of any shop. Circular definitions may be adequate
for general communication but not for research. In research, we measure concepts and
constructs, and this requires more rigorous definitions.
4) Variables: In practice, the term variable is used a synonym for construct or the property being
studied. In this context, a variable is a symbol of an event, act characteristic, trait, or attribute
that can be measured, and to which we assign categorical values. For purposes of data entry
and analysis, we assign numerical value to variable based on the variable’s properties.
Variables also take on values representing added categories, such as the demographic
variables of race or religion. All such variables that produce data that fit into categories, such
as the demographic variables of race or religion. All such variables that produce data that fit
into categories are said to be discrete, since only certain values are possible.
5) Proposition and Hypothesis: A proposition is a statement about observable phenomena
(concepts) that may be judged as true or false. When a proposition is formulated for empirical

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testing, people call it a hypothesis. As a declarative statement about the relationship between
two or more variables, a hypothesis is of a tentative and conjectural nature. A hypothesis is
formal statement explaining same outcome. In its simplest form, a hypothesis is a guess. A
sales manager may hypothesize that the salespeople who are highest in product knowledge
will be the most productive. An advertising mange may hypothesize that if consumer’s
attitudes toward a product change in a positive direction, there will be n increase in
consumption of the product. A human resource manager may hypothesize that job candidates
with certain majors will be more successful employees.
1.7.4. Theory Generation
A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of similar studies
or knowledge of applicable theoretical areas. A theory may be developed with deductive
reasoning by going from a general statement to a specific assertion. Deductive reasoning is the
logical process of deriving a conclusion about a specific instance based on a known general
premise or something known to be true. Inductive reasoning is the logical process of establishing
a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.
1) Deductive Theory: Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by

logical genealisation of a known fact. For example, we know that all high performers are
highly proficient in their jobs. If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly
proficient in his job.
Deduction is a form of argument that purports to be conclusive – the conclusion must
necessarily follow from the reasons given. These reasons are said to imply the conclusion and
represent a proof. This is a much stronger and different bond between reasons and
conclusions that is found with induction. For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true
and valid:
i) Premises (reasons) give for the conclusion must agree with the real world (true)
ii) The conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises (valid)
A deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false, if the premises are true.
Logicians have established rules by which one can judge whether a deduction is valid.
Conclusions are not logically justified if one or more premises are untrue or the argument
form is invalid. A conclusion may still be a true statement, but for reasons other than those
given.

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As researchers, we may not recognize how much we use deduction to understand the
implication of various act and conditions. For example, in planning a survey, we might
reason as follows:
Inner-city household interviewing is especially (Premise 1)

difficult and expensive
This survey involves substantial inner-city (Premise 2)

household interviewing
The interviewing in this survey will be especially (Conclusion)
difficult and expensive
On reflection, it should be apparent that a conclusion that results from deduction is, in a
sense, already “contained in” its premises.
2) Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena, and on this basis arrive at
conclusions. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based
on observed facts. For example, we see that the production processes are the prime features
of factories or manufacturing plants.
Inductive argument is radically different. There is no such strength of relationship between
reasons and conclusions in induction. In induction researcher draws a conclusion from one or
more particular facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts
support the conclusion.
To illustrate, suppose the firm spends $1 million on a regional promotional campaign, and
sales do not increase. This is fact- sales did not increase during or after the promotional
campaign. Under such circumstances, we ask, “Why did not sales increase?”
One likely answer to this question is a conclusion that the promotional campaign was poorly
executed. This conclusion is an induction because we know from experience that regional
sales should go-up during a promotional event. Also we know from experience that if the
promotion is poorly executed, sale will not increase. The nature of induction, however, is that
the conclusion is only a hypothesis. It is one explanation, but here are others that fit the facts
just as well.
For example, each of the following hypotheses might explain why sales did not increase:
i) Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests during the
promotional period.

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ii) A strike by the employees of our trucking firm prevented stock from arriving in time for
the promotion to be effective.
iii) A category-five hurricane closed all our retail locations in the region for th ten days
during the promotion
In this example, we see the essential nature of inductive reasoning. The inductive conclusion
is an inferential jump beyond the evidence presented – i.e. although one conclusion explains
the fact of no sales increase, other conclusions also can explain the fact. It may even be that
none of the conclusions we advanced correctly explain the failure of sales to increase.
Combining Inductive and Deductive Theory
Induction and deduction are used together in research reasoning. Dewey describes this
process as the “double movement of reflective thought”. Induction occurs when we observe a
fact and ask, “Why is this?” In answer to this question, we advance a tentative explanation
(hypothesis). The hypotheses is plausible if it explains the event or condition (fact) that
prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypotheses is
capable of explaining the fact.
Table : Comparison between deductive and Inductive Theory
Deductive Theory Inductive Theory

1 Works from the more general to more Works from specific observations to
specific broader generalizations and theories
2 Top-down approach Bottom-up approach
3 Conclusions based on premise, logically Conclusion is likely based on premises
(slightly uncertain)
4 Arguments bases on laws, rules and Observations – based arguments
accepted principles
5 Tests hypotheses Generates hypotheses
1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW IN RESERCH
1.8.1. Introduction
A literature review is a critical and in-depth evaluation of previous research. It is a

summary and synopsis of a particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the paper to
establish why he / she is pursuing this particular research programme. A good literature review

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expands upon the reasons behind selecting a particular research question. Literature review is the
written and systematic summary of the research which is conducted on a particular topic. It is the
outline of the research. It also shows the gap between the researcher’s curiosity and knowledge of
the subject area.
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited

scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader
what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic and what their strengths and
weaknesses are, As a piece of writing , the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept.
It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and

sometimes within a certain time period. It can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it
usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a
reap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organisation, or a
reshuffling, or that information. It might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including
major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and
advice the reader on the most pertinent or relevant source to pursue.
1.8.2. Purpose of Literature Review
The different purposes of literature survey in research are:
1) To Provide Credibility: Literature review is the part of the research where the researcher will
be given the opportunity to strengthen their research for they will be citing what other reliable
authors have said about their topic. This will prove that they are not just writing about any
random subject but that many others have also poured their thoughts on the topic. By the mere
fact that researcher is using “referencing” by citing what more credible people had said about
the topic will build a stronger foundation for their research.
2) To Provide Understanding about the Topic: Without literature survey one cannot acquire
understanding about the topic, of what has already been done, how it has been researched and
what the key issues are
3) To Justify: Literature review justifies the research
4) To Help Avoid Repition: It ensures the research has not been done before (or that it is not
just a “replication study”) or there are gaps in previous research.
5) To Provide Context of Research: It shows where the research fits into the existing body of
knowledge

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6) To Provide Opportunity for Constructive Criticism of Previous Research: It enables the
researcher to learn fro previous theory on the subject; it illustrates how the subject has been
studied previously. It highlights flaws in previous research and outlines gapes in previous
research.
7) To show that Research is adding to Existing Boy of Knowledge: It shows that the work is
adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field.
1.8.3. Process of Literature Review
There are five stages of the literature review:
1) Find Models: The foremost step in writing literature review is to look for other literature
reviews in that discipline and read them to get an idea of the types of themes one may want to
include in the research or ways in which one could organize the final review. One can do a
database search to find models – put the words “literature review” along with the keywords to
retrieve references to articles of this type.
2) Problem Formulation : One should try to contract a working statement that will form the
basis of the literature review. The statement does not have to argue for a position or an
opinion. It will rather argue for a particular slant on the material.
3) Literature Search: The literature search will help the researcher to identify scope and key
issues. Efficient searching will help him.
i) Identify which authors are interested in his specialism and those who take a
generalist’s view
ii) Trace authors who are prominent in that subject and who can help in justifying the
importance of the research idea.
iii) Include the authors who would or could contradict the ideas
4) Evaluation of Findings: Reading research articles is different from other types of reading. One
must develop a good understanding of the research literature to be able to write a competent
literature review. Understanding the literature requires the researcher to read, re-read and
assimilate complex ideas. Difficult or badly written articles with probably be easier to
understand if he reads them at last when he has gained familiarity with the subject. Political
science literature reviews may have to include a section which established basic premises and
has definitions of certain terms and models. Literary and historical literature reviews do not
have a single convention. In contemporary literary studies an “explicit” studied before. Now,
he should scan the article. The easiest way is to scan the work, using the abstract and
introduction as guides. This helps to eliminate the non-relevant work and also some of the
lower quality research.
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5) Analysis and Interpretation of the Literature: After having an idea of the main ideas in
each article, the final step is to identify the precise methods used and the theories tested. When
the researcher compares the work of a number of researchers, some of whom have a different
take on the problems of the research question, an in-depth understanding of their work is
needed. A close reading may reveal differences in theoretical outlook. Before one writes about
his research project he must have evaluated the existing literature properly so he should allow
sufficient time to do this.
1.8.4. Factors Influencing Writing Literature Review
1. Relevance: Whatever material the researcher is reviewing must be “relevant” to his

dissertation topic. This is the first condition. If there is an abundance of materials, he will
need to first identify the most relevant ones and then present them to the readers with good
review. Sometime, after such identification, he still has to indulge in finding the most
relevant information out of the lengthy text of those relevant sources.
2. Mediatory Mechanism: One has to assume himself to be just a mediator between the
source(s) and his readers. This means that the literature review for dissertation is supposed
to convey the referred information to the readers with an approach of “as it is”, but this
does never mean the act of copy and pate. The referred author(s) is at the central position
and what she says is important. There is no value of researcher’s individual opinion in his
dissertation literature review. Of course, one can apply a language with favouritism for his
new research.
3. Good Support: The review must in all cases provide goo support to the new research,
study, or investigation. In fact this is the real purpose. The literature review serves the basic
purpose of presenting the validity of what the researcher is going to do or what he has done.
From where the issue has been derived or where it relates to from the existing areas of
knowledge is a big interest of the committee approving the proposal. In addition to this, the
literature review for dissertation, as one of its chapters will provide the sufficient
background required for the understanding of project. Thus, for both the proposal and
dissertation itself, the review must prove to be a good support, just like what the pillars do
to the building.
4. Develop Critical Reading Skill: In reviewing the literature one should do more than
simply summaries what he has read. One should, whenever appropriate, be critical in his
approach. It is worth developing these skills and recording relevant critical points in the
course of taking notes. Developing a critical approach before getting started is not
necessarily the task of simply criticizing the work of others. It entails moving beyond mere

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description and asking questions about the significance of the work. It entails attending to
such issues as:
5. Continuous Literature Review: Bear in mind that reading the literature is not something
that one should stop doing once he begins designing the research. He should continue the
search for and reading of relevant literature more or less throughout the research. This
means that, if the researcher has written a literature review before beginning the data
collection, he will need to regard it as provisional. Indeed, he may want to make quite
substantial revisions of the review towards the end of writing up the work.
1.8.5. Importance of Literature Review
The literature review is important because:
1) Identifies Problem of the Study: Literature review is most important to identify the problem
of the study, which can be solved by collection of data. It provides the intellectual context for
the research work and situates it within the field. It helps in information seeking, as it hones
the ability to locate and peruse the relevant literature efficiently and effectively. It
summarises the background and context of the research. Literature review exercises to
analyse the area of the research, which has been resolved in the study.
2) Monitors the Repetition: It is very important to know that the work is doing by researcher
in a research should not be repeated again. Literature review observes about the work that
one is doing, is repeating unintentionally. It shows the originality and relevance of the
research problem. Specifically, the research is different from other statisticians. It justifies the
proposed methodology.
3) Helps Avoiding Mistakes: It also helps to avoid the mistakes, which is already done by
another one. So researcher can improve the research design and instrumentation, which was
not successful at the last time. A new research depends on the past knowledge, and not
includes a part of knowledge. A well-created literature review establishes creditability of the
researcher of the study, so he can get the entire benefit of his work. It demonstrates the
researcher’s preparedness to complete the research.
4) Creates Appropriate Theoretical Structure: Literature review discloses appropriate
theoretical structure of the study that helps to understand easily. It verifies that it has not been
already done. It is the best way to establish the importance of the study. Literature review is
important to judge question and to provide latest research material for the readers. Literature
review makes it sensible because it uses both the side. In the literature review, researcher
uses supportive argument as well as opposite. It describes how the proposed research is
related to prior research in statistics.
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5) Facilities Interpretation of Study: Being familiar with previous research also facilitates
interpretation of the study results. The results can be discussed in terms of whether and how
they agree with previous findings. If the results contract previous findings, the researcher can
describe difference between his study and the others, providing a rationale for the
discrepancy. If the results are consistent with other findings, the report should include
suggestions for the next step if they are not consistent, the report should include suggestions
for studies that might resolve the conflict.
6) Ensures Researcher’s Credibility: A competent review of the literature is atleast in part
means affirming researcher’s credibility as someone who is knowledgeable in the chosen
area. This is not simply a matter of reproducing the theories and opinions of other scholars,
but also being able to interpret what they have written, possibly by using their ideas to
support a particular viewpoint or argument.
1.9. EXERCISE
1.9.1. Shot Answer Type Questions
1) Define the term business research
2) Briefly explain the importance of research in business
3) Define normative research
4) What do you mean by pure research?
5) Is exploratory research is beneficial?
6) When casual research can be used?
7) What are the drawbacks of empirical research?
8) Define the types of research of the basis of time dimension
9) Write short note on time series research
10) How to frame research objectives?
11) State the nature of research problem
12) Differentiate between hypothesis and proposition
13) Explain null hypothesis
1.9.2. Long Answer Type Questions
1) Define research flow persons can conduct research? Give the essential fetures of it?
2) Give the scope of research in management. Why research is conducted? What are the
problems that are generally faced while conducting research?
3) What do you mean by business research? What are objectives of a general business
research? Explain the different types of research?
4) Give the application areas of research? Why it is important for the business to conduct
research? Does a manger face any type of problem while conduction research?

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5) Explain any four in detail?
i. Applied Research
ii. Descriptive Research
iii. Empirical Research
iv. Cross-sectional Research
v. Longitudinal research
6. What are the different objective conducting research? How research objectives should be
framed? Give the different types of research objectives?
7. What do you mean by research problem? How the problem is selected? Give the process of
problem definition.
8. State the characteristics of research hypothesis? How many types of hypothesis can be
framed? What are the different sources of hypothesis?
9. Does theory plays any role in research? What are the different components of theory?
10. Explain the purpose of literature research? Explain the process of literature research. Does
literature research has any significant?

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UNIT 2
RESEARCH DESIGN & MEASUREMENT
2.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
2.1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research Design
A research project conducted scientifically has a specific framework of research from the problem
identification to the presentation of the research report. This framework of conducting research is
known as research design.
A research design is simply the framework or plan for study that is used as a guide in collecting
and analysing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study.
According to Kerlinger, “Research design is the plan, structure, &strategy of investigation

conceived so as to obtain answers to research and control variance”.
The plan is the outline of research scheme, on which the research is to work.thr structure of
research is more specific and detailed outline. Strategy show the hour the research will be carried-
out and specify the methods to be used in the collection and analysis of data.
According to green and tull, “A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for
acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project
that stipulates what information is to be collected from which sources by what procedures”.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the purpose with economy in procedure.
2.1.2 Features of Good Research Design
Features of a good research design are as follows;
1) Objectivity: The objectivity of the procedure (either collection of data or scoring of the
responses or both)may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to
different individuals by more than be independent observer. The more subjective the observation,
recording and evaluation of the responses, the less the different observes agree. It is therefore said
that any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments which are fairly objective
and in which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives precisely. This ensures the
objectivity of the collected data which will be used for analysis and findings.

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Features of Research Design
Objectivity
Reliability
Validity
Generalisation
Adequate Information
Other Features
2) Reliability: It is not easily either by the multiple-form or by the split-half technique. The test
re-test approach is the most effective measure of reliability as it refers to ‘consistency’ throughout
a series to measurements. Suppose if a in other form. But if the respondent keeps on changing his
responses to the same type of question then the interviewer will be facing a difficulty in
considering which one if their responses is genuine. The researcher should frame this question in
such a way that the respondent cannot but give only one genuine response. Though there are some
methods in determining the reliability of the responses given out by a respondent.
3) Validity: As in the case of reliability, there are number of procedures for establishing the
validity of test, such as validating the present data against a concurrent criterion or a future
criterion or a theory, etc. However, any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it measures
what it proposed to measure.
4) Generalisation: The next important aspect of a good research design is to ensure that the
measuring instruments used in a research investigation yield objective, reliable, valid data and has
to answer the ‘generalisation’ of tee findings. It will thus help an investigator in his attempt to
generalize the findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the
sample and using the appropriate statistical analysis while planning his research design.
5)Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research design is that it should
provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide per5pective
an ideal design should take into account important factors like:
i) Identifying the extract research problem to be studied

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ii) The objective of the research
iii) The process of obtaining information
iv)The availability of adequate and skilled manpower, and
v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying-out research.
6) Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility,
adaptability, efficiency, being economic and as on. A good research design should minimize bias
and maximize accuracy of the data obtained and should have as few errors as possible
2.1.3. Need of Research Design
Need of research design has been discussed below:
Need of research design
Accurate results
Control of variance
Provides blueprint Facilitates systematic

investigation
Visualizes and forecasts potential problems
1) Accurate Results: All the research activities have the purpose of answering research
questions. However the manner of seeking answers to the research differs from situation to
situation according to the nature of the problem. In any project the research problems are further
stated in form of specific hypothesis so that they can be tested against empirical evidences
achieved. The hypothesis states the relationship between variables and may vary from being most
general the most specific ones. There are various ways of testing the hypothesis depending upon
their structure. This has resulted to the development of different designs of research.
2)Control Of Variance: Second basic need of research design is he c0ontrol of variance research
designs help the manipulation of experimental variables, i.e., in seeking and establishing the
relationship the assumed cause of the experimental variable and the effect, i.e., the dependent
variable. To establish such a relationship it is essential of the effect of other variables, Besides the
experimental one, Should be controlled. Such variables are known as extranets variables. By

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stating that the purpose of any research design is to control variance it is meant specifically for the
research design.
3)Provides Blueprint: A researcher faces many problems like what sample is to be taken, what is
to be asked, This method of data collection is to be used and so forth research design minimizes
all these problems of the research because all decisions are taken beforehand.
4) Facilitates Systematic Investigation :This refers to determine whether only one(or

selected)cause out of many causes is to be examined, only one (or a few selected) hypothesis is to
be tested; only attitudes of students of one educational institution are to be studied and so on.
Since the objectives are clear and the structure is also provided, systemic investigation is possible.
5) Visualizes and Forecasts Potential Problems: The researcher studies available

(other)literature and learns about new/alternative approaches, for example, he gets an estimate of
personnel required as investigator(s),cost, possible measurements of problems and so forth.
2.1.4 Factors Affecting Research Design
The factors affecting research design are as follows:
1) Secondary Data: One of the factors affecting research design is the reliability and validity of
the secondary data used. The accuracy of secondary varies enormously across countries. This
means that the database being used to develop primary research may be inaccurate, highly biased
and lacks the capability to make multi-country comparisons.
Factors affecting research design
Secondary data Social and cultural factors
Availability of sufficient data

Nature of the research questions
Nature of the research setting Resource and time constraints
Availability of the money

usefulness
2)Social and Cultural Factors: These factors are one of the important factors affecting research
design in collecting primary data the researcher needs to consider the issues facing them in

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evaluating the possible methods under consideration in this context qualitative research survey
methods questionnaire design and sampling considerations are particularly important.
3) Availability of Sufficient Data: Availability of sufficient data for conducting the research
effectively is required. If sufficient data is not available from the reliable and valid sources then it
may spoil the complete research design. It may further affect measurements and calculations.
Various data primary and secondary should be available quality as well as quantity so that the
research can provide the detailed information about its field of study.
4) Nature of the Research Questions: The type of research questions to be addressed will have
an important effect on the methods chosen. Descriptive or correlative research questions
concerning how many or how much are usually best addressed by a survey, while understanding
how an organization makes decisions may be best addressed through the use of case studies or
field research. Determining the impact of a programme can be achieved by using an experimental
or quasi-experimental design. Research questions need to be formulated carefully so they embody
the aims of the research as the design must be crafted around these questions. Failure to do this is
likely to render the research findings of little value.
5) Nature of Research Setting: Most of the applied research projects are conducted in the ‘real
world’. The setting for the research may be organizations, centers in which programmes are
delivered, shopping malls, hospitals and so on. They are rarely chosen by the researcher. The
locations at which research is to be conducted may limit what methods can be adopted.
Permission to interview clients of a programme or the staff delivering a programme may be
denied, the administrative arrangements at the site may preclude conducting random sampling or
conducting fieldwork may interfere with the ongoing with of the organization. These constrains
will impact on the design of the research project.
6) Resource and time constrains: All Researchers operate under the constraints of a budget and
time limit. Applied researchers in particular must meet the completion deadline of the client for
submission of their report as well as operate within the budget provided by the funding of the
project. These resource constraints may mean that compromises are necessary in choice o9f
research methods and in methods of data collection.
7) Usefulness: Applied researchers need to be concerned with the use to which their findings will
be put. They need to ensure that the design not only answers the questions posted by the funding
body but also that the funding body have

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The comprehensive study of one or a few specific situations and lends itself particularly to
the study of complex sections in which the interrelations of several individuals are important-for
example, the effective management of distributor relations or what constitutes good marketing
management. More precisely, a case study in marketing may be defined as the empirical study of
a marketing situation within its actual context when the situation is somewhat obscure and
multiple sources of evidence are used.
3)Focused Groups: Focus groups originate from sociology studies. They have been extensively
used in marketing research. Focus group studies are generally conducted to evaluate the potential
of a new product idea or concept. A focus group comprises several persons, who are led by a
trained moderator. The moderator’s task is to lead the team in generating and exchanging ideas on
a particular issue. The process starts by issuing a topic for discussion among participants by the
moderator. In such discussions, the moderator’s role is to silently watch the proceedings and
ensure that the discussion is going on as expected. However the moderator needs to intervene to
ensure that all individuals in the group participate. Once the focus group’s observations and
recommendations are obtained, the information is evaluated by the moderator. This forms the
basis for further research.
4)Projective Techniques: A projective technique is an unstructured indirect form of questioning

that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings
regarding the issues of concern. In projective techniques respondents are asked to interpret the
behavior of others rather than describe their own behavior. In interpreting the behavior of others,
respondents indirectly project their own motivation, beliefs, attitudes or feelings into the situation.
Thus respondents attitude are uncovered by analyzing their responses to scenarios that are
deliberately unstructured vague and ambiguous. The more ambiguous the situation, the more
respondents project their emotions, needs, motives attitudes and values as demonstrated by work
in clinical psychology on which projective techniques are based. As in psychology these
techniques are classified as association, completion, construction and expression.
5) Two Stage Design: A two stage design is a beneficial approach for designing research. In this
method, the exploration a conducted in two stages. The first stage consist of clearly defining the
research problem, while the second stage comprises developing the research design. A two- stage
design is beneficial when the problem is vaguely defined and the researcher is not clear about the
particular topic that has to be studied. In these circumstances the first stage will clearly define the
problem for study and the second stage will develop the research design.
2.2.5 Applications of Exploratory Research

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Following are the applications of exploratory research:
Applications Of Exploratory Research
Investigation of an issue
Gaining information
Establishing priorities
Clarifying concepts
Formulating problems
To know trends in the market
1)Investigation of an Issus: The great majority of exploratory research is conducted to

investigate an issue or topic in order to develop insight and ideas about its underlying nature.
Topics are often a problem or issue that requires additional research study for problem resolution.
Designing and conducting a small sample exploratory study, therefore, is often the first step in a
more comprehensive or complex research project. For example, exploratory research can be
conducted to investigate about the responses regarding childcare program with a small number of
employees who are working in an organization. In such a case exploratory research helps to
investigate a problem and identify information needs for future research.
2) Gaining Information: gain Exploratory research can be used to as much information in as

short a time as possible, with little expenditure of money and effort. Naturally, the actual working
of the objective will depend on the research for which the exploratory research is needed. For
example, when the information is needed for developing a questionnaire-the survey instrument-
for a large-sample descriptive study, the objective is to identify the variables and their constructs.
In these situations, exploratory studies are sometimes referred to as “pilot studies”.
3) Establishing Priorities: Exploratory research can be used to establish priories in studying

competing explanations. The priorities would be established become promising .they might also
because the exploratory study generates information about the practical possibilities of
researching specific assumptions. For example, customer complaint letters may indicate the
product or service that needs attention.

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4) Clarifying Concepts: The exploratory study may be used to clarify concepts. Say
management is considering a change in a service policy that should result in improved dealer
satisfaction. An exploratory study could be used to clarify the notion of “dealer satisfaction” and
to develop such a measure. For Examples, banks have three types of customers, i.e, retails
customers, commercial customers and other banks for which services are performed for fees.
Defining which group bank image should be measured.
5) Formulating Problems: Exploratory research may be applied to formulate problem precisely.

For Example interviews, focus groups projective tests observational studies and ethnographies
are often used to achieve this. When personal interviews are conducted, an interviewer asks the
interviewee a number of questions. On the other hand, focus groups usually have between 4and6
participants who led by a moderato to discuss a particular subject.
6) To Know Trends in the Market: Exploratory research is applied to know the trends of the
market in order to take a decisive action. In cases where a company has little or no knowledge of
a market, exploratory research/study is useful for providing some basic information and
preliminary insights into markets of interest. The findings of exploratory research help determine
whether it is then worthwhile or desirable to undertake further detailed research. For Example,
Exploratory research defines the basics of the market in the domain where rare researches has
been carried out which is helpful in developing new ideas for product development and
modification.
2.2.6. Significance Of Exploratory Research Design
Following are the benefits of exploratory research:
Significance of Exploratory Research Design
New Discoveries Can Be Increasing Understanding

Made
Flexibility of Sources Better Conclusions
Strategic Plannning
1) New Discoveries Can Be Made: Exploratory research discovers new ideas to understand the
problem at hand. The focus of the experiment is always shifted towards discovering the new

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insight of study researchers are always alert new ideas as they may redirect the exploration of
researchers into a new direction.
2) Increasing Understanding: The principal use of exploratory research is to increase

researcher’s understanding of subject. It should not be used to draw definite conclusions due to its
lack of statistical strength, but It can help researcher to determine why and how things happen.
3) Flexibility of Sources: Secondary sources, such as published literature or data, are commonly
used it exploratory research. Other Sources of information used in exploratory studies include
informal discussions formals structured interviews, pilot studies or case studies. These might
involve customers, colleagues, patients or clients. Care should be taken to select a range of
unbiased sources to give a broad and well rounded understanding of the subject.
4)Better Conclusions: Exploratory research can be very advantages in directing subsequent

research approaches it greater understanding of a subject helps subsequent research questions and
can greatly increase the usefulness of study’s conclusions. This research is also very useful in
determining the best approach to achieve a researcher objectives.
5) Strategic Planning: Exploratory research on some cases can save a great deal of time and
money by flagging dead enters early. For example in drug development, exploratory phase II
clinical trials give the excepted treatment effect an adverse reaction profile of a drug in a small
group of patients before moving into larger scale trials. If The treatment affect is too small or the
safety profile is unacceptable giving a low benefit to risk drug development can be shelved early,
saving the company millions (if not billions) of dollars.
2.2.7 Limitations of Exploratory Research Design
Some limitations of exploratory research are as follows:
1) Not Useful for Decision-Making: The results are not useful for decision making by
researchers ,but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.
2) Incomplete Information: It can give some indication as to why, how and when something will
occur; but it cannot tell as how often or how many.
3) Not Generalizable: It is typically not generalisable to the population at large. Results of

exploratory research can’t be generalized and represent the ideas or opinions of whole population.

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4) Costly: Researchers sometimes do not follow up exploratory research as they believe the cost
is too high. Conducting exploratory research is to test concepts before they are put in the market
place, which are always costly endeavour.
5) Time Consuming: This is also one of the limitations of exploratory research as it can be
sometimes time-consuming and seems to be heading nowhere. A considerable amount of time and
efforts can be wasted in pursuit of the wrong problem.
6) Can Mislead the Data: As Exploratory research often involves qualitative methods, It can be
essentially proved to be as the first step to a more rigorous, conclusive, confirmatory study
reducing the chances of beginning with an inadequate incorrect or misleading set of research
objective.
2.3 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
2.3.1 Introduction
Descriptive studies, as their name implies, are designed to describe something-for example the
characteristics of users of a given product; the degree to which product use varies with income,
age, sex, or other characteristics; or the number who saw a specific television commercial. A
majority of marketing studies are of this type. Despite the emphasis on description it should not be
concluded that such studies should be simply fact gathering expeditions.
Descriptive research design refers to scientific differentiation among various conditions or

phenomena for the purpose of accurately classifying these conditions. In its broadest sense,
diagnosis corresponds to the fact finding aspect of clinical practice. Its objectives include
screening and classification, personality description, prediction of outcome and attainment of
might by the client.
With regard to both data gathering and interpretation, there are a number of ways in which the
services of a skilled clinician are needed. Whether objective diagnostic techniques and statistical
prediction formulas can eventually assume the entire diagnostic function remains a moot point.
Unfortunately, it is relatives easy to start a descriptive study with the vague thought that the data
collected will be interesting. As a result many descriptive studies are made with only hazy
objectives and with inadequate planning. Much of the data collected in such studies turns out to be
useless

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2.3.2 Objectives of Descriptive Research Design
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe something -usually
market characteristics or functions.
Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons:
1) To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers salespeople organizations

or market areas.
2) To estimate the percentage of units the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting
a certain behavior .For example one might be interested is estimating the percentage of heavy
users of prestigious department stores who also patronize discount department stores.
3) To determine the perceptions of product characteristics for example how to households

perceive the various department stores in terms of salient factors of the choice criteria?
4) To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated .For example to what
extent is shopping at department stores related to eating out?
5) To make specific predictions. For example, what will be the retails sales of Neiman Marcus
(specific store) for fashion.
2.3.3 Techniques of Descriptive Research Design
There are three types of descriptive methods:

Techniques of Descriptive Research
Design
Observational Method Case Study Method
Survey Method
1) Observational Method: With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field
observation) human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the
observational method-naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. The biggest advantage
of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural
environments .This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation; proponents
say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real- life situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the
results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with
naturalistic observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time consuming and cheaper
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than naturalistic observations. Of course both naturalistic and laboratory observation are
important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.
2) Case Study Method: Case study research involves an in depth study of an individuals or group
of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare
phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited
use or making accurate predictions. There are two serious problems with case studies-expectancy
effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases
that might affect the action taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to
misrepresenting participant’s descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor
generalizations and detract from external validity.
3) Survey Method: In survey method research, participant answer question administered thought
interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the question, researchers describe the
responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the
questions are constructed property. Questions should be written so they clear and easy to
comprehend.
2.3.4 Application of Descriptive Research
Following are the applications of descriptive research:
Applications of Descriptive Research
Applicable in Social-Problems
Real life situations
Used to Acquire Knowledge

Identification of Relationship
Observing Natural Behaviors
1) Applicable in Social-Problems: Descriptive studies are often applicable to quantity the

salience of the different social causes of business. For example, child care, drug abuse, public
education, hunger, crime, the environment, medical research and poverty. All these examples
demonstrate the range and diversity of descriptive research studies. It plays key role in
highlighting the existence and extent of social problems. It can stimulate social action and provide
the basis of well targeted social policy interventions.

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2) Real Life Situations: The use of descriptive research is in the exploration and description of
phenomena in real-life situations. A descriptive design can be used to develop theory, identify
problems, make decisions or determine what others in similar situations are doing.
3) Identification of Relationship: Descriptive designs only describe the phenomenon under study
attempting to establish as relationship between factors. The data collected may relate to the
demographically or the behavioral variables of respondents under study or some situational
variables. For example descriptive research design could be suited to measure the various
attributes of successful sales people, or evaluate a training programme or a retailing situation. It
always
helps to identify relationship between variables, such as the association between a risk factor and
a disease. These studies are useful in determining the current dependency among variables.
4) Used To Acquire Knowledge: A typical descriptive study is used to acquire knowledge in an

area where little research has been conducted or when little is known about the condition under
study. The basic descriptive design examines a characteristic or group of characteristic in a
simple, but there are many variations on this theme. A basic descriptive design may be used as a
pilot study or as the basis for designing more complex studies. It is useful in establishing the need
for and the development of future, more intricate studies.
5) Observing Natural Behaviors: Descriptive types of experiments are applied by

anthropologies, psychologies and social scientists to observe natural behaviours without affecting
them in any way. It is also used by market researchers to judge the habits of customers, or by
companies wishing to judge the morale of staff. It estimate the percentages of units in a specified
population exhibiting certain behavior. For example, a researcher might be interested in
estimating the percentage of heavy users of prestigious stores who also patronize discount
departmental stores.
2.3.5. Significance of Descriptive Research
Following are the benefits descriptive research:
Significance of Descriptive Research
Applicable Is Many Areas Qualitative and Quantitative
Provides Relevant Data

Hypothesis Generation

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1)Applicable in Many Areas: It is applicable on many areas such as market research, public
opinion polling media research(rating surveys),voter intention studies as well as it plays an
important role in educational research. It is also important in estimating the proportion of people
in a specified population who behave in a certain way.
2) Qualitative and Quantitative: One of the main benefits of descriptive research is the fact that
it uses both quantitative and qualitative data in order to find the solution to whatever is being
studied. This is turn can help to describe and give an answer to certain life experiences. For
example when carrying out case study descriptive research allows various sources to be
considered such as personal accounts. With this in mind, it enables a wider view of an issue as
opposed to strict numbers and figures which can only account on factors rather than experiences.
3) Provides Relevant Data: When using descriptive research people are able to accumulate
findings from all forms of data such as personal accounts case studies or observations. Due to this
a descriptive research method can provide a number of answers to various aspects being studied
because the researcher has the numerical element as well as the personal and observational
element involved.
4) Hypothesis Generation: Exploratory research helps to generate hypoth4esis, which can further
be tested by analytical studies. Descriptive studies identify descriptive characteristics which
frequently constitute an important step in the search for determinates or risk factors that can be
altered or eliminated to reduce or prevent errors.
2.3.6 Limitations of Descriptive Research
Following are the limitations of descriptive research:
1) Confidentially: Confidentiality is a big limitation of descriptive research. Subjects that

researchers question may not always be truthful and instead will give answers that they feel that
researcher wants to hear. In interview, participants may also refuse to answer any questions that
they feel are too personal or difficult.
2) Carries Observers Paradox: Descriptive research also carries with it an observer’s paradox, if
participants know that someone is observing them, they may that they act. Subjectivity and error
also play a disadvantages role in descriptive research.
3) Errors: Questions presented by a researcher are predetermined and prescriptive, while studies
can contain errors. A researcher may choose what information to use and ignore data that does not
conform to their hypothesis.

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4) Requires More Skills: Descriptive research requires more skills and the response rate of this
research is very low.
5) Unreliable and Unscientific: In descriptive research, there are no variables manipulated, there
is no way to statistically analyze the results many scientists regard this type of study as very
unreliable and unscientific. In addition, the results of observational studies are not repeatable and
so there can be no replication of the experiment and reviewing of the results.
2.4 CASUAL OR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
2.4.1 Introduction
Experimental design (casual research design) seeks to find-out cause-and-effect relationship of the
phenomenon under study. Under this design, two similar groups, one called ‘experimental group’
and the other ‘control group’ are chosen. The experimental group is exposed to pre-designed
procedures while the control group is kept constant. At the end of experiment, the two groups are
compared to find-out the resultant effect of the experiment. The difference between the two
groups is considered to have been produced by the causative factors.
Experimental research designs are used for the controlled testing of casual processes. The general
procedure is one or more independent variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a
dependent variable. Experiments require one or more experimental groups that are exposed to the
experimental treatment(s) and a control group that is not exposed. Experimental design is a
strategy to gather empirical knowledge, i.e. knowledge based on the analysis of experimental data
and not on theoretical models. It can be applied whenever one intends to investigate a
phenomenon in order to gain understanding or improve performance.
Standard designs are well-known classes of experimental designs. They can be generated
automatically as soon as one has decided on the objective, the number and nature of design
variables, the nature of the responses and the number of experimental runs one can afford.
Generating such a design will provide with a list all experimental one must perform, to gather
enough information for the purposes.
Experimental research design establishes the cause and effect relationship. Objective of an
experiment is to measure the influence of the independent variables on a dependent variable while
keeping the affect on other extraneous variable constant. It explores the affect of one thing on

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another and more specifically, the effect of the variable on another. They are highly structured and
require a rigid sequential approach to sampling, data collection and data analysis.
Difference between Exploratory Research And Casual Research
Basis of difference Exploratory research Causal research
Objective The purpose of exploratory research The purpose of causal research is to

is to discover ideas and insights determine cause and effect
relationships.
Characteristics Exploratory research is flexible, Casual research includes

versatile and is often the front end of manipulation of one or more
total research design. independent variables.
Methods Exploratory research involves Casual research include experiments

methods like expert survey, pilot as one of it’s method
survey, case studies secondary data
and qualitative research.
2.4.2. Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
The basic principles of experimental designs are randomization, replication, and local control.
These principles make a valid test of significance possible. Each of them is described briefly in
the following sub-sections:
1) Randomization: Randomization is a random process of assigning treatments to the

experimental units. The random process implies that every possible allotment of treatments has
the same probability. An experimental unit is the smallest division of the experimental materials
and a treatment means an experiment condition whose affect is to be measured and compared.
Basic Principles Of Experimental Designs
Replication
Randomization
Local control

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The purpose of randomization is to remove bias and other sources of extraneous variation, which
are not controllable. Another advantage of randomization (accompanied by replication) is that it
forms the basis of any valid statistical test. Hence the treatments must be assigned at random to
the experimental units. Randomization is usually done by drawing numbered cards from a well-
shuffled pack of cards, drawing numbered balls from a well-shaken container or by using tables of
random numbers.
2) Replication: Replication is a repetition of the basic experiment. In other words it is a complete

run for all the treat to be tested in the experiment. In all experiments, some variation is introduced
because of the fact that the experimental units such as individuals or plots of land in agricultural
experiments cannot be physically identical. This type of can be removed by using a number of
experimental units. Researchers therefore perform the experiment more that i.e., they repeat the
basic experiment. An individual repetition is called a replicate. The number, shape and the
replicates depend upon the nature of the experimental materials.
A replication is used:
I) To secure more accurate estimate of the experimental error, a term which represents the
difference that when observed if the same treatments were applied several times to the same
experimental units;
ii) To decrease the experimental error and thereby to increase precision, which is a measure of the
variability experimental error; and
𝜎
iii) To obtain more precise estimate of the mean effect of a treatment, since , where n denotes the
numbers replications.
3) Local Control: It has been observed that all extraneous sources of variation are not removed
by randomization replication. This necessitates a refinement in the experimental technique. In
other words, a researcher needs to a design in such a manner that all extraneous sources of
variation are brought under control. For this purpose control is used, a term referring to the
amount of balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental. Balancing means that the
treatments should be assigned to the experimental units in such a way that the researcher balanced
arranged of the treatments. Blocking means that experimental units should be collected together a
relativity homogeneous group. A block is also a replicate. The main purposes of the principle of
local control increase the efficiency of an experimental design by decreasing the experimental
error. The point to remember that the term local control should not be confused with the word
control. The word control in experimental used for a treatment.

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2.4.3 Causality in Experimental Research Design
Before making causal inferences or assuming causality, three conditions must be satisfied. These
are:
1) Concomitant Variation: Concomitant variation is the extent to which causes X and Y, occur
together in the way predicted by the hypothesis under consideration. Evidence pertaining to
concomitant variation obtained in a qualitative or quantitative manner.
2) Time Order of Occurrence of Variables: The time order of occurrence condition states that
the causing every occur either before or simultaneously with the affect; it cannot occur afterwards.
By definition, an effect cause produced by an event that occurs after the effect has taken place.
However, it is possible for each event in a relax to be both a cause and effect of the other event. In
other words, a variable can be both a cause and an effect same causal relationship. To illustrate,
customers who shop frequently in a department store are more likely to I charge or credit card for
that store. Also customers who have the charge card for a department store are likely there
frequently.
3) Elimination of other Possible Causal Factors: The Absence of other possible causal factors
means that the variable being investigated should be the only possible causal explanation. In store
service may be a cause of same can be sure that changes in all other factors affecting sales, such
as pricing, advertising level of distribution, quality, competition, etc., were held constant or
otherwise controlled.
In an after-the-fact examination of a situation, we can never confidently rule out all other causal
factors. In contract experimental designs, it is possible to control for some of the other causal
factors. It is also possible to bal effects of some of the uncontrolled variables so that only random
variations resulting from these uncontrolled will be measured.
These conditions are necessary but not sufficient to demonstrate causality. No one of these three
conditions or conditions combined can demonstrate that a causal relationship exists.
2.4.4 Types of Experimental Research Design
Experimental design seeks to find-out the cause –and-effect relationship of the phenomenon under
study. The two similar groups, one called ‘experimental group’ and the other ‘control group’ are
chosen. The experimental exposed to per-designed procedures while the control group is kept
constant. At the end of experiment, the two groups are compared to find-out the resultant of the

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experiment. The difference between the two groups is considered to have been produced by the
causative factors. The types of experimental research design are shown in figure 2.2:
Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental true quasi- statistical
One shot case study Experimental Experimental Randomized
One group pretest- pretest-posttest time series blocks
Posttest control group multiple time Latin square
Static group posttest-only series Factorial
Control group
Solomon four group
2.4.4.1 Per - Experimental Designs
Per-experimental designs do not involve random allocation of subject to treatment combinations.

In this sense, they do not qualify as true experimental designs because they do not adequately
control for the problem associated with loss of internal validity. However, they are used
particularly when it is the only way to implement a study. It is a further divided into:
1) One-Short Case Study: The One-short design, After –only design, is symbolically
represented as follows:
X O1
For example, during a very cold winter an automobile dealer finds herself with a large inventory
of cars. S he decides to experiment for the month of January with a promotional scheme. She
offers a free trip to Miami with every car sold. She experiments with the promotion
(X=experimental treatment) and measures sales (O1=measurement of sales after the treatment is
administered).
This one –shot design is a case study of a research project with problems. Subject or test units
participate because of voluntary self-selection or arbitrary assignment, not because of random

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assignment. The study lacks any kind of comparison or any means of controlling extraneous
influences. There should be a measure of what will happen when the test units have not been
exposed to X to compare with the measures of when subjects have been exposed to X
Nevertheless, under certain circumstances, even thought this design lacks internal validity, it is
the only viable choice.
2) One Group Pretest-Posttest: Suppose a real estate franchiser wishes to provide a training
programme for franchisees. If the franchiser measures subject ‘knowledge of real estate selling
before (o1) they are exposed to the experimental treatment (X)and then measures real estate
selling knowledge after(O2)they are exposed to the treatment, design will be as follows:
O2 X O2
This one-group pretest-posttest design offers a comparison to the same individuals before and
after training. Although this is an improvement over the one-shot design, this research still has
several weaknesses that may jeopardize internal validity.
The effect of testing may also have confounded the experiment.
Although this design has a number of weaknesses, it is used in marketing research. Remember,
the cost of the research is a consideration in most business situations. While there will be some
problems of internal validity, the researcher must always take into account questions of time and
cost.
3)Static Group: In a static group design each subject is identified as a member of either an
experimental group or a control group(e.g., exposed or not exposed to a commercial).the
experimental group is measured after being exposed to an experimental treatment ,and the control
group is measured without having been exposed to this experimental treatment:
Experimental group: X O1
Control group: O2
The results of the static group design are computed by subtracting the observed results in the
control group from those in the experimental group (O1-O2).a major weakness of this design is its
lack of assurance that the groups were equal on variables of interest before the experimental group
received the treatment. If the groups were selected arbitrarily investigator, or if entry into either
group was voluntary, systematic differences between the groups could invalid conclusions about
the effect of the treatment. Random assignment of subjects may eliminate problems with

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differences. If group are established by the experimenter rather than existing as a function of some
other causality static group design is referred to as an after-only design with control group.
On many occasions, an after-only design is the only possible option. This is particularly true when
conducting a for new products or brands. Cautious interpretation and recognition of the
shortcomings may make this valuable.
2.4.4.2 True Experimental Designs
The distinguishing feature of the true experimental designs, as compared to pre-experimental

designs, is randomized true experimental designs, the researcher randomly assigns test units to
experimental groups and treatments to experimental groups. True experimental designs include
the pretest-posttest control group design, the posttest-only control group and the Solomon four-
group design.
1) Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: This design involves establishing two samples or
groups of responder experimental group that would be exposed to the marketing variable and a
control group which would not be suit to the marketing variable study. The two groups would be
matched. That is, two samples would be identity all important respects. The idea is that any
confounding factors would impact equally on both groups and therefore differences in the data
drawn from the two groups can be attributed to the experimental variable.
2) Posttest-Only Control Group Design: This design involves establishing two matched samples
or ground respondents. There is no measurement taken from either group before the experimental
variable is introduced control group is not subsequently subjected to the experimental variable
.Afterwards are taken from groups and the effect of the experimental variable is established by
deducting the control group measure from experimental group measure.
3)Solomon Four-Group Design: This design overcomes the limitations of the pretest-posttest
control group and only control group designs in that it explicitly controls for interactive testing
effect, in addition to controlling for a extraneous variables (EV). However, this design has
practical limitations: it is expensive and time consumer implement. Hence, it is not further
considered.
2.4.4.3. Quasi-Experimental Design
A quasi experimental design results under the following conditions:
1) The researcher can control when measurements are taken and on whom they are taken.

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2) The researcher lacks control over the scheduling of the treatments and also is unable to expose
test units to the treatment randomly.
Quasi-experimental designs are useful because they can be used in cases when true
experimentation cannot, and because are quicker and less expensive. However, because full
experimental control is lacking, the researcher must take into a the specific variables that are not
controlled. Popular forms of quasi-experimental designs are:
1)Time Series Design: It involves a series of periodic measurements on the dependent variable
for a group of test. The treatment is then administered by the researcher or occurs naturally. After
the treatment, periodic measurements continued to determine the treatment effect. A time series
experiment may be symbolized as:
O1O2O3O4O5O6O7O8O9O10
This is a quasi-experiment, because there is no randomization of test units to treatments, and the
timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test units are exposed to the treatment, may not
be within the researcher’s control.
Taking a series of measurements before and after the treatment provides atleast partial control for
several extreme variables. Maturation is atleast partially controlled, because it would not affect O 5
and O6 alone but would in other observations. By similar reasoning, main testing effect,
instrumentation, and statistical regression are control well. If the test units are selected randomly
or by matching, selection bias can be reduced. Morality may pose a present but it can be largely
controlled by paying a premium or offering other incentives to respondents.
The major weakness of the time series design in the failure to control history. Another limitation
is that the experimental may be affected by the interactive testing effect, because multiple
measurements are being made on the test units.
2) Multiple Time Series Design: It is similar to the time series design except that another group
of test units added serve as a control group. Symbolically, this design may be described as:
EG O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 X O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
CG O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an improvement over the simple rime
series experiment. The improvement lies in the ability to test the treatment effect twice-against the
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pre-treatment measurements in the experimental group and against the control group. To use the
multiple time series design to assess the effectiveness the commercial, the test panel example
would be modified as follows. The test commercial would be shown in only a few the test cities.
Panel members in these cities would comprise the experimental group. Panel members in cities
where commercial was not shown would constitute the control group.
2.4.4.4. Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic experiments that allow for statistical control and
analysis of external variables. In other words, several basic experiments are conducted
simultaneously. Thus, statistical designs are influenced by the same sources of invalidity that
affect the basic designs being used. The most common statistical designs are:
1) Randomized Block Design: The term randomized block design has originated from
agricultural research. In this design, several treatments of variables are applied to different blocks
of land to ascertain their effect on the yield the particular crop. However, the yield may vary on
account of variations in the quality of blocks. In order to isolate the differences in blocks, the
researcher resorts to randomization whereby treatments are assigned to plots of each block the
random basis. Blocks are formed in such a manner that each block contains as many plots as there
are treatments so as one plot from each is randomly selected for each treatment. The production of
each plot is measured after the treatment is given. These data are then interpreted and inferences
are drawn by using the analysis of variance technique to such the impact of treatment on the
agricultural output. In agricultural experiments, e.g., different doses of fertilizer, different levels
of irrigation, different varieties of crops ,different timings of sowing or different combinations of
or more these factors may constitute the treatment.tha data are arranged in rows according to the
blocks and in colors according to the treatment.
2) Latin Squares Design: This design suggests that rest will form a square because there will be
as many test uniz treatments. This design is used to control important extraneous influence. It is
assumed that each treatment occurs with each store on a block. There are several stores in a block.
There must be as many blocks as there are treatments may be three, four and so on. Three blocks,
three treatments, four blocks, four treatments and so on. This is the research why it is called a
square design.
3) Factorial Design: The factorial; experimental design allows the researcher to test two or more
variables at the same time. It determines whether the variables interact to produce an observed

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response, or whether the variables open independently to produce the response. The factorial
experiment is used when there are three or more experimental variables. It is applied when the
design is completely randomized, or is a randomized block or Latin Square. The feature of this
design is that the impact of various variables can be examined. It involves some complex
computation. We can calculate the interaction of the variables on each other, which requires
variance analysis and notching out main effects of each of the variables. Standard deviation and
mean squares are calculated to find out the impact variables.
2.4.5 Validity of Findings
The findings of experimental design are judged by measuring the internal and external validity.
The validity is extent to which a measure accomplishes its claims. Two groups of validity exist;
internal and external. Internal validity is concerned with identifying whether the conclusions
drawn from a demonstrated experimental relationship truly impact cause. External validity is
concerned with the generalisability of observed casual relationship across persons, set and times.
The central aim of research design is to establish a relationship between the independent and
dependent variable with the high degree of certainty. The potential of a design to achieve this aim
is referred to as the validity design.
Validity of experiments is measured in terms of two separate but related dimensions:
1) Internal validity
2) External validity
2.4.5.1. Internal Validity
Internal validity is the measure of accuracy of an experiment. It measures whether the

manipulation of the independent variables or treatments, actually caused the effects on the
dependent variables(s).thus, internal validity examines whether the observed effects on the test
units could have been caused by variables other than the treatment. If the observed effects are
influenced or confounded by extraneous variables, it is difficult to draw valid inferences about the
casual relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Internal validity is the basic
minimum that must be present in an experiment before any conclusion about treatment effects can
be made. Without internal validity, the experimental results are confounded. Control of
extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing internal validity.
Internal validity is the approximate truth about inferences regarding cause-effect or causal
relationships. Thus, internal validity is only relevant in studies that try to establish a relationship.

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For Example, a lab experimental enhances internal validity because it maximizes control of
outside forces. If one wish to know whether a certain odour causes increased productivity among
service workers, one may set up a task in a room with a tightly controlled airflow so we can be
sure that the specific odour exists in the air in the amount and intensity desired. One can also
control temperature, lighting, density, sounds and many other factors that would be difficult or
impossible to control outside of a lab environment. If the only thing that varies from subject to
subject is the odour, then one can safely say differences in performance must be attributable to
human reactions to the scent. Alternative cause
Alternative cause
Program Observations
Causes
What you do
Alternative cause alternative cause
Factors affecting internal validity
Extraneous variables can jeopardize internal validity. The seven major ones are history,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection and mortality.
Factors affecting internal validity
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Selection
Mortality
Statistical regression
1)History: A history effect occurs when some change other than the experimental treatment
occurs during the course of an experiment that affects the dependent variable. A common history
effect occurs when competitors change their marketing strategies during a test marketing

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experiment. History effects are particularly prevalent in repeated measures experiments that the
place over an extended time.
A special case of the history effect is the cohort effect, which refers to a change in the dependent
variables that occurs because members of one experimental group experience different historical
situations than members of other experimental groups.
2) Maturation: Maturation effects are effects that are a function of time and the naturally
occurring events that coincide with growth and experience. Experiments taking place over longer
time span may see lower internal validity as subjects simply grow older or more experienced.
Suppose an experiment was designed to test the impact of a new compensation program on sales
productivity. In this program were tested over a year’s time, some of the salespeople probably
would mature as a result of more selling experience or perhaps gain increased knowledge. Their
sales productivity might improve because of their knowledge rather than the compensation
program.
3) Testing: Testing effects are also called pre-testing effects because the initial measurement or
test alerts or primes subjects in a way that effects their response to the experimental treatments.
Testing effects only occur in a before and-after study. A before-and-after study is one requiring an
initial baseline measure be taken before an experimental treatment is administered. So, before –
and-after experiments is a special case of a repeated measures design. For example, students
taking standardized achievements and intelligence tests for the second time usually do better than
those taking the tests for the first time. The effect of testing may increase awareness of socially
approved answers, increase attention to experimental conditions (i.e., the subject may watch more
closely) or make the subject more conscious than usual of the dimensions of a problem.
4)Instrumentation: A change in the wording of questions, a change in interviewers or a change

in other procedures used to measure the dependent variable causes an instrumentation effect,
which may jeopardize internal validity. If the same interviewers are used to ask questions for both
before and after measurement, some problems may arise. With practice, interviewers may acquire
increased skill in interviewing or they may become bored and decide to reward the questionnaire
in their own terms. To avoid this problem, new interviewers are hired, but different individuals
are also sources of extraneous variation due to instrumentation effects are problematic with any
type of repeated measure design.
5) Selection: The selection effect is a simple bias that results from differentials selection of
respondents for the comparison groups or sample selection error.

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6)Mortality: If an experiment is conducted over a period of few weeks or more, some sample bias
may occur due to the mortality effect (sample attrition).sample attrition occurs when some
subjects withdraw from the experiment before it is completed.
Mortality effects may occur if subjects drop from one experimental treatment group
disproportionately from other groups.
7) Statistical Regression: Operates where groups have been selected on the basis of their extreme
scores.
2.4.5.2 External Validity
External validity is the accuracy with which experimental results can be generalized beyond the
experimental subjects. External validity is increased when the subjects comprising the sample
truly represent some population and when the results extend to market segments or other groups
of people.
The higher the external validity, the more researchers and managers can count on the fact that any
results observed in an experiment will also be seen in the “real world” (market place, work-place,
sales floor and so on).
For example, to what extent would results from a retail atmosphere experiment, which represents
a simulated shopping experiment, transfer to a real-world retail store in a shopping mall,
downtown mall or lifestyle centre?
Can one extrapolate the results from a tachistoscope to an in-store shopping situation/lab
experiments are associated with low external validity because of the limited set of experimental
conditions, holding all else constant, do not adequately represent all the influences existing in the
real world. In other words, the experimental situation may be too artificial.
When a study lacks external validity, the researcher will have difficulty repeating the experiment
with any change in subjects, settings or time.
Factors Affecting External Validity
In general, the major factors that jeopardize external validity of the experiment are:
1)Reactive or Interaction Effect Of Testing: The reactive or interaction effect of testing in

which a pre-test might increase or decrease the respondents sensitivity or responsiveness to the
experimental variable, and thus make the results obtained for a pre-tested population

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unrepresentative of the effects of the experimental variable for the unprecedented universe from
which the experimental respondents were selected
Factors Affecting External Validity

.
Reactive or Interaction Effect of
Interaction Effect of Selection
Testing
Biases and the Experimental
Variable
Reactive Effects of Experimental

Arrangements
Multiple Treatment Interference
2) The Interaction Effect of Selection Biases and the Experimental Variable: Researchers
can’t be sure that the outcome can be generalized to a larger population, when it might be due to
an interaction of the independent variable and biased subject selection.
3) Reactive Effect of Experiment Arrangements: Reactive effect of experiment arrangements,

which would preclude generalization about the effect of the experimental variable on persons
being exposed to it in non-experimental settings
4) Multiple Treatment Interference: Multiple treatment interference is likely to occur whenever

multiple treatments are applied to the same respondents because the effects of prior treatment
usually are not erasable.
This enumeration of sources of invalidity is bound to be incomplete. Some threats are too specific
to a given setting to be generalized easily. For example, the likelihood that competitors will
distort the results of market test (by aggressive promotional activity, additional sales force effort,
or even doing nothing when they certainly would take action if the new product were launched
into a regional or national market) is an ever –present “history” problem in this particular setting.
What is important is not the completeness of the checklist of threats but a heightened sensitivity to
the possibility of threats so that:
i) The extent and the direction of the bias in results can be considered when it becomes
time to use the relationship obtained from the experiment to make a decision.
ii) The possibility of design improvements can be anticipated.

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iii) Other methods of measurement with different restraints on validity can be employed.
The virtue of measures or approaches to the same phenomena is that the biases of each
may cancel the other.
2.4.5.3 Controlling Extraneous Variable
Extraneous variables represent alternative of experimental results. They pose a serious threat to
the internal and external validity of an experimental . Unless they are controlled for, they affect
the dependent variable and thus confound the results. For this reason, they are also called
confounding variables. There are four ways of controlling extraneous variables:
1) Randomisation: Randomisation refers to the random assignment of test units to experimental

groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to
experimental groups. For example, respondents are randomly assigned to one of three
experimental groups. One of the three versions of a test commercial, selected at random, is
administered to each group. As a result of random assignment, extraneous factors can be
represented equally in each treatment condition. Randomisation is the preferred procedure for
ensuring the prior equality of experimental groups. However, Randomization may not be effective
when the sample size is small, because randomization merely produces groups that are equal on
average. It is possible though to check whether randomization has been effective by measuring the
possible extraneous variables and comparing them across the experimental groups.
2) Matching: Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key background variables before
assigning them to the treatment conditions. In the merchandising display experiment, stores could
be matched on the basis of annual sales, size or location. Then one store from each matched pair
would be assigned to each experimental group. Matching ha two drawbacks which are:
i) Test units can be matched on only a few characteristics, so the test units may be similar on the
variables selected but unequal on others.
ii) If the matched characteristics are irrelevant to the dependent variable then the matching effort
has been futile.
3) Statistical Control : Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous variables and
adjusting for their effects through statistical analysis. more advanced statistical procedures, such
as covariance (ANCOVA),are also available. In ANCOVA, the effects of the extraneous variable
on the dependents variable are removed by an adjustment of the dependent variables mean value
within each treatment condition.

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4) Design Control: Design control involves the use of experiments designed to control specific
extraneous variables.
2.4.5.4. Trade-Offs Between Internal and External Validity
Naturalistic field experiments tend to have greater external validity than artificial laboratory
experiments. Marketing researchers must trade internal validity for external validity. A researcher
who wishes to test advertising effectiveness by manipulating treatments via a split-cable
experiment has the assurance that the advertisement will be viewed in an externally valid
situation, the subject’s homes. However the researcher has no assurance that some interruption
(e.g., a telephone call) will not have some influence that will reduce the internal validity of the
experiment.
Laboratory experiments with many controlled factors usually are high in internal validity, while
field experiments generally have less internal validity, but greater external validity. Ideally results
from lab experiments would be followed up with some type of field test.
2.4.6 Applications of Experimental Research Designs
Following are the applications of experimental research:
Applications of Experimental Research Design
Understanding Consumer Behaviour In the Field of Sales
Searching for Facts Testing Validity of Empirical Proposition
Business Communication
1) Understanding consumer Behaviour: Using experimental research procedures, researchers

tend to observe current behaviour and then try to predict future behaviour or perhaps explain past
behaviour. Experimental psychologists explore an immense range of psychological phenomena,
ranging from learning to personality to cognitive processes.
2) In the Field of Sales: It is used in determining whether an innovative point of sale

advertisement had an effect on sales of products in a supermarket environment. By using
experimental research marketers can estimate the effect of their promotional efforts on buying
behaviour of consumers.

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3) Searching For Facts: This technique can be used when the researcher wants to search the
relevant facts related to the research. It involves manipulating experimental variables to
understand how something works, hence helping in finding in-sight of a problem.
4) Testing validity of Empirical Proposition: This technique is useful when researcher wants to
test the validity of assumptions made in theory as well as match the consistency of outcomes with
the theoretical proposition. It tests the possible outcomes with the assumptions made in the
proposition which in turn helps in overall consistency and validation of research.
5) Business Communication: As business communication is one of the most important efforts

made by marketers it becomes important to improve its efficiency. If certain aspects of
communication can be isolated and studied in an experimental design, strong claims about those
variables can be made.
2.4.7 Significance of Experimental Research
Following are the applications of experimental research:
Significance of Experimental Research
Cause and Effect

Reliable Results
Provides Helpful Insight
Control over Variables
1) Cause and Effect: The primary advantage of the experimental research is that the researcher
can determine the cause of something. None of the other research methods allows knowing
something about the cause of behaviour. If an experiment is done properly, using random
assignment and participants blind to their condition, then it can be known that any difference in
their behaviour was because of the difference manipulated by the experimenter.
2)Reliable Results: The other benefit of experimental design is that the utilisation of quantitative
measurement levels, allocation procedures, controlled environment and random selection promote
high reliability of the outcomes as well as better generalisability of results. Furthermore, the
results can also be replicated, with similar results being established because of the reliability of
the experiment. A researcher can be assured that the outcomes obtained are essentially true

100
representations of the actual events. An extra advantage is that experimental design enables the
generalisation of results. Experimental results can be useful in other population or settings.
3) Provides Helpful Insight: Experimental research offers beneficial insight that can be utilised
for providing results to immediate concerns. For Example, through experimenting on various
methods of teaching, an instructor can create an effective teaching plan. The teacher can use
results got from different teaching techniques and establish the most suitable option to use, thus
benefiting the students.
4) Control over Variables: Despite inconsistencies in experimental research, the researcher has
control over the variables increasing the possibility of more precisely determining individual
effects of each variable. Also, determining interaction between variables is more possible.
2.4.8 Limitations of Experimental Research Designs
Following are the limitations of experimental research:
1) Artificiality: The experiment is not typical of real-life situations. Most experiments are
conducted in laboratories. The artificiality of the lab, together with the ‘unnatural’ thing that the
subjects may be asked to do, jointly produces a distortion of behaviour. Therefore it is difficult to
generalise findings from experiments because they are not ecologically valid (true or real life).
2) Biased and Unrepresentative: It uses casual relationships that may be bias. Human input is a
disadvantage in these studies as humans do always have their own thoughts and can manipulate
the results.
3) Manipulations Possible: People can be influenced by what they see around them and may
give answers that they think the researcher wants to hear than how they and feel on a subject.
Researchers select one sample which is accessible and cheap and try to generalise the predictions
based on the research outcomes.
4) Not Possible to Completely Control the Variables: It has already been noted that strength of
the experimental method is the amount of control which experimenters have over variables.
However, it must also be noted that it is not possible to completely control all variables. There
may be other variables at work which the experimenter is unaware of. In particular, it is
impossible to completely control the mental world of people taking part in a study.
5) Uncertainty of Reactions: There is also another thought that testing on humans is also a
disadvantage as one cannot tell whether their answers or reactions are true or a show for the
experiment.
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2.5. VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
2.5.1. Introduction
Variables can be defined as any aspect of a theory that can vary or change as part of the
interaction within the theory. In other words, variables are anything that can effect or change the
results of a study. Every study has variables as these are needed in order to understand
differences.
A variable is a concept or construct that can vary or have more than one value. Some
variables can be quite concrete such as gender, birth order, weight or shoe size. Others can be
considerable more abstract, vague and squishy. For example, sense of well being, self –esteem,
strength of belief in religion, or IQ. Basically, variables are the things about people that one can
say one person have more of one another. So we find that people vary in their gender and shoe
size, and their self-esteem and their IQ.
An Important step in designing quantitative research projects is defining or identifying the

variables that will be manipulated, measured, described or controlled. Although qualitative
researchers do not define variables to the same extent that quantitative researchers do, they still
must outline what kind phenomena they are studying. The major types of variables or phenomena
of interest are described briefly here, with common examples from service-learning research
provided. These are presented in terms of labels from the quantitative research approach, but the
quantitative tradition includes analogous examples
Variables is Research
Department and Independent

Variables
Experimental and Measured
Qualitative and Quantitative Variables
Variables
Categorical and Numerical

Variables
2.5.2. Dependent and Independent Variables
An independent variable is the presumed cause of the variable - the presumed effect.
When it can say, A causes B, it means A is independent variable and B is dependent variable. The
independent variables thus is one which explains or accounts for variations in the dependent
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variable. A dependent variable (also called Y variable in statistics) is one which changes in
relationship to changes in another variables(s). An independent variable (also called X variable in
statistics) is one whose change results in the change in another variable. In a controlled
experiment, the independent variables is the experimental variable, i.e., one which is withheld
from the control group.
2.5.3 Experimental and Measured Variables
The experimental variables spell out the details of the investigator's manipulations while
the measured variables refer to measurement. For example, rural development (measured
variable) may be assessed in terms of increase in income, literacy level, infrastructure, availability
of medical facilities, availability of social security and so forth. In another study on factors
affecting student's achievement (high or low marks), it may examine the absence/availability of
books, libraries, good teachers, use of visuals and so on. All these will be experimental variables
or experimental manipulations for the researcher.
It is important when planning and executing research to distinguish between two types of
variables-active and assigned variables. Manipulated or experimental variables will be called
active variables, while measured variables will be called assigned variables. In other words, any
variable that is manipulated is an active variable and variable that cannot be manipulated is an
assigned variable.
2.5.4. Qualitative Quantitative Variables
The quantitative variable is one whose values or categories consist of numbers and if differences
between its categories can be expressed numerically. Thus, age, income, sizes are quantitative
variables. The quantitative variable is one which consists of discreet categories rather than
numerical units. This variable has two or more categories that are distinguished from each other.
Class (lower, middle, upper), caste (low intermediate, high) sex, (male, female), religion (Hindu,
non-Hindu) are all qualities variables.
Relationships among quantitative variables may be either positive or negative. A positive

relationship exists if an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by decrease in the
other. In other words, the two variables constantly change in the same direction,
e.g., the taller a father, the taller will be his son. The negative relationship between variables
exists if the decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the value of the
other, e.g., as age increase, the life expectancy decrease.

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2.5.5. Categorical and Numerical Variables
Therese Baker has used the terms categorical and numerical variables for qualitative and
quantitative variables respectively. The categorical variables (e.g., occupation, religion, caste,
gender, education, income) are made up of sets of categories (or attributes) which must follow
two rules – firstly the categories must be distinct from one another, i.e., they must be mutually
exclusive and secondly the categories must be exhaustive, i.e., they should cover all the potential
range of variation in a variable. After putting himself in the categories of educated (other being
illiterate) in the field of education, one can pot himself in the sub- category of undergraduate,
graduate, postgraduate, etc.
Numerical variables are broken down into units in which the numbers used carry mathematical
meaning. The numbers may be either discrete (1,2,3, etc.) which cannot be broken down into
smaller fractional quantities (e.g., number of children) or continuous.
2.6. MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
2.6.1. Meaning and Definition of Measurement
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as
part of a research effort. Technically speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a
domain onto other aspects of a range according to some rule of correspondence. In measuring, we
device some form of scale in the range (in terms of set theory, range may refer to some set) and
then transform or map the properties of objects from the domain (in terms of set theory, domain
may refer to some other set) onto this scale. For example, in case we are to find the male to
female attendance ratio while conducting a study of persons who some show, then we may
tabulate those who attended the show according to sex.
According to G.C. Helmstadter, “Measurement is a process of obtaining a numerical description

of the extent to which a person or object possesses some characteristics”.
According to Johan Galtung, “Measurement is the mapping of the values on a set of numbers”.
According to Kerlinger, “Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events

according to rules”.
There are a number of management decisions which are taken in an organisation, from time.
Some of these decisions may rely on data for which the units of measurement are capable of
statistical manipulation. Such data largely refer to quantifiable parameters or numerical properties
of a given population.
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The major area of utilisation of such data lies in the discipline of marketing where the-manager is
interested in knowing the attitudes of the current and potential users of his/her product or service
concept or idea. This knowledge of attitudes could result in decisions which would be sensible
and effective. Some examples of managerial decisions which rely on attitude measurement are
product positioning and market segmentation, advertising message decisions etc.
In is important for marketers to measure attitudes. Marketers try to understand these attitudes and
influence them to gain an advantage in the market. Measuring attitudes is a highly difficult
process and unlike measurement scales in the physical sciences like measuring height, weight etc.,
measurement scales for attitude are less prices. These are different attitude scales that can be used
to measure attitudes as precisely as possible.
2.6.2. Functions of Measurement
1) Facilitates Description of Social-and Psychological Phenomena: Measurement facilitates

empirical description of social and psychological phenomena. For example, in a study of a
tribal community, the researcher has to classify and categories the cultural patterns and
behaviours he observes. Measuring devices assist him in the classification process.
2) Provides Data for Statistical Operation: Measurements render data amenable to statistical
manipulation and treatment. The application of statistical techniques for comparing groups,
studying relationships between variables, etc. Is possible, only when the data collected
through various methods are amenable to quantification. Measurement devices make it
possible to quantify variables.
3) Facilitates Testing of Theories: Measurement facilitates testing of theories and hypothesis.
Theories are formulated to explain and predict social phenomena (for example, ethnic
conflict, communal disharmony, labour unrest, delinquency, hypothesis from these theories
and subject them to empirical test. Once the variables in hypothesis are quantified through
measuring devices, the hypothesis can be tested easily.
4) Enables Researchers in Differentiation: Measurement enables researchers to differentiate
between objects or people in terms of specific properties they possess. For example, Do girls
perform better then boys in college examination? Does productivity very among work groups?
To deal with such questions, it is necessary to measures the concerned variables. Measurement
of variables helps in classifying individuals or objects and thus to differentiate between them.
In this way, measurement performs a classificatory function. The above four functions are not
necessarily mutually exclusive, but are inter-related, and complementary to one another.
2.6.3. Measurement Process

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The measurement process specifically involves following steps:
1) Establishing Behavioural Categories: The very first step of measurement process is

establishing behavioural categories to define exactly which events are included in each
category being measured. The categories should be clearly specified so that measurement can
be made easy and convenient.
2) Using Various Methods for Calculations : After completing the first step the second step of
measurement includes using the frequency method, the duration method or the interval
method to obtain a numerical score for each behavioural category:
i) Frequency Method : Frequency counts are a record of the number of times a specific
behaviour occurs within a specific time period. Frequency counts are useful for recording
behaviours which have a clear beginning and ending, are of relatively short duration, and
tend to occur a number of times during the specified time period.
ii) Duration Method: The duration method involves recording how much time an individual
spends engaged in a specific behaviour during a fixed time observation period.
iii) Interval Method : This method involves dividing the observation periods into a series of
intervals and then recording whether a specific behaviour occurs during each interval.
3) Using Multiple Observers: The third step is using multiple observers for at least part of the
measurement process to obtain a measure of inter-rater reliability. There are three basic types
of observations:
i) Naturalistic Observation: Here, the behaviour is observed in real world. It is useful for
non-manipulated behaviours. The researcher observes and records the actual behaviour.
ii) Participant Observation: Unlike naturalistic observation, the researcher interacts with
participants and becomes one of them to observe and record behaviour.
iii) Contrived Observation: Another type of observation is contrived observation, or
structured observation, or structured observation. In contrast to observing in natural
setting, the observer sets up a situation that is likely to produce the behaviours to be
observed so that it is not necessary to wait for them to occur naturally.
2.6.4. Measurement Techniques
The most critical aspect of measurement is the development of rules for assigning numbers to the
characteristics. This problem is particularly tricky and difficult in social science and
organisational research in which the definition of concepts and variables are often neither easy nor
direct. To overcome this difficulty, many techniques of measurement have been developed by
social science researchers. These are relevant in management research too Based on the research
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design characteristics and the kind of variables defined, a suitable measurement method is
selected. In general, there are four techniques available to a researcher, which are as follows:
Methods of Measurement
Attitude Scales Questionnaires

Qualitative Research
Observation
1) Attitude Scales : These scales elicit self-reports of beliefs and feelings towards an object.
There are different types of attitude scales such as:
i) Rating scales that require the respondent to place the object at some point on a
continuum that is numerically ordered;
ii) Composite scales that require the respondent to express a degree of belief with regard to
several attributes of an object; and
iii) Multi –dimensional scales and scales developed using conjoint analysis used for
inferring specific aspects of an individual’s attitude towards an object at against direct
evaluation of the respondents (as in the first two scaling methods)
2) Questionnaires: This is a set of questions, used as an instrument for seeking relevant
information directly from respondents like behaviour, demographic characteristic,
knowledge, opinions, attitudes, beliefs and feelings. Generally a question or set of questions
represents a variable used in research. These are especially designed for a particular research
and then suitably validated before use. However, in many studies standard inventories/tests
designed and testes by others may also be used.
3) Qualitative Research: Qualitative methods are probably the oldest of all scientific
techniques, with Ancient Greek philosophers qualitatively observing the world around them
and trying to come up with answers which explained what they saw. The various methods
included under qualitative research are as follows:
i) Depth Interviews: These are interviews in which individuals are made to express their
feelings freely and without fear of dispute or disapproval. The details are recorded in
specifically designed sheets.
ii) Projective Techniques: Projective techniques enable research participants or subjects to
respond in ways in which they would otherwise not feel able to respond. Respondents

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are asked to respond to stimuli and the hope is that they will project aspects of their own
thought or feelings via use of stimuli.
iii) Physiological Measures: Physiological measurement involves monitoring a
respondent’s involuntary responses to marketing stimuli via the use of electrode and
equipment.
4) Observation: This is a direct of behaviour or results of behaviour. These procedures require
a person to dedicate his or her attention to the behaviours of an individual or group in a
natural setting for a certain period of time. The main advantage of this approach is its
increased credibility when pre-trained, disinterested, unbiased observers are used. Formal
observations often bring to attention actions and attitudes that might otherwise be
overlooked. Observations are extremely time consuming and sometimes observers produce
discomfort in those they are observing. The presence of an observer alters what is taking
place in a situation.
2.6.5. Different Types of Measurement Scales
Scaling is “progressively arranging series of items according to value or magnitude into which an
item can be placed according to its quantification”. Scaling thus constitutes a series of categories
through marks. Its purpose is to represent quantitatively item’s (person) place in the spectrum.
The most common scales used in business research are shown in figure 2.4:
1) Nominal scale : Nominal scale represents the most elementary level of measurement. A
nominal scale assigns a value to an object for identification or classification purposes.
The value can be, but does not have to be, a number because no quantities are being
represented. In this sense, a nominal scale is truly a qualitative scale. Nominal scales are
extremely useful even though they can be considered elementary. Marketing researchers use
nominal scales quite often.
Nominal scaling is arbitrary in the sense that each label can be assigned to any of the
categories without introducing error. The researcher can assign the letter C to any of the three
options without damaging scale validity.
In marketing research nominal scales are needed to measure brands, store types, sales
territories, geographical locations, heavy versus light users, working versus non-working
women and brand awareness versus non-awareness.

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Figure 2.4: Scales Used in Business Research
Ratio
Interval
Ordinal
Nominal
For example, consider following table which shows nominal scale:
Reasons for Purchase by Sex

Reasons for Purchase Male Female Total
No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Weight 10 20 28 56 38 38
Speed 31 62 10 20 41 41
Miscellaneous 9 18 12 24 21 21
Total 50 100 50 100 100 100
As it could be seen, males are concerned with speed and females are concerned with weight.
Nominal scales can be developed from a response to a question. Does your car have Chakara
Tyres? The responses may be Yes, No and don’t know.
For nominally scaled data, statistical analysis such as made, percentages, the binomial test and
chi-square test can be used. A mean or median cannot be calculated.
In such a scale the numbers serve as levels to identify persons or object, for example, class roll
no. assigned to student.
Advantages of Nominal Scales
i) Convenient Way of Keeping Track: Nominal scale provide convenient ways of keeping
track of people, objects, and events.
ii) Describes Differences between Things: A nominal scale simply describes differences
between things by assigning them to categories.
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Disadvantages of Nominal Scales
i) No Natural Order: As nominal scale represents the most elementary level of measurement
there is no natural order (e.g., gender)
ii) No Logical Order : Data categories are represented by labels or names even when the labels
are numerically coded, the data categories have no logical order.
iii) Lowest Form of Measurement: The nominal scale is the lowest form of measurement
because it does not capture information about the focal object other than whether the object
belongs or does not belong to a category.
2) Ordinal Scale : Ordinal scales have nominal properties, but they also allow things to be
arranged based on how much of some concept they possess. In other words, an ordinal scale is
a ranking scale. The ordinal scale indicates the relative position of two or more objects or
some characteristics. The consumers are asked to rank preferences for several brands, flavours
or package designs. The measures of such preference are ordinal in nature.
Research participants often are asked to rank order things based on preference. So preference
is the concept and the ordinal scale lists the options from most to least preferred or vice versa.
In this sense, ordinal scales are somewhat arbitrary, but not nearly as arbitrary as a nominal
scale. Five objects can be ranked from 1-5 (least preferred to most preferred) or 1-5 (most
preferred to least preferred) with no loss of meaning.
For example, one may rank two or more households according to their annual income.
Suppose we have five households with annual incomes as shown below:
Households A B C D E
Income(₹) 6,000 10,000 4,800 12,000 11,000
The household with highest income is given No.1 and the next to it No.2 and so on; then the
following order will emerge:
Households Order of Households on the Basis of

Annual Income
A IV
B III
C V
D I
E II

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These are also called ranking scale. These scales can use both counting and ordering.
The marketing data involves ordinal measurement. Most data collected by the process of
interrogation have ordinal properties.
Advantages of Ordinal Scales
i) Allow Easy Ranking of Products: They typically allow for individuals to rank a product or
performance based on a numerical scale. While the use of ranking scales can make it easy for
those who gather and tabulate the results.
ii) Covers the whole Information: The ordinal scale contains all of these information captured
in the nominal scale but it also ranks data from lowest to highest.
Disadvantages of Ordinal Scales
i) Ranking Based on Perception: A possible disadvantage of ordinal scale is that the evaluator
may rank based on perception. Although those who interpret the results use objective
methods, the actual evaluators may rate the subject based on their opinions or prejudices
without basing them on fact.
ii) Influence by Way of Conducting Survey: An individual using a ordinal scale may be
influences by how a survey is conducted in person, the responder be swayed by the survey
taker’s personal appearance or tone of voice. They survey taker may also have a personal
agenda which influences how they ask the question.
3) Interval Scale : The interval scale has all characteristics of the ordinal scale and in addition,
the units of measure or intervals between successive positions are equal
Example: How do you rate you present refrigerator for the following qualities?
Company Name Less Known 1 2 3 4 5 Well Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Overall Satisfaction Very Dis-Satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Very Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 2 and
also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not
permit conclusion that position that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because non
zero position has been established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to
calculate the Mean scores of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a
measure of dispersion) and also be calculated.
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Advantages of Interval Scales
i) Creates Standardisation: The largest advantages and purpose of interval scales is the
standardization they create. The provide a method to compare different objects, people, or
things in a structured fashion – ranging from quantitative to qualitative analysis.
ii) Simple and Easy to Understand: The reason interval scales are so prevalent is that they are
simple and easy to understand. They provide a significant amount of data and allow people to
view it in a very clear and concise manner – making decisions easier. This simplicity and logic
has contributed to the popularity of interval scales.
Disadvantage of the Interval Scale
i) Lack of True Zero : They primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it
does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.
ii) Tendency of Raters to Be Generous: Another limitation of interval scale is the tendency of
raters to be too generous. Rating scales should carry the suggestion that raters omit the rating
of characteristics that they have had no opportunity to observe.
4) Ration Scale: Ratio scales represent the highest from of measurement. They have all the
properties of interval scales with the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities.
Interval scales represent only relative meaning, where ratio scales represent absolute meaning.
In other words, ration scales provide iconic measurement. Zero therefore, has meaning in that
it represents an absence of some concept.
An absolute zero is a defining characteristic in determining between ration and interval scales.
For example, money is a way to measure economic value.
The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio
scale analytically are the most versatile. Ration scale possesses all the characteristics of an
internal scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations. Data
on certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open – ended
questions, will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions:
i) What is your annual income before taxes? --------------₹

ii) How far is the Theatre from your home?--------------Milcs.
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ration makes sense. For
example a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much as one with an
annual income of $ 20,000
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Table 2.1: Summary of Scaling Techniques
Criteria Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Properties of Naming Naming and Naming, ranking Naming, ranking
measurement Ranking and equal intervals equal intervals and
zero point
Examples Gender, Male Caste: High, IQ: of A is 25% IQ: of A is 1:1.5
and female intermediate higher than B Age: ratio of B to A
Residence Rural Income: Upper, Age: A is twice as age is 1:2
and urban middle and low old as B
Nature of Discrete Discrete or Continuous Continuous
underlying continuous
construct
Mathematical None None Addition and Addition, subtraction,
subtraction division, multiples
Statistical 1) X2 test 1) U – test 1) Pearson’s r 1) Pearson’s r
tests 2) Lambda test 2) Spearman’s P 2) t- test 2) t- test
3) Phi 3) Gamma
Advantage of Ratio Scale
i) Compares Relative Movements: The graph on ratio scale compares the relative movements.
So no fallacious conclusions can be drawn as it has no-zero line.
ii) Shows Definitive Trend : This graph shows a definite trend if data are organic. So it is
useful for extrapolation, i.e., for finding the estimated value for a future date not given in the
series.
Disadvantages of Ratio Scale
i) Negative Values Can’t Be Drawn: Ratio scale possesses all the characteristics of an internal
scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations but zero or
negative values cannot be drawn on ratio scale.
ii) Difficulty in Representing Quantified Responses: Quantified responses forming a ratio

scale analytically are the most versatile but absolute quantities cannot be represented.
2.6.6. Scaling

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Scaling may be considered as an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a
continuum upon which measured objects are located. Scaling describes the procedures of
assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. Scaling is the
branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative
constructs with quantitative metric units. A scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point
(in terms of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the lowest point along
with several intermediate points between these two extreme points.
These scale – point positions are so related to each other that when the first point happens to be
the highest point, the second point indicates higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as
compared to the third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to the fourth
and so on.
The term ‘scaling’ is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative measures
of subjective abstract concepts. Scaling has been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of
numbers (or other symbols) to a property of objects in order to important some of the
characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
A scale may be defined as a continuous spectrum or series of categories and has been defined as
any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude, into which an
item can be placed according to its quantification. The purpose of scaling is to represent usually
quantitatively, an item’s people, or an event’s place in the spectrum.
Scaling has also been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to
a property of objects in order to import some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in
question.
Scaling is “progressively arranging series of items according to value or magnitude into which an
item can be placed according to its quantification.” Scaling thus constitutes a series of categories
through marks. Its purpose is to represent quantitatively item’s (person’s) place in the spectrum.

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2.6.6.1. Scaling Techniques
There are two main categories of scaling techniques which are given below:
1) Rating Scales: One uses rating scales to judge properties of objects without reference to
other similar objects. These ratings may be in such forms as “like-dislike” “approve –
indifferent disapprove”, or other classifications using even more categories. There is little
conclusive support for choosing a three-point scale over scales with five or more points.
Rating scales provide the data required for perceptual Scaling Techniques mapping.
These rating scales will have the subjects of the map described on the basis of selected
attributes.
i) Graphic Rating Scale: The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
another.
Scaling Techniques
Rating Scales
Ranking Scales
Graphic Rating Scale

Method of Paired Comparison
Itemised Rating Scales
Guttman Scales/Scalogram
Method of Rank Order
Analysis
Likert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale
Thurston Scale
Stapel’s Scale
Multi Dimensional Scaling
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is
there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that
“Indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate
position on the line:, the physical distance between the left extreme position and the response

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position on the line can be measured; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the
responses or attitude towards the brand.
ii) Itemised Ratin Scales : These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a
number of brief description associated with each category. They are widely used in Research.
They essentially take the form of the multiple category question. Itemised rating scales
include the following types:
a) Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis: It is based on the idea that items can be arranged
along a continuum in such a way that a person who agrees with an item or finds an item
acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all other items expressing a less extreme
position. For example – Children should not be allowed to watch indecent programmes or
government should ban these programmes or they are not allowed to air on the television.
They all are related to one aspect. In this scale each score represents a unique set of
responses and therefore the total score of every individual is obtained. This scale takes a
lot of time and effort in development. They are most commonly used in political science,
anthropology, public opinion, research and psychology.
Features of Guttman Scales
• Uni-dimensional: Guttman scale consists of a unidimensional set of items that are

ranked in order of difficulty from least extreme to most extreme position. For example,
a person scoring a “7” on a ten item Guttman scale, will agree with items 1-7 and
disagree with items 8,9,10. An important property of Guttman’s model is that a
person’s entire set of responses to all items can be predicted from their cumulative
score because the model is deterministic.
• Highly Reliable: In practice, the Guttman scale is used far less frequently that Likert
scales, partly because Gutttman scales are comparatively more difficult to construct
than Likert scales and have reduced reliability and validity because of their brevity.
• Lend Themselves to Ordinal Levels of Measurement: Guttman scale is based on the
idea that items can be arranged along a continuum in such a way that a person who
agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable
all other items expressing a less extreme position in other words one can say that these
scales lend themselves to ordinal levels of measurement.
b) Likert Scale: A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires,
and is the most widely used scale in survey research. When responding to a Likert
questionnaire item, respondents specify their level of agreement to a statement. These
scale is named after its inventor, psychologist Rensis Likert. These scales are sometimes
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referred to as summated scales. It requires a respondent to indicate a degree of agreement
or disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the attitude object.
A Likert item is simply a statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate according to
any kind of subjective or objective criteria; generally the level of agreement or
disagreement is measured. Often five ordered response levels are used, although many
psychoimetricians advocate using seven or nine levels; a recent empirical study found that
a five or seven-point scale may produce slightly higher mean Scores relative to the highest
possible attainable score, compared to those produced from a ten-point scale and this
difference was statistically significant. In terms of the other data characteristics, there was
very little difference among the scale formats in terms of variation about the mean,
skewness or kurtosis. The format of a typical five-level Likert item is:
• Strongly disagree, ● Disagree,
• Neither agree nor disagree, ● Agree,
• Strongly agree
Features of Likert Scales
• Multi-Item Scale : A Likert scale is a multi – item scale, not a single item. A single
item, regardless of its format, should not be called a Likert scale.
• Adheres to Certain Format Requirements: Likert scale adheres to certain format
requirement. An item that is merely ordered-categorical, even if it is combined with
similar items in a composite scale, should not be called a Likert item or a Likkert-type
item. The term, discrete visual analogue scale (DVAS) is more generic and an
alternative in many cases.
• Ordered-Category Item : An item with ordered response levels but which has neither a
Likert not a DVAS format should simply be called an ordered category item.
• Psychometric Scale : A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly involved in
research that employs questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling
responses in survey research, such that the term is often used interchangeably with rating
scale, or more accurately the Likert-type scale, even though the two are not synonymous.
Advantages of Likert Scale
• It is relatively easy to construct and administer.

• Instructions that accompany the scale are easily understood; hence it can be used for
mail surveys and interviews with children.
• Accommodates neutral or undecided responses.
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• Provides a meaningful way to group a series of items.
• Enables computation of overall scores.
Disadvantages of Likert Scale
• It takes a longer time to complete as compared to Semantic Differential Scales, etc.

• Care needs to be taken when using Likert Scales in cross cultural research, as there may
be cultural variations in willingness to express disagreement.
• Requires a great deal of decision – making.
• Fails to measure true attitudes if respondents are concerned with looking good or
meeting expectations of the instructor.
c) Semantic Differential Scale: The semantic deferential is a 7-point rating scale with
endpoints associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. In a typical
application, respondents rate objects on a number of itemized, 7-point rating scales
bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives, such as “cold” and “warm”.
It establishes a connection between the brand and company image studies and also permits
the development of descriptive profiles that facilitates compatison of competitive items.
The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar scales to rate any
product, company or concept of interest. Respondents are given a group of these scales
and asked to check on each one point that indicates their opinion of the subject in question.
Each scale consist of two opposing adjectives such as good/bad, clean/ dirty, most
popular/ least popular, etc.
Which are separated by a continuum divided into seven segments. Respondents are asked
to check the segment that represents the degree of the characteristics involved that most
closely coincided with their opinion of the product or item being rated.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
A B
Students care : Inferior x x Superior
_ _ _ _ _
Infrastructure : Inferior x x Superior
_ _ _ _ _
Placement services : Poor x x Good
_ _ _ _ _
Syllabus : Old x x Latest
_ _ _ _ _

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Figure 2.5 : Sematic Differential Scale for Institutions image
Features of Semantic Differential Scale
• It is a special type of graphic scale, which is increasingly being used, in marketing

research.
• It establishes a connection between the brand and company image studies and also permits
the development of descriptive profiles that facilitates comparison of competitive item.
• The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar sales to rate any
product, company or concept of interest.
• Respondents are given a group of these scales and asked to check on each one point that
indicates their opinion of the subject in question.
• Each scale consist of two opposing adjectives such as good/ bad, clean/ dirty, most
popular/ least popular, etc. which are separated by a continuum divided into seven
segments.
• Respondents are asked to check the segment that represents the degree of the
characteristics involved that most closely coincided with their opinion of the product or
item being rated.
• It is best when used for image descriptive purpose and is not recommended for overall
attitude measurement.
• The advantage of using semantic differential is its simplicity, while producing results
comparable with those of the more complex scaling methods.
• The method is easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in
attitude, highly versatile, reliable and generally valid.
Advantages of Semantic Differential Scale
• Identifies particularly favourable or objectionable aspects of multi – faceted issues and

concepts.
• Provides an overall response scale score (average) for the concept.
• It is versatile and gives multidimensional advantage.
• It is a quick efficient means of scaling.
• It is widely used to compare image of brands, products, services and companies,
Disadvantages of Semantic Differential Scale
• Only useful for questions involving bipolar opposites (e.g., interesting/dull,

simple/complex, active/passive).
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• Adjectives may have different meaning for different respondents.
• These scales are not accompanied or supported by evidence of reliability or validity.
• The main criticism is the ad hoc method which researchers have used in selecting
adjectives, without offering any empirical to support their choices.
Comparison of Likert’s and Semantic Differential Scale
Likert’s Scale Semantic Differential Scale

1) Likert scales questionnaires. The 1) Semantic differential scales place opposite
questions are written with a 4-5-, or 6- characteristics/traits/qualities at opposite
point scale in which the respondents select ends of a scale. Then, respondents decide
a number that represents the level in how much of the characteristic/
which they agree. trait/quality the item has.
2) Lables each rating point with an individual 2) Does not label each rating point with an
descriptive. For example, agree, strongly individual descriptive. Instead it places
disagree et. one statement on the far left of the scale
and the opposite of that statement on the
far right.
3) Likert scales are given scores or assigned 3) It uses a numbering system within the
a weight to each row in the matrix, usually scale, and the respondent is asked to pick
from 1 to 5 the number on the scale where they fall
between the two statements.
4) Measures attitudes and opinions. 4) Usually measures a series of attitudes
toward a complex concept.
5) Usually contains strongly worded 5) Typically uses a 7-point response scale
statements that can be phrased positively with bipolar adjectives at each end.
or negatively.
6) Enables computation of overall scores. 6) Provides an overall response scale score
(average) for the concept.
7) Useful for gauging attitudes towards 7) Only useful for questions involving
certain issues. bipolar opposites(e.g., interesting\dull,
simple/complex).
8) For example, eating a lot of fruit is part of 8) For example, fats are …….
a healthy diet.
i) Strongly disagree
ii) Disagree Healthy unhealthy
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iii) Agree
iv) Strongly agree
d) Thurstone Scale: It is one of the Multi Item Scales developed by L.L. Thurstone’s method
of Equal Appearing Intervals on the concept that even though people could not assign
quantitative measures to their own attitudes, they could tell the difference between the
attitudes represented by two different statements and could identify items that approximately
halfway between the two. The procedure includes collecting a large number of statements
(perhaps as may as several hundred) related to the attitude in question, having a number of
judges (perhaps 20 or more) sort the statements independently into 11 piles that vary from the
most favourable statement to neutral statements to most unfavourable statements, studying
the frequency distribution of ratings for each statement and eliminate those statements that
the different judges have given widely scattered rating – that are in a number of different
piles, determining the scale value of each of the remaining statements – that is, the number of
the pile in pile in which the median of the distribution falls, selecting one of the two
statements from each of the 11 piles for the final scale. Those statements with the narrowest
range of rating are preferred as the most reliable.
Features of Thustron Scales
• Multi Item Scales : It is one of the Multi Item developed on the concept that, even through
people could not assign quantitative measures to their own attitudes, they could tell the
difference between the attitude represented by two different statements and could identify
items that were approximately halfway between the two.
• Locates Neutral Position: It is important to note that there are 11 attitude positions because
in a scale with odd number of parameters, it is easier to identify a neutral position.
• Intended to Develop Format : The Thurstone scale, created by Louis Thurstone, is intended
to develop a format for generating groups of indicators of a variable that have an empirical
structure among them.
• Number of Statements: A Thurstone scale has a number of statements to which the
respondent is asked to agree or disagree. There are three types of scale that Thurstone
described Equal – Appearing intervals method, Successive intervals method and Paired
comparisons method.

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Advantages of Thurston Scale
It is important to note that there are 11 attitude positions because in a scale with odd number of
parameters, it is easier to indentify a neatural position.
Disadvantages of Thurston Scale
• Thurstone scales are not widely used for Marketing Research because they are time
consuming during preparation.
• The ratings may be influenced by the Judges’ personal attitude.
• Different individuals can obtain exactly the same score from agreeing with quite different
items.
• It does not obtain information about the intensity of agreement with the rating.
e) Stapel’s Scale : The Stapel scale was originally developed in the 1950s to measure
simultaneously the direction and intensity of an attitude. Modern versions of the scale, with a
single adjective, are used as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to
create pairs of bipolar adjective. The modified Stapel scale places a single adjective in the
centre of an even number of numerical values (ranging, perhaps, from + 3 to -3). The scale
measures how close to or distant from the adjective given stimulus is perceived to be.
The advantages and disadvantages of the Stapel scale are very similar to those of the semantic
differential. However, the Stapel scale is markedly easier to administer, especially over the
telephone. Because the Stapel scale does not require bipolar adjectives, it is easier to construct
than the semantic differential. Research comparing the semantic with the Stapel scale
indicates that results from the two techniques are largely the same.
Features of Stapel Scales
• Analysed Using Procedures Similar to Semantic –Differential: Data obtained through
Stapel can be analysed by using procedures similar to the ones for semantic – differential
scales. Overall attitude scores can be computed for the respondents by summing their
ratings on the individual items.
• Consists of Single Adjective: The scale consists of a single adjective in the middle of the
self –report technique in which the respondents are asked to indicate how accurately each
of a number of statements describes the object of interest by selecting an appropriate
numerical response category.
• Other Features:
➢ Each item has only one item indicating the dimension it represents
➢ Each item has 10 or 11 response categories.

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➢ Each item is a forced-choice scale.
➢ The response categories have numerical labels bus no verbal labels.
f) Multi Dimensional Scaling: It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to
study consumer attitudes related to perception and preferences. It is a computer based
technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into different groups like
similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off on a large number
of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The purpose is to
find a reasonably smali number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the stress. After
the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been developed, the next step is to
determine the preference with regards to the product under study.
It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded
off on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer
program. The purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will
eliminate most of the stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been
developed, the next step is to determine the preference with regards to the product under
study. These techniques attempt to indentify the product attributes that are important to
consumers and to measure their relative importance.
Advantages of MDS
• MDS Obtains Judgment about Similarity of Products: Potential customers are asked to
compare pairs of products and make judgments about their similarity. Whereas other
techniques (such as factor analysis, discriminant analysis, and conjoint analysis) obtain
underlying dimensions from responses to product attributes indentified by the researcher,
MDS obtains the underlying dimensions from respondents’ judgments about the similarity
of products. This is an important advantages.
• Less Chance of Biasedness: It does not depend on researchers’ judgments. It does not
require a list of attributes to be shown to the respondents. The underlying dimensions come
from respondents’ judgments about pairs of products. Because of these advantages, MDS is
the most common technique used in perceptual mapping.
Disadvantages of MDS
• It is difficult to clearly define the concept of similarities and preferences. Further the
distances between the items are seen as different.
• There are a number of attributes; you can not base decision on one attribute only.
Therefore, when the consumers are choosing between brands, they base their decision on

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various attributes. In practice, the perception of the consumers involve different attributes
and any one consumer perceives each brand as a composite of a number of different
attributes.
2) Ranking Scales: In ranking scales, the subject directly compares two or more objects and
makes choices among them. Frequently, the respondent is asked to select one as the “best” or
the “most preferred” When there are only two choices, this approach is satisfactory, but it
often results in “ties” when more than two choices are found. For example, respondents are
asked to select the most preferred among three or more models of a product. Assume that 40
percent choose model A, 30 percent choose model B. and 30 percent choose model C. “Which
is, the preferred model?” The analyst would be taking a risk to suggest that A is most
preferred. Perhaps that interpretation is correct, but 60 percent of the respondents chose some
model other than A. Perhaps all B and C voters would place A last, preferring either B or C to
it. This ambiguity can be avoided by discussing the techniques described in this section. There
are two approaches of ranking scales.
i) Method of Paired Comparison: It is perhaps the most straightforward way of presenting
items for comparative judgment. With the method items are presented in pairs to one or
more judges; for each pair the judge selects the item that best satisfies the specified
judgment criterion. Respondents are asked to choose which item rates higher, according to
a predetermined criterion. The requisite number of individual items demonstrates a
shortcoming of the paired – comparison technique. The items can be of almost any type
including, importantly, goods, services, and environmental conditions. The method can
yield an interval-scale ordering of items along a dimension such as preference or
importance. The importance of paired comparison analysis is:
a) It is useful where priorities are not clear.
b) It is particularly useful where no objective data to base on this.
c) It helps to set priorities where there are conflicting demands on resources.
d) This makes it easy to choose the most important problem to solve, or select the solution
that will give the greatest advantage.
ii) Method of Rank Order: Rank order scales are comparative scales, where the respondent
is asked to rate an item in comparison with another item or a group of items against each
other based on a common criterion For example, a so on. The importance of rank order
analysis is:
a) It is easy to develop rank among the objects
b) It becomes easy to analyse the objects after ranking

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2.6.6.2. Process of Scaling
Although there are a number of methods available for the measurement of attitude, the most
commonly used approach is the self-report, where a person is asked directly how he feels about an
object. The other alternative methods are observation of behavior, indirect techniques such as
word-association tests, sentence-completion tests, story-telling, performance of objective’ tasks
and physiological reactions. Since the self –report method of attitude measurement is most
frequently used, the discussion here is based primarily on it.
This relationship is summarized in the equation
M=T+e
Where,
M = Actual scale measurement
T = Theoretical true score and
e = Random error
The random error could be either a positive or negative value. The true represents the average
score that would be obtained if a person were measured an infinite number of times. It is
important to note, that it has nothing to do with the theoretical constructs behind the scale. It is
simply a measure of whatever systematic component happens to exist in the measurement. The
question of validity and is irrelevant when determining reliability. The reliability . the reliability
coefficient p is defined as,
𝜎2 {𝑇}
𝜌= 𝜎2 {𝑀}
Where,
𝜎 2 {𝑇} = Variance of the scale’s true score and
𝜎 2 {𝑀} = Variance of the actual observed responses.
It therefore represents the proportion of the variability in the observed scores that can be
attributed to systematic elements of the scale.
But this formula cannot be used to calculate reliability because one can never measure
𝜎 2 {𝑇} However using this equation statisticians have derived several methods of calculating the
reliability coefficient using real data.
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One way to calculate reliability is to correlate the scores on parallel measurements of the
scale. Two measurement are defined as parallel if they are distinct ( are based on different data)
but equivalent (such that one can expect responses to the two measurements to have the same true
score). The two measurements must be performed on the same (or matched respondents so that
the correlation can be performed. There are a number of different ways to measure reliability
using parallel measurements
Methods to Evaluate Reliability of Instruments
Some of the methods to evaluate reliability of instrument are :
Methods to Evaluate Reliability of Instrument
Alternate Forms Method

Test Retest Method
Internal Consistency
Split Halves Method
1) Test – Retest Method : In this method one has respondents complete the scale at two
different points in time. The reliability of the scale can then be estimated by the correlation
between the two scores. The accuracy of this method rests on the assumption that the
participants are fundamentally the same ( ie, possess the same true score on scale) during
two tests periods. One common problem is that completing the scale the first time can
change the way that respondents complete the scale the second time. If they remember any
of their specific responses, e.g it could artificially indicate reliability estimate. When using
this method, it should present evidence that this is not an issue.
For Example , Suppose a researcher measures job satisfaction and finds that 64 per cent of
the population is satisfied with their jobs. If the study is repeated a few weeks later similar
conditions, and the researcher again finds that 64 per cent of the population is satisfied with
their jobs, it appears that the measure has repeatability. The high stability correlation or
consistency between the two measures at time 1 and time 2 indicates a high degree or
reliability. At the individual ( rather than aggregate ) level ,assume that a person does not
change his or her attitude about the job. If repeated measurements of that individual attitude
toward the job are taken with the same attitude scale, a reliable instrument will produce the
same results each time the attitude is measured. When a measuring instrument produces
unpredictable results from one testing to the next, the result are said to be unreliable because
of error in measurement.

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1. Alternate Forms Method : This method, also referred to as parallel forms is basically the
same as the test retest method, but with the use of different versions of the scale during
each session to reduce the likehood that the first application of the scale influences
responses to the second. The reliability of the scale can be then be estimated by the
correlation between the two scores. When using alternate forms it should show both that
the first scale did not affect responses to the second and that the two versions of scale are
essentially the same. The use of this method is generally preferred to the Test Retest
method.
2. Split Halves Method : One difficulty with the Test Retest method and the Alternate
Forms method is that the scale responses must be collected at two different points in time.
This requires more work and introduce the possibility that some natural event might
change the actual true score between the to applications of the scale. In the split Halves
method researcher only needs the respondents to fill out the scale one time.
Then divide scale items into two sections (such as the even numbered items and the odd
numbered items ) and calculates scores for each half. Then determine the correlation between
these two scores. Unlike the other methods this correlation does not estimate the scales
reliability, instead, one gets an estimate using the formula.
2𝑟
𝜌=
1+𝑟′
Where,
𝜌 = Reliability estimate and
R = Correlation that is obtained
Note that if scale is splitted in different ways. Different reliability estimate will be obtained.
Assuming that there are no confounding variables, they should all be centered on the reliability in
general it is best not use the first half and second half of the questionnaire since respondents may
become tired as they work through the scale. This would mean that greater variability would be
expected in the score from the second half than in the score from the first half.
Internal Consistency : Another way to calculate reliability is to use a measure of internal

consistency. The most popular of these reliability estimate is cronbach’s alpha. Cronbach’s alpha
can be obtained using the equation
𝑁𝑟′
𝛼=
1 + 𝑟 (𝑁 − 1)

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Where,
𝛼 = Cronbach’s Alpha
N = Number of items in the scale and
R = Mean inter item correlation
From the equation one can see that 𝛼 increases both with increasing r as well with increasing N.
Calculating Cronbach’s alpha is the most commonly used procedure to estimate reliability it is
highly accurate and has the advantage of only requiring a single application of the scale. The only
real disadvantage is that it is difficult to calculate by hand. It requires calculating the correlation
between every single pair of items in scale. This is rarely an issue, however as all the major
statistical packages have procedures that will calculate 𝛼 automatically.
The reliability of a scale is heavily dependent on the number of items composing the scale. Even
using items with poor internal consistency one can get a reliable scale if the scale is long enough.
For example 10 items that have an average inter item correlation of only 0.2 will produce a scale
with a reliability of 0.714 However the benefit of adding additional items decreases as the scale
grows larger and mostly disappears after 20 items.
One consequence of this is that adding extra items to a scale will generally increase the scale’s
reliability even if the new items are not particularly good an item will have to significantly lower
the average inter correlation for it to have a negative impact on relaibilty. Like all statistical
estimates. The confidence put into reliability estimate increases as scale testing is done using
more respondence. Therefore at least 20 participants must be involved when calculating
reliability. Obtaining more data won’t hurt, but will not strongly impact the stability of findings.
Reliabilt has specific implications for the utility of scale. Specifically the most that responses to
scale can correlation with any other variable is equal to p.
The variability in measure will prevent anything higher. Therefore the higher the reliability of
scale the easier it is to obtain significant findings. This is probably what one should think about
when they want to determine if scale has a higher enough reliability. It should be noted that low
reliability does not call results obtained using a scale into question low reliability only hurts
chances of finding significant results. It cannot cause to obtain false significance. If any thing
findings significant findings with an unreliable scale indicates that the researchers have
discovered a particularly strong effect, since it was able to overcome the hindrances of unreliable

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scale. In this way using a scale with low reliability is analogous to conducting an experiment with
a low number of participants.
Relationship between Reliability and Validity
Reliability is concerned with how considtently someonw is measuring whatever they are
measuring it is not concerned with the meaning and interpretation of the scores. Which is the
validity question. A measuring instrument can be reliable without being valid, it cannot be valid
unless it is first reliable.
For Example , someone could decide to measure intelligence by determining the circumference of
the head. The measures might be very consistent from time to time (reliable) but this method
would not yield valid inferences about intelligence because circumference of the head does not
correlate with any other criteria of intelligence, nor is it predicated by any theory of intelligence
so a test can be very reliable but consistently yield scores that are meaningless.
To be able to make valid inferences from a test’s scores, the test must first be consistent in
measuring whatever is being measured reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for
valid interpretations of test scores.
Reliability is a necessary precondition for validity is not necessary for an instrument to be reliable
thus it possible for an instrument to be reliable but not valid. It is however impossible for an
instrument to be valid not reliable.
Target and Rifle Analogy : A rifle and target analogy can be used to illustrate the relationship
between reliability and validity. In this analogy the rifle represents an instruments e.g a scale to
measure a characteristic such as intelligence self esteem, or psychosocial adjustment A familiar
pattern of concentric circles serves as a target the bull’s eye of the target represents the concepts
one is attempting to measure with the instrument shorts on the target represent the scores obtained
on the instrument.
How good is the rifle? That is how reliable and valid is the instrument? Figure 2.6(a) illustrates an
instrument that is neither reliable nor valid. The shorts or scores are scattered the instrument is not
considtent or reliable. In addition the shorts have not hit the bull’s eye the instrument does not
actually measure the intended concept it is not valid.
Figure 2.6 (b) Shows a pattern of clustered shorts the Rifle or instrument is consistent it is
measuring the same thing each time. It is reliable the shorts however are not on the bull eye
indicating that whatever is being measured is not the intended concept it is not a valid measure.

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Finally Figure 2.6 © illustrates a rifle or instruments that is both reliable and valid. Not only are
the scores clustered but they are all within the bull eye the scores measure the intended concept.
2.6.8.3 Practicality of Instruments
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy

convenience and interpretability from the operational point of view, the measuring instrument
ought to b practical it should be economical convenient and interpretable.
The scientific requirements of a project call for the measurement process to be reliable and
valid while the operational requirements call for it to be practical. Practicality has been
defined as economy convenience and interpretability while this definition refers to the
development of educational and psychological tests. It is meaningful for business
measurements as well.
1. Economy : Some trade off usually between the ideal research project and the budget. Data
are not free and instrument length is one area where economic pressures dominate. More
items give more reliability but in the interest of limiting the interview or observation time
and therefore costs we hold down the number of measurement questions. The choice of
data collection method is also often dictated by economics factors. The rising cost of
personal interviewing first led to an increased use of telephone surveys and subsequently
to the current rise in internet surveys. In standardized tests. The cost of test materials can
be such a significant expensethat it encourages multiple reuse. Add to this the need for fast
and economical scoring and one can see why computer scoring and scanning are
attractive.
2. Convenience : A measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to administer.
A questionnaire or a measurement scale with a set of detailed but clear instructions with
examples is easier to complete correctly than one that lacks these features. In a well
prepared study it is not uncommon for the interviewer instructions to be several times
longer than the interview questions. Naturally the more complex the concepts and
constructs the greater is the need for clear and complete instructions. Researchers can also
make the instrument easier to administer by giving close attention to its design and layout.
While reliability and validity dominate choices in design of scales administrative difficulty
should play some role. A long completion time. Complex instructions participant’s
perceived difficulty with the survey and their rated enjoyment of the process also influence
design. Layout issues include crowding of material poor reproduction of illustrations and
the carryover of items from one page to the next or the need to scroll the screen when

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taking a web survey both design and layout issues make completion of the instrument
more difficult.
3. Interpretability : This aspect of practicality is relevant when persons other than the test
designers must interpret the results. It is usually but not exclusively an issue with
standardized test. In such cases, the designer of the data collection instrument provide
several keys pieces of information to make interpretation possible
i) A statement of the functions the test was designed to measure and the procedures
by which it was developed
ii) Detailed instructions for administration
iii) Scoring keys and instructions
iv) Norms for appropriate reference groups
v) Evidence about reliability
vi) Evidence regarding the inter correlations of sub scores.
vii) Evidence regarding the relationship of the test to other measures.
viii) Guides for test use
2.6.8.4 Sensitivity of instruments :
Sensitivity refers to an instrument ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or

responses. Sensitivity is not high in instruments involving Agree or Disagree types of
response when there is a need to be more sensitive to subtle changes the instrument is altered
appropriately.
For Example : Strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, strongly disagree none of the
above are categories whose inclusion increases the scale sensitivity.
Important characteristic of a good attitude measure is sensitivity or the ability to discriminate

among meaningful differences in attitudes sensitivity is achieved by increasing the number of
scale categories however the more categories there are the lower the reliability will be this is
because every coarse response categories such as yes or no in response to an attitude question
can absorb a great deal of response variability before a change would be noted using the test
retest method. Conversely the use of a large number of response categories when there are
only a few distinct attitude positions would be subject to a considerable but unwarranted
amount of random fluctutation

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2.6.8.5. Generalisability of Instruments
Generalisability refers to the amount of flexibility in interpreting the data in different research
designs. The generalisability of a multiple item scale can be analysed by its ability to collect data
from a wide variety of respondents and with a reasonable flexibility to interpret such data.
Genaralisability refers to the extent to which one can generalize from the observations at hand to a
universe of generalizations. The set of all conditions of measurement over which the investigator
wishes to generalize is the universe of generalization. These conditions may include items,
interviews, situations of observation, and so on. A researcher may wish to generalize a scale
developed for use in personal interviews to other modes of data collection, such as mail and
telephone interviews. Likewise, one may wish to generalize from a sample of items to the
universe of items, from a sample of times of measurements to the universe of times of
measurement, from a sample of observers, and so on.
In generalisability studies, measurement procedures are designed to investigate the universe of

interest by sampling conditions of measurement from each of them. For each universe of interest,
an aspect of measurement called a facet is included in the study. Traditional reliability methods
can be viewed as single-facet generalisability studies. A test-retest correlation is concerned with
whether scores obtained from a measurement scale are generalisable to the universe scores across
all times of possible measurement. Even if the test-retest correlation is high, nothing can be said
about the generalisability of the scale to other universe. To generalize to other universes,
generalisability to other universe, generalisability theory procedures must be employed.
2.6.9. Difficulties in Measurement
Difficulties in measurement are as follows:
1) Irrelevant data: Measurement requires data and organization has plenty of it. But does
not organization have the right data – or they are just torturing the data and undermining
the credibility of the conclusions. Measurement-inspired marketers often try to mould data
into something worthy of brilliantly conceived metrics.
2) Inaccurate Response: Respondents give inaccurate responses in face-to-face interviews.
Getting a “right” answer soon is more important for correct measurement. Web-based
research now surveys a population of pseudo-target consumers faster and more cost-
effectively than ever before.
3) Researchers and Analyst Suffer the Dangerfield Syndrome: Get no Respect:
Researchers and analyst typically receive poor pay and have no career oath. They need to

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act as thought leaders within the organization, leveraging the thought and data models they
build in marketing and in all of the business functions it touches.
When researchers rise in stature, they encourage the use of facts and data to make smart
decisions. So the smart marketer will see that they get the training in communications
skills and leadership development to expose their talents more broadly and spread that
discipline within the department.
4) Training in Measurement is Rare: Improving marketing measurement requires right
skills in place. But there are very few programs for skill-building in measurement.
5) Delegating Measurement Strategy: In selecting the right marketing metrics, the
decision-maker has to have not only a big-picture perspective but also the clout to
negotiate marketing’s new science within the organization.
Mid-level managers can’t do this. Only a person at the top can assess how much change
marketing can take in one step and in which direction the group must move. Plus, when
measurement strategy is delegated, truth and insight often take a back seat to
rationalization and justification.
Measurement requires leadership that ensures every person in the organization is focused
on being creative, being supportive, taking initiative and performing as a team player.
2.6.10. Measurement Error

There are many sources of error in research measurement. The most common are those
caused by factors of the subject, researcher, environment and instrumentation which are
described as follows:
1) Subject factors: People are common source of error. A subject who is tired, sick,
hungry, angry, irritable or confused, e.g., may cause error in the instrumentation. In
fact, any changing physical, emotional or psychological state of the subject can
introduce error into the measurement process. The subject’s awareness of a
researcher’s presence during observation, anonymity of response in a self-report study
and the friendliness of the researcher may also cause bias. The careful researcher that
the factors that influence the subject and the subject’s response are controlled.
2) Researcher Factors: the researcher can influence the results of the study in many
ways, e.g., with his/her physical appearance, or his/her clothes, demeanour and
personal attributes. In situations where the researcher or data collector is feeling
fatigued, impatient, bored, ill or distracted, e.g., this state may also contribute to

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random error. The careful researcher attempts to put aside his/her personal feelings
during the data-collection process.
3) Environmental Factors: Many factors that cause random error in measurement can
stem from the physical environment in which the research occurs, such as weather,
temperature, lighting, noise and interruptions. The careful researcher ensures that the
environment is conductive to testing and that all testing times and sites are similar.
4) Instrumentation Factors: Many factors causing random error have their source in the
instrument. For Example, unclear questions, unclear directions, inadequate sampling if
items, the format of the questions, the order in which questions are asked and the way
questions are worded can all be a source of random error. The careful researcher
conducts a small-scale or pilot study to find out if other sources become apparent.
2.6.11. Criteria for Good Measurement
There are seven important criteria for ascertaining whether the scale developed is good or not:
1) Validity: validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be though of as
utility. In others words, validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring
instrument reflect true differences among those being tested.
2) Reliability: The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A
measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring
instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid
instrument.
3) Practicality: The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in
terms of economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view,
the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient
and interpretable.
4) Sensitivity: Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability
in stimuli or responses. Sensitivity is not high in instrument’s involving ‘Agree’ or
‘Disagree’ types of response. When there is a need to be more sensitive to subtle changes,
the instrument is altered appropriately.
For example, strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, none of the above, are
categories whose inclusion increases the scale’s sensitivity.
5) Generalisability: Generalisability refers to the amount of flexibility in interpreting the
data in different research designs. The Generalisability of a multiple item scale can be

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analysed by its ability to collect data from a wide variety of respondents and with a
reasonable flexibility to interpret such data.
6) Economy: The choice of data collection method is also often dictated by economic
factors. The rising cost of personal interviewing first led to an increased use of telephone
surveys and subsequently to the current rise in Internet surveys. In standardized tests, the
cost of test materials alone can be such a significant expense that it encourages multiple
reuses.
7) Convenience: A measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to administer.
A questionnaire or a measurement scale with a set of detailed but clear instructions, with
examples, is easier to complete correctly than one that lacks these features. In a well-
prepared study, it is not uncommon for the interviewer instructions to be several times
longer than the interview questions. Naturally, the more complex the concepts and
constructs, the greater is the need for clear and complete instructions.
2.7. Exercise
2.7.1. Short Answer Type Question
1) Explain the features of good research design.
2) Define depth interview.
3) Where case study technique can be applied?
4) Define the normal research design.
5) Where experimental research design can be applied?
6) Define observational method.
7) What are the limitations of descriptive research design?
8) Define the term research variable.
9) What do you mean by attitude scales?
10) Where nominal scale can be applies?
11) How reliability of instruments can be judged?
2.7.2. Long Answer Type questions

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1) What do you mean by research design? What are the factors that affect the research design?
Give the significance of research design.
2) Give the objectives and applications of research design. What are the different techniques of
exploratory research?
3) Define casual research. Give the basic principles of causal research. What are the different type
of causal research?
4) How the validity of research can be judged? What are the different factors that affect the
validity?
5) Where casual research can be applied? What are the pros and cons of casual research?
6) Give the techniques of descriptive research? What is the significance of descriptive research?
Give its application.
7) What do you mean by research variable? Give different types of research variable.
8) What are the functions of measurement? Give the measurement process. What are the different
types of scales?
9) What do you mean by scaling? Give scaling process. What are the different scaling criteria
used ion research?

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UNIT III
DATA COLLECTION
3.1 DATA
Data refers to information or facts. Often researcher understands by data only numerical figure. It
also includes descriptive facts, non-numerical information, qualitative and quantitative
information. Data could be broadly classified as:
3.1.1 Types of Data:
3.1.1.1 Primary Data:
It is known as the data collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are collected
with specific set of objectives to assess the current status of any variable studied.
Primary data are generally information gathered or generated by the researcher for the purpose of
the project immediately at hand. When the data are collected for the first time, the responsibility
for their processing also rests with the original investigator.
3.1.1.2 Secondary data
It refers to the information or facts already collected. Such data are collected with the objective of
understanding the past status of any variable.
Secondary data can be obtained internally i.e. within the firm or external from one or more
outside agencies.
Secondary data Sources
Internal Sources
A. Accounting Record
✓ Sales Invoice
✓ Sales record
✓ Cost detail
✓ Level of profit
✓ Advertising expenditure
✓ Budget etc.

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B. Sales force Report
✓ Marketing information
✓ Customers opinion
✓ Competitor information
✓ Area Wise Sales
C. Internal Expert
Experts working in the company like product manager, marketing, Research managers, public
relation personnel and advertising personnel etc.
D. Miscellaneous
E. Company history
F. Company background
G. Market share
H. Pamplet
I. Prospectus
J. Annual General Body Meeting Report.
K. Organization manual, chart.
L. Organization report.
External Sources
1. Publication of (Government)
a. Reserve Bank of India Bulleting
b. Census Report
c. Registrar general of India
d. Central Statistical organization
e. Director general of commercial intelligence
f. Ministry of commerce & industry
g. Economic Advisor Office

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h. Ministry of Agriculture
i. Labour Bureau.
2. Non-government Publication
j. Private agencies
k. Stock –exchange directories
l. Chamber of commerce
m. Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce
n. Associate Chamber of commerce & Industry Of India
o. Indo- American Chamber of Commerce etc
p. Promotion
q. Market Research & Statistical Bureau

3. Syndicated Services
These are provided by certain organization which collect and tabulate marketing information on a
continuing basis.
Report based on the marketing information collected by such organization is sent periodically to
clients who are subscribers. Apart from syndicated services a number of research agencies, offer
and customized research services to their clients.
ii) Technical and trade journals
iii) Books, magazines & newspapers
iv) Reports prepared by research scholars universities economists etc in diff fields
v) Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of published
information. Various publications of foreign government or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organizations.
3.1.2.3 CHARACTERISTCS OF SECONDARY DATA
1. Reliability of Data :
The reliability can be treated by finding out such things about the said data
a. Who collected the data?

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b.What were the sources of data?
c. Were they collected by using proper methods?
d.At what time were they collected?
e. Was there any bias of the compiler?
f. What level of accuracy was desired?

2. Suitability of Data
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable for one enquiry
may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found
to be unsuitable. The researcher should not use them.
3. Adequacy of Data
If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the present
enquiry they will be considered as inadequate and should not used by the researcher. The data
will also be considered adequate.
4. Continuity of Data
This is another problem in using secondary data. For eg, the format used for providing some
date may not be consistently followed by the source. Depending upon the page constraints or
availability of material the data presentation in a format is decided.
So frequent change in the format would only add to confusion to the people using the data from
such sources.
3.1.1.3 SPECIAL SOURCES

Computer Search & Internet Applications
Generally, most databases allow the researcher to undertake precise searches using combination
of key words in the website.
1. Scanning & Browsing:
New publications such as journals are unlikely to be indexed immediately in tertiary literature
so you will need to browse through these publications to gain an idea of their content.
In contrast scanning involves going through individual items such as journal articles to pick out
points that are related to your own research.
2. Searching the Internet
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The Internet is a worldwide network of computers that provides access to a vast range of
literature and other resources stored on computer around the world. Searching these will
uncover further material with which you can compare and contrast your ideas. The places where
these resources are stored are known as websites.
3. Home Page
Access to a website is through its home page. The home page, which has links to other pages in
the site, is similar to a title or contents page. Although they often contain publicity for a
company or institution they are an excellent way of navigating the site.
4. Search Tools:
It often referred to as search engines, are probably the most important way of searching the
internet for reviewing the literature on your research subject as they enable you to locate the
most current and up to date items.
5. Book marking
Once you have found a useful internet site, you will need to note its address. This process
termed bookmarking uses the internet browser to note the address so that you will be able to
access it again directly.
Sources of Primary Data Advantages:-
1. It provide a firsthand account of the situation. We can observe the phenomenon as it
takes place.
2. The information is more reliable as the investigator collects the data himself, he can take
all precautions to ensure their reliability
3. These are the logical starting point for research in several disciplines.
4. Primary data are the only way of finding out opinions, personal qualities, attitudes etc.
Disadvantages: -
1. Collecting primary data is expensive in terms of both time & money.
2. There is greater scope for researcher bias creeping in unless the research investigator is
fair to the respondent and methods of data collection the result of the study will not be
reliable.
3. Sample selection is yet another problem.

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3.1.1 PRIMARY DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
1. Questionnaire :-
In this method to pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used to elicit response
from the informant.
2. Interview :
This is a method in which the investigator and the respondent meet and questions raised are
answered and recorded. this method is adopted when personal opinion or view point are to be
gathered as a part of data.
3. Observation:
A method which requires familiarity and experience, in this method the observer applies his
sense organs to note down whatever that he could observe in the field and relate these data to
explain some phenomena.
4. Feedback
In the case of some of the consumer goods, the supplier or the manufacturer send the product
along with a pre-paid reply cover in which questions on the product and its usage are raised and
the customer is required to fill it up and send.
5. Sales force opinion
The sales representatives visit the distributor or the retailers shop to note down the detail of
stock movement, availability of items etc which give valuable information.
6. Schedule
This method of data collection is very much like the questionnaire with little difference which
lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed
for the purpose.
7. Warranty Card
Warranty Card is usually postal sized card which are used by dealers of consumer durables to
collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of
question on the warranty cards which is placed inside the package along with the product with a
request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

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8. Distributor or store Audit
Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesman and use such information to estimate
market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern & so on.
9. Pantry Audit
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basker of goods at the consumer
level. The investigators stay at the consuming point and observe the purchasing behavior or the
people like price response, quality consciousness, response to price & incentive schemes, who
take buying decision, credit facility required.
10. Consumer Panel
It refers to an arrangement with select consumers to maintain details of their consumption

behavior in their diaries based on these recorded information, useful firsthand information is
collected about the product & behavior of the consuming public.
11. Collection through mechanical devices
The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information by way of indirect
means. Eye camera, pupil metric camera, motion picture camera and audiometer etc are
principal devices, commonly used for the purpose for collecting the required information.
12. Projective technique
This technique is adopted to study the consumers through various methods like recalling
advertisement theme, story completion tests, quizzes, thematic appreciation tests etc. Through
this technique it is possible to compile information to be used as the basis for projecting the
demand for the product at different points of time.
i. Word association test
In this the respondent asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, without thinking as
the interviewer reads out each word from a list.
j. Sentence Completion test
In this informant may asked to complete a sentence analysis of replies from the same informant
reveals his attitude toward that subject and the combination of these attitudes of all the sample
members is then taken to reflect the views of the population.
k. Story Completion Test
It is an step further, where in the researcher may contrive stories instead of sentences and ask

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the informant to complete them.
l. Verbal Projection Test
These are the test where in the respondent is asked to comment on or explain what other people
do.
m. Pictorial Technique
• Thematic Apperception Test:
It consists of a set of pictures that are shown to respondents who are asked to describe what they
think the pictures represent.
• Rosenzweig Test:
This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of cartoons with words inserted in
balloon’s above. The respondent is asked to put his own words in an empty balloon space
provided for the purpose in the picture.
• Rorschach Test
It consists of ten cards having prints of ink blots. The respondents are asked to describe what
they perceive in such inkblot, and responses are interpreted on the basis of pre-determined
psychological framework.
• Holtzman Inkblot Test
It consists of 48 inkblot cards, which are based on color movement, shading and other facts
involved in inkblot perception.
• Tomkins- Horn Picture Arrangement Test
It consist of twenty five plates each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different
ways to portray a sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence.
• Play Technique
In this the respondents are asked to act out a situation in which they have been assigned various
roles. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility, dominance, sympathy prejudice or the
absence of traits.
• Quizzes, tests & examination
This is also a technique of extracting information regarding specific ability of candidates

indirectly. Through this, the memorizing and analytical ability of candidates.
• Sociometry

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It is a technique for describing the social relationship among individual in a group. It attempts to
describe attraction or repulsions between individual by asking them to indicate whom they
would choose or reject in various situations.
13. In-depth Interview
These are those interview that are designed to discover underlying motives and desires and are
often used in motivational research. Such interview are held to explore needs, desires and
feelings of respondents.
14. Content Analysis
It consists of analyzing the contents of documentary materials scuah as books, magazines,

newspapers and the content of other verbal materials which can be either spoken or printed.
3.2 OBSERVATION METHOD
It may be defined as “sensible application of sense organs in understanding less explained or

unexplained phenomena”. Using the sense organs, one could see and understands things.
Whenever a researcher is unable to compile information through any other method, then he has
to effectively apply his sense organs to observe and explain So it may be said that observation
involves recording of information applying visual understanding backed by alert sense organs.
3.2.1 TYPES
1. Structured Observation
When observation takes place strictly in accordance with a plan or a design prepared in
advance, it is called structured observation. In such a type the observer decided what to observe
what to focus on, who are all to be observed etc.
2. Unstructured Observation
In this type of observation there is no advance designing of what, how, when, who etc of
observation. The observer is given the freedom to decide on the spot, to observe everything that
is relevant.
3. Participant Observation
In this, the observer is very much present in the midst of what is observed. He is physically
present on the spot to observe and not influencing the activities. It will help him to continuously
observe and not everything that is happening around him.

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4. Non Participant Observation
In this observer remains detached from whatever is happening around and does involve himself
in any activities taking place. He is present only to observe and not to take part in the activities.
5. Controlled Observation
In this case, the observer performs his work in the environment or situation, which is very much
planned or designed or set.
6. Uncontrolled Observation
The observer is at freedom to observer whatever is taking place around him in the natural set up.
MERITS:-
1.The scope for bias is very much minimized.
The current scenarios in which anything is happening, notices & explained.
2.As there is no need to get any reply or details from the respondent observation does not
required any co-operation of the respondents.
3.This is a fairly reliable method.
4.Whenever respondent is illiterate or incapable of answering any question it is only

method of data collection available.
LIMITATION:
1.This is a relatively costly method of data collection, because the observer has to be
present on the spot to observer whatever is happening.
2.Training an observer is the additional cost to be incurred.
3.The scope for the biases of the observe interfering in what is observed and understood is
high.
4.It could be noticed that what is observed may bring out only part of the facts.
5.It may not be possible to observe what is targeted.
6.There is a lot of scope for the observer to get distracted by function.
7.The observer can effectively establish link among whatever he has observed to give a
meaningful interpretation.

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3.3 INTERVIEW
Interview method involves direct or indirect meeting of the respondent by the researcher. The
researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time of interview and then elicit the
response for them. The reply given is either written down in a notebook or recorded in audio or
videocassette.
3.3.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Direct Interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer and the interviewee meet personally either with prior
appointment or not. This method requires a interviewer to ask questions in a face to face contact
to the other person or persons.
a. Structured Interview
In this type of interview, the person collecting information decided in advance the nature, scope,
questions to be asked the persons to be contacted etc in advance. At the time of interview, no
deviation is made from the questions to be asked.
b. Unstructured Interview
In this type of interview, interview is conducted on the spot without any preparation or advance
information to the respondent. It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions
standardized techniques of recording information. The interviewer has much freedom to ask in
case of need supplementary questions or at time he may omit certain question of the situation so
required.
c. Focused Interview
In this type of interview, the object of the interviewer is to focus the attention of the respondent
on a specific issue or point. The interviewer has the freedom to plan the interview and conduct
it the way want it. The interviewer on the spot decides all the question sequence, wording of
questions etc.
d. Clinical Interview
The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feeling a motivations or with the
course of individual’s life experience.
e. Non-Directive
In this interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic

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with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

f. Telephonic Interview
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondent on telephone itself. It is

not a very widely used method but play, important part in industrial survey. There is no scope
for physical presence of both the partial to the interview.
Merits:
1.Interview enables personal contact with which factual information could be obtained.
2.The interviewer can guide the respondent to understand the question and suitably rephrase
or modify the question.
3.The non-response in this category of data collection is low
4.Spontaneous reply of the respondent can be obtained which would truly reflect their
opinion.
5.Interviewer has the flexibility to handle the interview to collect relevant information.
6.The interviewer can combine observation with interview so that a lot of additional
information about the environment, nature, behavior and attitude of the respondent could
also be noted.
7.The interviewer can be persuasive to obtain the response of the respndent while this may
not be possible in the case of questionnaire method of data collection.
8.The interviewer can adopt himself better by using the language with which he can reach the
respondents better and the educational level of the respondent.
9.It is also possible to obtain personal information which will not be revealed through
questionnaire.
Demerits:
1. This method presupposes the existence of rapport between the respondent and the
interviewer.
2. It is costly method of data collection, as the interviewer should be trained, oriented and
supported.
3. The time taken for covering a large sample of respondents is more than what it is under
questionnaire method.
4. It is possible for a respondent to conceal his real opinion or views and so genuine data may

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not be available.
5. The interviewer may also be biased and thereby his bias may influence the interview
outcome.
6. Interview method requires an elaborate organizational arrangement.
7. Sometimes this method cannot be followed as it would require fixing up appointment,

specifying the questions that are to be answered duration of interview, the person
interviewing the organizational background, the purpose of interview etc. Inspite of
providing all this information it may not be possible to get an appointment to conduct the
interview.
3.3.2 HOW TO MAKE INTERVIEW SUCCESSFUL
1. The interviewer should be carefully selected.
2. The interviewer should be trained properly.
3. Different methods of obtaining the response from the informants have to be explored and the
interviewer should be trained in all these aspects.
4. Unless the interviewer is experienced he would not be able to conduct the interview properly.
But without conducting interview he cannot be experience co care, should be taken while
selecting this method of data collection.
5. Honesty and integrity of the interviewer determine the outcomes of the interview so the
qualities of the interviewer should be objectively studied.
6. The interviewer should be fully equipped to clarify any questions raised by the informant.
7. The interviewer must first create a report with the respondent and ensures presence of cordial
atmosphere to conduct the interview.
8. Qualities like courteousness, politeness, and friendliness, conversational, unbiased are
all necessary to make the interview successful.
9. The interviewer should avoid showing his reaction to the response of the respondent as
otherwise the replies given may be biased.
10. The interviewer should be alert and intelligent with presence of mind to keep the
interview focused on the subject matter.

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3.4 QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is the sheets of paper containing questions relating to certain specific aspect
regarding which the researcher collects the data. The questionnaire is given to the informant or
respondent to be fitted up. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of
big enquiries.
Merits:
1. It involves lesser cost as questionnaire could be send by post to a wide area.
2. It does not interfere with the respondent while answering the question.
3. The bias of the investigator is completely eliminated.
4. Respondents are given sufficient time to fill up the questionnaire.
5. If respondents cannot be reached personally, questionnaire is the alternative method

available.
6. This method is useful when the sample size is very large.
7. if the questionnaire is designed properly with instructions then the training, supervising
and controlling the investigators is saved.
8. Confidentiality is ensured as the respondents directly send the filled up questionnaire to
the researcher.
Demerits:
1. It is always found that the response rate in questionnaire is very poor compared to using
schedules.
2. Bias of the respondent cannot be determined easily.
3. Only if the respondent is educated questionnaire could be used for collecting information.
4. Follow up of non-response or unfilled questionnaire only adds to the cost and time.
5. There is no scope for giving any clarification to the respondent in case of need.
6. Accuracy of response cannot be ensured.
7. A lot of care is required to design and structure a questionnaire. Hence unless a scholar is
good at drafting a questionnaire, this method cannot be adopted for data collection.

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3.4.1 TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
QUESTIONNAIRE
SELF ADMINISTERED
INTERVIEWER
ADMINISTERED
DELIVERY &
POSTAL COLLECTION TELEPHONE
QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE
STRUCTURED
INTERVIEW
1. Structured Questionnaire
It poses definite, concrete and preordained questions. Additional questions may be thought of
and asked only when some clarification is needed or additional information is sought from the
respondent. Answers to these question are normally very precise without any vagueness &
ambiguity.
2. Closed Form Questionnaire
Questions are set in such a manner that leaves only a few alternatives answers.
3. Open Ended Questionnaire
Here the respondent has the choice of using his own style. Diction, expression of language,
length and perception. The respondent are not restricted, his replies to the questions, and his
answers may be free and spontaneous
4. Unstructured Questionnaire
These contain a set of questions that are not structured in advance. It gives sufficient scope for a
variety of answers. It is used mainly for conduction interview. Its merit is flexibility. It aims to
secure the maximum possible information from the respondent.

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5. Pictorial Questionnaire
In a pictorial questionnaire alternative answer in the form of pictures are given and the
respondent is required to tick the picture concerned to indicate his selection. This type of
questionnaire is useful for illiterate and less knowledgeable respondent.
3.4.2 MAIN ASPECT OF QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it should be very
carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up then the survey is bound to fail. This fact
requires us to study the main aspect of a questionnaire.
1. General Form
The questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire. The form of the
question may be either closed or open, but should be stated in advance and not constructed
during questioning. The question is presented with exactly the same wording and in the same
order to all respondents.
2. Question Sequence
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly moving meaning thereby that the relation of
one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent with question that are
easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The opening questions should be such to arouse
human interest after that questions that are really vital to the research problem and a connecting
thread should run through successive questions.
3. Question formulation and Wording:
Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical plan. The questions can
be of any forms like :-
✓ Multiple Choice
It refers to one which provides several set alternatives for its answer.
✓ Dichotomous
It refers to one which offers the respondent a choice between only two alternatives, and
reduces the issue to its simplest terms.
✓ Close End Question:
It refers to those questions in which the respondent is given a limited number of alternative
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responses from which he is to select the one that most closely matches his/ her opinion or
attitude.
✓ Open Ended Question
It refers to a question that has no fixed alternatives to which the answer must conform.
✓ Direct Question
They explicitly ask for the desired data.
✓ Indirect Data
It refers to those whose responses are used to indicate or suggests data about the respondent
other than the actual facts given in the answer.
✓ Checklists
It is simply a statement on a problem followed by a series of answers from which the

respondent can choose. A single questionnaire may contain all type of questions. Researcher
must pay proper attention to the wordings of questions since reliable and meaningful returns
depend on it to a large extent. Simple words which are f a m i l i a r t o all r e s p o n d e n t
s h o u l d b e e m p l o y e d . Words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided.
3.4.3 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.It should be comparatively short and simple.
2.Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.
3.Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
4.Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided
in a questionnaire.
5.Questions affecting the sentiments should be avoided.
6.Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help editing and
tabulation.
7.It should be attractive looking.
8.The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that is may attract the
attention of recipients.
9.The first part of the questionnaire should specify the object or purpose for which the

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information is required.
10. It should not force the respondent to recall from his memory anything to answer.
11. If there is instruction, it should be given separately specifying the question number and
the related instructions.
12. It should not require any referencing before replying.
13. Repetition of questions should be eliminated.
14. Questions which cross check the response, could be built in to the questionnaire.
3.5 PILOT STUDY:
It is a process of testing the questionnaire before it is finalized, the questionnaire before it is

finalized, that is after the questionnaire is drafted, to decide whether it is comprehensive or not,
it is used with a few respondents.
Their responses are studied to determine the need for restructuring the questionnaire, re-
sequencing the questions, addition or deletion of questions, giving more instructions for filing
up etc can also be decided. It will bring to light the weaknesses of the questionnaire.
Basis Questionnaire Schedule

Application of questionnaire is sent to the investigator to apply
other methods respondent. observation method or interview
of data method of data collection along
collection. with the use of schedules.
This is not possible as the There is good scope for

Field control
questionnaire is filled by the controlling editing and
& testing.
respondent himself monitoring information on the
field itself
If the investigator is trained and

Bias in There is no way to test the extent of
information bias of the information given by the experienced then there is very
respondent. little scope for bias in
collected
information content.

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Usage Respondent himself records the Researcher/ enumerator records

answers obtained. the answers obtained.
Cost Relatively cheaper as it is sent by Costlier, as the investigator has

mail to the targeted respondent. to be appointed, trained and meet
every informant at the latter’s
place.
Coverage Wide coverage possible as it can be Relatively limited coverage as

sent to any place by post. the investigator cannot be sent to
every place.
Degree of Less all the respondents, do not Relatively better as the

Freedom respondent investigator guides the
respondents in understanding the
questions in right context.
Quality of Not good, as the respondent answers Relatively better as the

response the questions the way it understood. investigator guides the
respondents in understanding the
questions in right context.
Identify of It is not known clearlywho It is clearly known, as the

respondent answered the questionnaire and this enumerator himself elicits the
in turn might affect accuracy information so the accuracy of

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information obtained. information is more.
Time Taken It cannot be established as the It is possible to plan the enquiry

for reply respondent may reply at his & depute the investigators
convenience. accordingly & collect
information within a targeted
time
Personal It is completely absent and to that It is absolutely possible and so

contact extent there is to no scope for giving the quality of response is better.
any clarification to respondents. The investigator can understand
the questions clearly.
Sample It is possible to cover a wide range of This is not possible as the

Coverage sample elements as the questionnaire investigator has to personally
is only sent by post. contact each respondent.
Pre-condition The respondent should be a literate The literacy status of the

for use and co-operative respondent si not a limitation.
The investigator can explain the
question & obtain the response.
Accuracy of It is not likely to be high, as it Relatively accuracy is better in

Information depends on the structure of the this method as the investigator
questionnaire itself can determine the accuracy on
the field and adopt appropriate
methods to ensure accuracy.
Presentation Questionnaire should be designed No such requirements is a

requirement properly and made attractive to condition
encourage the respondent to fill it.

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3.6 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION: -
There are various methods of data collection; as such the researcher must judiciary selects the
method of his own study.
1. Nature, Scope and Object of enquiry: This constituted the most important factory affecting
the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of
enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher.
2. Availability of Funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large
extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the
researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method, which
may not be as efficient and efficient as some other costly method.
3. Time Factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular
method of data collection. Some method, take relatively more time whereas with others the
data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration.
4. Precision Required: The very important condition is the level of accuracy of the data
collected. In cases of compilation of data regarding the deviation from the standard
measurements in a workshop, the data should bet % accurate. Similarly, the data regarding
the patient condition explained through various parameters should be very accurate.
5. Period of Study: A study based on historical data requires secondary data source while the
study on the patient status in a hospital require primary data.
3.7 SAMPLING
Sampling refers to the statistical process of selecting and studying the characteristics of a
relatively small number of items from a relatively large population of such items, to draw
statistically valid inferences about the characteristics about the entire population.
To improve the cost effectiveness of data collection and analysis, several variations of the random
sampling are used by researchers. Some of the most common types of random sampling methods are (1)
simple random sampling, (2) systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and (4) cluster sampling.
Simple random sampling ensures
3.7.1 TYPES OF SAMPLING PLAN
Sampling techniques are classified into two broad categories of probability samples or non-
probability samples.

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1. Probability Sampling Technique

Probability samples are characterised by the fact that, the sampling units are selected by chance.
In such case, each member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being
selected.
However, it may not be true that all sample would have the same probability of selection,
but it is possible to say the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size.
It is possible that one can calculate the probability that any given population element would be
included in the sample. This requires a precise definition of the target population as well as the
sampling frame.
Probability sampling techniques differ in terms of sampling efficiency which is a concept

that refers to tradeoff between sampling cost and precision. Precision refers to the level of
uncertainty about the characteristics being measured. Precision is inversely related to sampling
errors but directly related to cost.
The greater the precision, the greater the cost and there should be a tradeoff between sampling
cost and precision. The researcher is required to design the most efficient sampling design in
order to increase the efficiency of the sampling. Probability sampling techniques are broadly
classified as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling.
2. Simple Random Sampling
This is the most important and widely used probability sampling technique. They gain
much significance because of their characteristic of being used to frame the concepts and
arguments in statistics.
Another important feature is that it allows each element in the population to have a known and
equal probability of selection. This means that every element is selected independently of
every other element. This method resembles lottery method where a in a system names are
placed in a box, the box is shuffled, and the names of the winners are then drawn out in an
unbiased manner.
Simple random sampling has a definite process, though not, so rigid. It involves compilation of
a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique identification number. Random
numbers are generated either using random number table or a computer to determine which
elements to include in the sample. For example, a researcher is interested in investigating the
behavioural pattern of customers while making a decision on purchasing a computer.
Accordingly, the researcher is interested in taking 5 samples from a sampling frame containing

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100 elements. The required sample may be chosen using simple random sampling technique by
arranging the 100 elements in an order and starting with row 1 and column 1 of random table,
and going down the column until 5 numbers between 1 and 100 are selected.
Numbers outside this range are ignored. Random number tables are found in every statistics
book. It consists of a randomly generated series of digits from 0 – 9. To enhance the readability
of the numbers, a space between every 4 digits between every 10 row is given.
The researcher may begin reading from anywhere in the random number table, however, once
started the researcher should continue to read across the row or down a column. The most
important feature of simple random sampling is that it facilitates representation of the population by
the sample ensuring that the statistical conclusions are valid
3. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a two-way process. It is distinguished from the simple random sampling
and systematic sampling, in that:
a) It requires division of the parent population into mutually exclusively and exhaustive subsets;
b) A simple random sample of elements is chosen independently from each group or subset.
Therefore, it characterises that, every population element should be assigned to one and only
Stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from each
stratum by simple random sampling technique.
Stratified sampling differs from quota sampling in that the sample elements are selected
probabilistically rather than based on convenience or on judgmental basis.
Strata are created by a divider called the stratification variable. This variable divides the
population into strata based on homogeneity, heterogeneity, relatedness or cost.
Sometimes, more than one variable is used for stratification purpose. This type of sampling is
done in order to get homogenous elements within each strata and, the elements between each
strata should have a higher degree of heterogeneity.
The number of strata to be formed for the research is left to the discretion of the researcher,
though, researchers agree that the optimum number of strata may be 6.
The reasons for using stratified sampling are as follows:
✓ It ensures representation of all important sub-populations in the sample;
✓ The cost per observation in the survey may be reduced;
✓ It combines the use of simple random sampling with potential gains in precision
✓ Estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population and;
✓ Increased accuracy at given cost.
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4. Non-probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves personal judgment
of the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Sometimes this judgment
is imposed by the researcher, while in other cases the selection of population elements to be
includes is left to the individual field workers.
The decision maker may also contribute to including a particular individual in the sampling
frame. Evidently, non probability sampling does not include elements selected
probabilistically and hence, leaves an degree of „sampling error‟ associated with the sample.
Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. Therefore,
while inferring to the population, results could not be reported plus or minus the sampling
error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the
population remains unknown However, we cannot come to a conclusion that sampling error is
an inherent of non probability sample.
Non-probability samples also yield good estimates of the population characteristics. Since,
inclusion of the elements in the sample are not determined in a probabilistic way, the
estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population.
The most commonly used non-probability sampling methods are convenience sampling,
judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
5. Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are sometimes called accidental samples because the elements included
in the sample enter by “accident‟. It is a sampling technique where samples are obtained from
convenient elements.
This refers to happening of the element at the right place at the right time, that is, where and
when the information for the study is being collected. The selection of the respondents is left
to the discretion of the interviewer.
The popular examples of convenience sampling include (a) respondents who gather in a
church (b) students in a class room (c) mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents for the study (d) tear-out questionnaire included in magazines and (e) people on
the street. In the above examples, the people may not be qualified respondents, however, form
part of the sample by virtue of assembling in the place where the researcher is conveniently
placed.
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Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling
techniques. The disadvantage with convenience sampling is that the researcher would have no
way of knowing if the sample chosen is representative of the target population.
6. Judgment Sampling
This is a form of convenience sampling otherwise called as purposive sampling because the
sample elements are chosen since it is expected that they can serve the research purpose.
The sample elements are chosen based on the judgment that prevails in the researcher’s mind
about the prospective individual. The researcher may use his wisdom to conclude that a
particular individual may be a representative of the population in which one is interested.
The distinguishing feature of judgment sampling is that the population elements are
purposively selected. Again, the selection is not based on that they are representative, but
rather because they can offer the contributions sought. In judgement sampling, the researcher
may be well aware of the characteristics of the prospective respondents, in order that, he
includes the individual in the sample.
It may be possible that the researcher has ideas and insights about the respondents
requisite experience and knowledge to offer some perspective on the research question.
7. Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling. It attempts to ensure that the sample
chosen by the researcher is a representative by selecting elements in such a way that the
proportion of the sample elements possessing a certain characteristic is approximately the
same as the proportion of the elements with the characteristic in the population.
Quota sampling is viewed as two-staged restricted judgmental sampling technique. The first
stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population elements. Control
characteristics involve age, sex, and race identified on the basis of judgement.
Then the distribution of these characteristics in the target population is determined. For
example, the researcher may use control categories in that, he/she intends to study 40% of
men and 60% of women in a population. Sex is the control group and the percentages fixed
are the quotas.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgement. Once
the quotas have been determined, there is considerable freedom to select the elements to be
included in the sample.

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For example, the researcher may not choose more than 40% of men and 60% of women in the
study. Even if the researcher comes across qualified men after reaching the 40% mark, he/she
would still restrict entry of men into the sample and keep searching for women till the quota is
fulfilled.
8. Snowball sampling
This is another popular non-probability technique widely used, especially in academic
research. In this technique, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random.
After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the
target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the information
provided by the selected group members.
The group members may provide information based on their understanding about the
qualification of the other prospective respondents. This method involves probability and non-
probability methods. The initial respondents are chosen by a random method and the
subsequent respondents are chosen by non-probability methods.
3.8 Exercise:
Shot Answer Type Questions
1. State the features of snowball sampling?2010

2. What are the benefits of a non-probability sampling methods.2010
3. How is sample size determined?2011
4. How to avoid sampling error?2012
5. What is multistage sampling?2012
6. What are the determinants of optimal sample size?2013
7. What are the characteristics of secondary data?2013
8. Define data, information and intelligence.2014
9. List out the characteristics of a good sample design.2014
10. Distinguish between primary and secondary data.2014
11. What is quota sampling? April/may 2015
12. What are the advantages of survey method? April/ may 2015
13. What are the steps involved in questionnaire design process? April /may
2015 (reg 2009/2010)
14. Bring out the strengths and weakness of non probability and probability
sampling techniques. April /may 2015 (reg 2009/2010)
15. Distinguish between questionnaire and interview schedule. 2007
16. What is a dynamic panel? 2007
17. Give four examples of probability sampling methods.2007
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Long Answer Type Questions

1. A population is divided into three strata so that NI=5000,N2=2000,
N3=3000.Respective standard deviations are 15,18, and 5.how should a sample
size n=84 be allocated to three strata if an optimum allocation using
disproportionate sampling design is required?2010,2011
2. Describe the probability and non probability sampling methods.2010,2011
3. In a large organization there have been an increasing number of strikes. You are
required to find out the various causes of strikes
a) What information needs to be collected?
b) Methodology and sampling procedure.
c) A suitable questionnaire
d) A few lines of starting and ending of your report.2012
4. What are the methods available for collecting primary data? Explain in
detail the construction of questionnaire.2013
5. Discuss the merits and demerits of various probability sampling techniques.2013
6. What is focus group interview? Write about the advantages of focus
group interviews.2014
7. Explain in detail about in depth interviews.2014
8. Discuss the role of direct observation as a business research method.2014
9. Discuss the importance of sampling design.2014
10. Discuss the methods of data collection by big business houses in recent times. april
/may 2015 (reg 2013)
11. Describe the methods of determining sample size. april /may 2015 (reg 2013)

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UNIT IV
DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 DATA PREPARATION
4.1.1 Introduction
After developing an appropriate questionnaire and pilot testing the same, researchers need to
undertake the field study and collect the data for analysis. In this chapter, we shall focus on the
fieldwork and data collection process. Furthermore, once the data is collected it is important to
use editing and coding procedures to input the data in the appropriate statistical software. Once
the data is entered into the software it is also important to check the data before the final analysis
is carried out. This chapter also deals with the how to code the data, input the data and clean the
data. It will further discuss the preliminary data analysis such as normality and outlier check. The
last section of this chapter will focus on the preliminary data analysis techniques such as
frequency distribution and also discuss hypothesis testing using various analysis techniques.
4.1.2 Data collection and Survey fieldwork
As stated earlier, many marketing research problems require collection of primary data
and surveys are one of the most employed techniques for collection of primary data.
Primary data collection therefore, in the field of marketing research requires fieldwork.
In the field of marketing (especially in the case of corporate research) primary data is
rarely collected by the person who designed the research. It is generally collected by the
either people in the research department or an agency specializing in fieldwork. Issues
have been raised with regard to fieldwork and ethics. If a proper recruitment procedure is
followed, such concerns rarely get raised. The process of data collection can be defined
in four stages:
(a) selection of fieldworkers;
(b) training of fieldworkers;
(c) supervision of fieldworkers
(d) evaluation of fieldwork and fieldworkers.

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Prior to selecting any fieldworker the researcher must have clarity as to what kind of
fieldworker will be suitable for a particular study. This is critical in case personal and
Discover the Management Dilemma Define
the Management Question
Exploration Refine the Research Exploration

Question(s)
Research
Proposal
Research Design
Data Collection Design Sampling design
Question and Instrument Pilot Testing
Instrument Revision
Data Collection and Preparation
Data Analysis and Interpretation

Legend
Research
planning Research Reporting
Data Management
gathering Decision
telephone interview because the respondent must feel comfortable interacting with the
fieldworker. Many times researchers leave the fieldworkers on their own and this can
have a direct impact on overall response rate and quality of data collected. It is very
important for the researcher to train the fieldworker with regard to what the questionnaire
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and the study aim to achieve. Most fieldworkers have little idea of what exactly research
process is and if not trained properly, they might not conduct the interviews in the correct
manner. Researchers have prepared guidelines for fieldworkers in asking questions. The
guidelines include:
a. Be thoroughly familiar with the questionnaire.
b. Ask the questions in the order in which they appear in the questionnaire.
c. Use the exact wording given in the questionnaire.
d. Read each question slowly.
e. Repeat questions that are not understood.
f. Ask every applicable question.
g. Follow instructions and skip patterns, probing carefully.
The researcher should also train the fieldworkers in probing techniques. Probing helps in
motivating the respondent and helps focus on a specific issue. However, if not done
properly, it can generate bias in the process. There are several probing techniques:
a. Repeating the question
b. Repeating the respondents’ reply
c. Boosting or reassuring the respondent
d. Eliciting clarification
e. Using a pause (silent probe)
f. Using objective/neutral questions or comments
The fieldworkers also should be trained on how to record the responses and how to
terminate the interviews politely. A trained fieldworker can become a good asset in the
whole of the research process in comparison to a fieldworker who is feeling
disengagement with the whole process. It is important to remember that fieldworkers are

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generally paid on hourly or daily basis and paid minimum wages in many cases.
Therefore, their motivation to conduct the interviews may not be as high as a researcher
overlooking the whole process. This brings about the issue of supervision, through
which, researchers can keep a control over the fieldworkers by making sure that they are
following the procedures and techniques in which they were trained. Supervision
provides advantages in terms of facilitating quality and control, keeping a tab on ethical
standards employed in the field, and control over cheating.
The fourth issue with regard to fieldwork is the issue of evaluating fieldwork and
fieldworkers. Evaluating fieldwork is important from the perspective of authenticity of
the interviews conducted. The researcher can call 10-20% of the sample respondents to
inquire the fieldworker actually conducted the interviews or not. The supervisor could
ask several questions within the questionnaire to reconfirm the data authenticity. The
fieldworkers should be evaluated on the total cost incurred, response rates, quality of
interviewing and the data.
4.1.3 Nature and scope of data preparation
Once the data is collected, researchers’ attention turns to data analysis. If the project has
been organized and carried out correctly, the analysis planning is already done using the
pilot test data. However, once the final data has been captured, researchers cannot start
analyzing them straightaway. There are several steps which are required to prepare the
data ready for analysis. The steps generally involve data editing and coding, data entry,
and data cleaning.
The above stated steps help in creating a data which is ready for analysis. It is important
to follow these steps in data preparation because incorrect data can result into incorrect
analysis and wrong conclusion hampering the objectives of the research as well as wrong
decision making by the manager.
4.2 EDITING
The usual first step in data preparation is to edit the raw data collected through the
questionnaire. Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them where possible, and

167
certifies that minimum data quality standards have been achieved. The purpose of editing
is to generate data which is: accurate; consistent with intent of the question and other
information in the survey; uniformly entered; complete; and arranged to simplify coding
and tabulation.
Sometimes it becomes obvious that an entry in the questionnaire is incorrect or entered in

the wrong place. Such errors could have occurred in interpretation or recording. When
responses are inappropriate or missing, the researcher has three choices:
(a) Researcher can sometimes detect the proper answer by reviewing the other information
in the schedule. This practice, however, should be limited to those few cases where it is
obvious what the correct answer is.
(b) Researcher can contact the respondent for correct information, if the identification
information has been collected as well as if time and budget allow.
(c) Researcher strike out the answer if it is clearly inappropriate. Here an editing entry of ‘no
answer’ or ‘unknown’ is called for. This procedure, however, is not very useful if your
sample size is small, as striking out an answer generates a missing value and often means
that the observation cannot be used in the analyses that contain this variable.
One of the major editing problem concerns with faking of an interview. Such fake
interviews are hard to spot till they come to editing stage and if the interview contains
only tick boxes it becomes highly difficult to spot such fraudulent data. One of the best
ways to tackle the fraudulent interviews is to add a few open-ended questions within the
questionnaire. These are the most difficult to fake. Distinctive response patterns in other
questions will often emerge if faking is occurring. To uncover this, the editor must
analyses the instruments used by each interviewer.
4.3 CODING
Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be
grouped into a limited number of classes or categories. Specifically, coding entails the

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assignment of numerical values to each individual response for each question within the
survey. The classifying of data into limited categories sacrifices some data detail but is
necessary for efficient analysis.
Instead of requesting the word male or female in response to a question that asks for the
identification of one’s gender, we could use the codes ‘M’ or ‘F’. Normally this variable
would be coded 1 for male and 2 for female or 0 and 1. Similarly, a Likert scale can be
coded as: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 4 = agree
and 5 = strongly agree. Coding the data in this format helps the overall analysis process
as most statistical software understand the numbers easily. Coding helps the researcher to
reduce several thousand replies to a few categories containing the critical information
needed for analysis. In coding, categories are the partitioning of a set; and categorization
is the process of using rules to partition a body of data.
One of the easiest ways to develop coding structure for the questionnaire is to develop a
codebook. A codebook, or coding scheme, contains each variable in the study and
specifies the application of coding rules to the variable. It is used by the researcher or
research staff as a guide to make data entry less prone to error and more efficient. It is
also the definitive source for locating the positions of variables in the data file during
analysis. Most codebooks – computerized or not – contain the question number, variable
name, location of the variable’s code on the input medium, descriptors for the response
options, and whether the variable is alpha (containing a – z) or numeric (containing 0 –
9). Table 7.1 below provides an example of a codebook.
Table : Sample codebook for a study on DVD rentals
Variable SPSS Variable Coding

instructions name
Identification n ID Number of each respondent
Movie rentals Rent 1= yes
2= no

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ovie genre Genre 1= comedy
2= action/adventure
3= thriller
4= drama
5= family
6= horror
7= documentary
DVD rental sources Source 1= in-store
2= online
Renting for Time 1= less than 6 months
2= 6 months – 1 year
3= 1 –2 years
4= 2-5 years
5= above 5 years
Coding close ended questions is much easier as they are structured questions and the
responses obtained are predetermined. As seen in the table 7.1 the coding of close ended
question follows a certain order. However, coding open ended questions is tricky. The
variety of answer one may encounter is staggering. For example, an openended question
relating to what makes you rent a DVD in the above questionnaire created more than 65
different types of response patterns among 230 responses. In such situations, content
analysis is used, which provides an objective, systematic and quantitative description of
the response. Content analysis guards against selective perception of the content,

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provides for the rigorous application of reliability and validity criteria, and is amenable to
computerization.
4.4 DATA ENTRY
Once the questionnaire is coded appropriately, researchers input the data into statistical
software package. This process is called data entry. There are various methods of data
entry. Manual data entry or keyboarding remains a mainstay for researchers who need to
create a data file immediately and store it in a minimal space on a variety of media.
Manual data entry is highly error prone when complex data is being entered and therefore
it becomes necessary to verify the data or at least a portion of it. Many large-scale studies
now involve optical character recognition or optical mark recognition wherein a
questionnaire is scanned using optical scanners and computer itself converts the
questionnaire into a statistical output. Such methods improve the overall effectiveness
and efficiency of data entry. In case of CATI or CAPI data is directly added into the
computer memory and therefore there is no need for data entry at a later stage. Many
firms now a days use electronic devices such as PDAs, Tablet PCs and so on in fieldwork
itself and thereby eliminating the data entry process later on. However, as the data is
being manually entered in this process, researchers must look for anomalies and go
through the editing process.
4.5 DATA CLEANING
Data cleaning focuses on error detection and consistency checks as well as treatment of
missing responses. The first step in the data cleaning process is to check each variable for
data that are out of the range or as otherwise called logically inconsistent data. Such data
must be corrected as they can hamper the overall analysis process.
Most advance statistical packages provide an output relating to such inconsistent data.
Inconsistent data must be closely examined as sometimes they might not be inconsistent
and be representing legitimate response

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In most surveys, it happens so that respondent has either provided ambiguous response or
the response has been improperly recorded. In such cases, missing value analysis is
conducted for cleaning the data. If the proportion of missing values is more than 10%, it
poses greater problems.
There are four options for treating missing values:
(a) substituting missing value with a neutral value (generally mean value for the
variable);
(b) substituting an imputed response by following a pattern of respondent’s other

responses; (c) case wise deletion, in which respondents with any missing responses are
discarded from the analysis
(d) pairwise deletion, wherein only the respondents with complete responses for that
specific variable are included. The different procedures for data cleaning may yield
different results and therefore, researcher should take utmost care when cleaning the data.
(e)The data cleaning should be kept at a minimum if possible.
4.6 PRELIMINARY DATA ANALYSIS
In the earlier part of this chapter, we discussed how responses are coded and entered.
Creating numerical summaries of this process provides valuable insights into its
effectiveness. For example, missing data, information that is missing about a respondent
or case for which other information is present, may be detected. Mis-coded, out-of-range
data, extreme values and other problems also may be rectified after a preliminary look at
the dataset. Once the data is cleaned a researcher can embark on the journey of data
analysis. In this section we will focus on the first stage of data analysis which is mostly
concerned with descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, describe the characteristics of the data as
well as provide initial analysis of any violations of the assumptions underlying the
statistical techniques. It also helps in addressing specific research questions.

172
This analysis is important because many advance statistical tests are sensitive to
violations in the data. The descriptive tests provide clarity to the researchers as to where
and how violation is occurring within the dataset. Descriptive statistics include the mean,
standard deviation, range of scores, skewness and kurtosis. This statistic can be obtained
using frequencies, descriptive or explore command in SPSS. To make it clear, SPSS is
one of the most used statistical software packages in the world. There are several other
such software packages available in the market which include, Minitab, SAS, Stata and
many others. For analysis purposes, researchers define the primary scales of
measurements (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio) into two categories. They are named
as categorical variables (also called as non-metric data) and continuous variables (also
called as metric data). Nominal and ordinal scale-based variables are called categorical
variables (such as gender, marital status and so on) while interval and ratio scale based
variables are called continuous variables (such as height, length, distance, temperature
and so on).
Categorical
variables: SPSS
menu
Analyse > Descriptive statistics > Frequencies
(Choose appropriate variables and transfer them into the variables box
using the arrow button. Then choose the required analysis to be carried
out using the statistics, charts and format button in the same window.
Press OK and then you will see the results appear in another window)
Continuous
variables: SPSS
menu
Analyse > Descriptive statistics > Descriptives
(Choose all the continuous variables and transfer them into the variables
box using the arrow button. Then clicking the options button, choose the
Programmes
various such you
analyses as SPSS
wish can provide Press
to perform. descriptive statistics
OK and for both
then you categorical
will see the and
results appear
continuous in another
variables. window)
The figure below provides how to get descriptive statistics in SPSS
for both kinds of variables.Figure : Descriptive analysis process

173
The descriptive data statistics for categorical variables provide details regarding
frequency (how many times the specific data occurs for that variable such as number of
male and number of female respondents) and percentages. The descriptive data statistics
for continuous variables provide details regarding mean, standard deviation, skewness
and kurtosis.
4.7 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Once the data is cleaned and ready for analysis, researchers generally undertake
hypothesis testing. Hypothesis is an empirically testable though yet unproven statement
developed in order to explain a phenomena.
Hypothesis is generally based on some preconceived notion of the relationship between

the data derived by the manager or the researcher. These preconceived notions generally
arrive from existing theory or practices observed in the marketplace.
For example, a hypothesis could be that ‘consumption of soft drinks is higher among
young adults (pertaining to age group 18-25) in comparison to middle aged consumers
(pertaining to age group 35-45)’. In the case of the above stated hypothesis we are
comparing two groups of consumers and the two samples are independent of each other.
On the other hand, a researcher may wish to compare the consumption pattern relating to
hard drinks and soft drinks among the young adults. In this case the sample is related.
Various tests are employed to analyse hypothesis relating to independent samples or
related samples.
4.7.1 Generic process for hypothesis testing
Testing for statistical significance follows a relatively well-defined pattern, although

authors differ in the number and sequence of steps. The generic process is described
below.

174
1. Formulate the hypothesis
While developing hypothesis, researchers use two specific terms: null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the
phenomena. On the other hand, alternative hypothesis states that there is true difference
between the phenomena. While developing null hypothesis, researcher assumes that any
change from what has been thought to be true is due to random sampling error. In
developing alternative hypothesis researcher assumes that the difference exists in reality
and is not simply due to random error.
For example, in the earlier explained hypothesis relating to hard drinks and cola drinks, if
after analysis, null hypothesis is accepted, we can conclude that there is no difference
between the drinking behaviour among young adults. However, if the null hypothesis is
rejected, we accept the alternative hypothesis that there is difference between the
drinking of hard and soft drinks among young adults. In research terms null hypothesis is
denoted via H0 and alternative hypothesis as H1.
2. Select an appropriate test
Statistical techniques can be classified into two streams namely univariate and
multivariate (bivariate techniques have been included as multivariate analysis here).
Univariate techniques are appropriate when there is a single measurement of each
element in the sample, or there are several measurements of each elements but each
variable is analysed in isolation.
On the other hand, multivariate techniques are suitable for analysing data when there are
two or more measurements of each element and the variables are analysed
simultaneously.77 The major difference between univariate and multivariate analysis is
the focus of analysis where univariate analysis techniques focus on averages and
variances, multivariate analysis techniques focus on degree of relationships (correlations
and covariances).

175
Univariate techniques are further classified on the basis of the nature of the data (i.e.
categorical or continuous). Multivariate techniques are classified on the basis of
dependency (i.e. dependence techniques and independence techniques).
The figure below explains the various types of analysis techniques researchers use when
analysing data.
Figure Classification of Univariate and Multivariate techniques
One sample Frequency; Chi

square; K-S;
Categorical data Runs; Binominal
Two or more Chi-square; Mann-
samples Whitney; Median,
Univariate K- S; K-W
technique ANOVA;
s One sample Sign, Wilcoxon;
t test; z test
Continuous data
Two-group t test; z
Two or
test; One-way
more
ANOVA Paired t
samples test
As seen from the figure above there are many types of univariate and multivariate analysis
techniques. For categorical data (involving nominal and ordinal scales), when there is only
one sample, frequency distribution, chi-square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, runs and binominal
tests can be used
However, when there two or more samples involved, analysis techniques such as chi-square,
Mann Whitney, Median, K-S, and Kruskal-Wallis Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) can be
useful for independent samples and sign, McNemar, and Wilcoxon tests can be useful for
related samples. Multivariate techniques involving dependencies and one dependent variable
could involve cross-tabulation, ANOVA, multiple regression, discriminant analysis and
conjoint analysis.
However, if there are two or more dependent variables in these dependence techniques,
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), canonical correlation, and multiple
discriminant analysis can be used.

176
Cross-tabulation;
ANOVA; Multiple
Variable regression;
interdependence Discriminant
analysis;
Dependence One dependent Factor analysis
techniques variable
MANOVA;
Two or Canonical
more correlation; Multiple
Multivariate dependent Discriminent
techniques variables analysis
Interdependence Interobject Cluster
techniques similarity analysis;
Multidimensiona
l scaling
For the interdependence multivariate techniques when a researcher wishes to measure

inter object similarity cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling can be used. On the
other hand, if a researcher wishes to measure variable interdependence factor analysis
can be used. We shall not be covering these techniques in details as they are quite
advance in nature and it is beyond the remit of this book.
3. Select desired level of significance
In marketing research, we accept or reject a hypothesis on the basis of the information

provided by our respondent sample. Since any sample will almost surely vary somewhat
from its population, we must judge whether the differences between groups are
statistically significant or insignificant. A difference has statistical significance if there is
good reason to believe the difference does not represent random sampling fluctuations
only. For example, in case of the first hypothesis we develosped relating to the young
adults and middle-aged consumers, we found that the young adults consume 21 soft
drinks a week and the middle-aged people consumer 16 soft drinks a week. Can we state
there is a meaningful difference between the groups? To define this meaningfulness we
need to conduct significance testing.

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In either accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis, we can make incorrect decisions. A null
hypothesis may get accepted when it should have been rejected or rejected when it
should have been accepted. These incorrect decisions lead to errors which are termed as
Type I error and Type II error. When a Type I error (Also termed as alpha error – a)
occurs, a true null hypothesis is rejected. When a Type II error (also termed as beta error
– þ) one fails to reject a false null hypothesis. Although þ is unknown as it is a population
parameter, it is related to a. An extremely low value of a (e.g. a = 0.0001) will result in
intolerably high þ errors. So it is necessary to balance the two errors. Marketing
researchers therefore use a value generally as 0.05 or 0.01. Increasing sample size also
can help control Type I and II errors.
4. Compute the calculated difference value
After the data are collected, researchers use a formula for the appropriate significance
test to obtain the calculated value.
5. Obtain the critical value
Once the test is conducted for t value or chi-square or other measure, researchers must
look up the critical value in the appropriate table for that distribution. These tables are
generally available in many research books or can be easily obtained from internet.79 The
critical value is the criterion that defines the region of rejection from the region of
acceptance of the null hypothesis.
6. Compare the calculated and critical values
Once the calculated and critical values are obtained the researcher then compares the
values. If the calculated value of the test statistics is greater than the critical value of the
test statistics, the null hypothesis is rejected. Furthermore, if the probability associated
with the calculated value of the test statistics is less than the level of significance (a) then
the null hypothesis is rejected.
7. Marketing research interpretation

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The conclusion reached by hypothesis testing must be converted into a language which
can be understood by managers. In this way, what was stated as a managerial problem
gets answered.
4.8 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
4.8.1 Univariate analysis
It focusses on the level coverage and distribution (variance)) of a single variable
4.8.2 Bivariate analysis
It focusses on the degree of relationship (correlation or covariance) between two

variables.
4.8.3 Multivariate analysis

It is the analysis of the simultaneous relationship among three or more variables. In a
multivariate analysis, the focus shift from paired relationships to the more complex
simultaneous relationships among three or more variables.
The multivariate technique can be broadly classified as dependence technique as

dependence technique or interdependence techniques.
Dependence techniques are appropriate when one or more variables can be identified as
dependent variable and the remaining as independent variables In the interdependence
techniques the variables are not classified as dependent or independent.

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UNIVARIATE TECHNIQUE
NON PARAMETRIC PARAMETRIC TECHNIQUE

STATISTIC
ONE SAMPLE TWO OR ONE TWO OR

-→ Chi-Square MORE SAMPLE MORE
→ Kolomogorov SAMPLES → T-TEST SAMPLES
Smirnov → Z-TEST
→ Run
INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
→ Chi-Square → SIGN
INDEPENDENT
→ RANK-SUM TEST → WILCOXON
→ T-TEST
→ K-S → MCNEMAR
→ Z-TEST
→ ANOVA → COCHRANQ
→ ANOVA
DEPENDENT
PAIRED TEST

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MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUE
ARE SOME VARIABLES

DEPENDENT
YES NO
DEPENDENCE METHODS INTERDEPENDENCE METHODS
HOW MANY VARIABLES ARE ARE INPUTS METRIC

DEPENDENT
YES NO
ONE SEVERAL
IS IT METRIC ARE THEY → FACTOR

METRIC ANALYSIS
→ CLUSTER
YES NO YES NO ANALYSIS
→ METRIC
MULTI- CANONICAL
MULTIPLE MULTIPLE VARIATE ANALYSIS
REGRESSION DISCRIMINANT
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
OF
VARIANCE
LATENT
NON METRIC STRUCTURE
METHODS ANALYSIS

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4.8.3.1 VARIABLE IN MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
1. Exploratory Variable
Explanatory variables are called external or exogenous variables. If x a considered t be the

cause of y, then x is the explanatory variable (or) causal or independent variables.
2. Criterion Variable
These are called endogenous variables. In the above stated case y is called as criterion (or)
dependent resultant variable.
3. Observable & Latent variable
When explanatory variable are directly observable variable, they are termed observable
variable. However some unobservable variable may influence criterion variable in which case
they are called latent variables.
4. Discrete variable & Continuous Variable
Discrete variables are those that lake only the integer value when measured.
Continuous variables are those that when measured, can assume any real volume.
5. Dummy Variable
This term is used in a technical sense and is useful in algebraic manipulations in the context of
multivariate analysis
4.8.3.2 TECHNIQUES
I. MULTIPLE REGRESSION
When there are two or more than two independent variables, the equation describing such a
relationship is the multiple regression equation. In this situation the results are interpreted as
Y= a + b1 x1+ b2 x2
X1, x2 = independent variable y = dependent variable a, b1, b2 = constant

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The constant can be solved by solving the following equation
• The no of normal equation would depend upon the number of independent variable. If there
are two independent variables, then three equations, if there are three independent variable
then four equations and so on are used.
• In multiple regression analysis the regression co-efficient (b1,b2) become less reliable as the
degree of correlation between the independent variable (x1,x2).
• If there is high degree of correlation between independent variables. We have what is

commonly described as the problem of multicollinearity. In such a situation we should use
only one set of the independent variable to make our estimate.
• Adding a second variable say x2 which is correlated with the first variable say x1 distorts the
values of the regression co-efficient.
• The main objective in using this technique is to predict the variability the dependent variable
based on its covariance with all the independent variables.
• One can predict the level of the dependent variable through the multiple regression analysis
model given the levels of independent variables.
• When multiple independent variables are measured with different scales, it is not possible to
make relative comparisons between regressions co-efficient to see which independent
variables have the most influence on the dependent variable.
• To solve this problem, we calculate the standardized regression co-efficient. Its is called beta
co-efficient and it is calculated from the normal regression co- efficient.
• The beta co-efficient allows direct comparison between independent variables to determine
which variables have the most influence on the dependent measure.
• When using multiple regression analysis, it is important to examine the overall statistical
significance of the regression model. The amount of variation in the dependent variable that
you have been able to explain with the independent measures is compared with total variation
in the dependent measure. This comparison result in a statistic allied a mode F Statistic

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Application:
❖ Used to predict the dependent variable, given knowledge of independent variable.
❖ To understand the relationship between the dependent variable and independent variable.
Inputs :
Variable value for dependent and the independent variable.
Output:
It will output the regression coefficients and their associated beta coefficient and t- Values
which can be used to evaluate the strength of the relationship between the respective
independent variable and the dependent variable.
Statistical Test:
The hypothesis that a regression parameter obtained from the sample evidence is zero or not is
based on the t-value.
Limitation
❖ The knowledge of a regression coeffient and it’s t-value can suggest the extent of association
or influence that an independent variable has on the dependent variable.
❖ The regression coeffient will reflect the impact of the omitted variable on the dependent
variable.
❖ The model is based on collected data that represent certain environmental conditions.
❖ The model is limited by the methodology associated with the data collection including the
sample size and measures used.
II. MULTIPLE DISCRIMINATE ANALYSIS
• It is a multivariate technique used for predicting group membership on the basis of two or
more independent variables. A discriminate function is a regression equation with a dependent
variable that represents group membership. This function maximally discriminate between
members of the group. It tells us to which group each member probably belong.
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• It can be used to assign individual to groups on the basis of their scores on two or measure.
From those scores the best composite score based on least squares is calculated. Then the
higher R2 is the better predictor of the group membership.
• One can use discriminate analysis to classify objects into two groups (ie.,) success, failure,
default, non-default.
• In discriminate analysis a scoring system is used on the basis of which an individual is

classified as category.
• Suppose an individual is 25 years of age earns an annual income of Rs.60000/- and has
undergone formal education for a period of 17years. Each of three variables is given a weight
indicating its relative importance.
Y=dependent variable.
• A certain limit is fixed of the value of y below which all values will be classified in Group I
and the others in Group II. The values of b1,b2 and b3 indicate their importance. The
numerical value of y can be transformed into t probability of the individual being credit
worthy.
• It may be noted that in the linear discriminate, the “b” co-efficient are similar to the regression
co-efficient. However the main differences is that while the regression co-efficient are used to
predict the value of the dependent variable. The discriminate co-efficient are used to classify
correctly as many individual or object as possible.
• One major advantage of linear discriminate analysis is that it enables the researcher to know,
by a simple device whether an individual is likely to belong to one or the other category on the
basis of his overall score. In this context, it is not only the values of the discriminate
coefficient but also their positive or negative signs that are equally relevant.
• Given a certain minimum vale of Z and credit worthiness, it should be clear that the higher the
values of the independent variable provided the discriminate coefficient are positive, the more
chances there are for the individual to be classified under this category.

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Application:
Used to identify variables that contribute to differences in the a priori defined groups with the
use of discriminate functions. It classify objects into one or more groups that are already
defined.
Inputs:
Variables values for the independent variable and dependent variable.
Output:
It provide the characteristics of the discriminate function., such as the variables that contribute
to each discriminate function. The significance of the function is also given. Statistical Tests:
The significance of the discriminant function and the variables are evaluated through an F-
statistic.
Limitation :
❖ It is similar to regression analysis such as intervariable correlations in the model,

correlation of variables with the omitted variables and change of environment condition.
❖ The assumption of the discriminant analysis has to be tested and it is often possible that
the assumption of equal variance –covariance matrices of the Independent variable in each
group is not met.
III. FACTOR ANALYSIS

It is a multivariate statistical technique that is used to summarize the information contained in
a large number of variables into smaller number of subsets or factors.
The purpose of factor analysis is to simplify the data with factory analysis there is no
distinction between dependent and independent variables rather all variables under
investigation are analyzed together to identify underlying factor.
There are two objects of factor analysis:-
1. It simplifies the data by reducing a large number of variable to a set of a small number of
variables.
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2. It analyses the interdependence of interrelationship among a total set of variables.
Factor analysis is an appropriate technique in case where the variables have a high degree of
Interco relation.
4.8.3.3 METHODS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS:
I The Centroid method
It was developed by L.L. Thurstone in 1950. It tends to maximize the sum of loadings ,
disregarding signs, it is the method which extracts the largest sum f absolute loadings for each
factor in turn. It is defined by linear conmbination in which all weights are either + 1 or -1 .
Steps :
1. Compute a matrix of correlations , R where unities are placed in the diagonal spaces.
2. If correlation matrix happens to be positive manifold the centriod method requires that the
weights for all variables be +1.
3. The first centroid can be calculated as
a) Sum of the coefficients in each column of the correlation matrix is worked out
b) Then sum of these column sums (T) is obtained
c) The sum of each column obtained as per is divided by the square root of T . This way
each centroid loading is ( one loadings for one variable) computed. The full set of loadings so
obtained constitute the first centriod factor.
4. To calculate second centriod , obtain a matrix of residual coefficients. It can be obtained by

multiplying the loading for the two variables on the first centriod factor.
5. This second matrix Q1, is subtracted element by element from the original matrix R.
6. The resultant matrix may have negative signs for variables.
7. For those reflected variable signs for all column & row are changed.

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8. From this reflected matrix loadings the second centriod factor loadings are computed just like
first centroid factor.
9. For subsequent factor the same process is repeated.
II. The Principal Components Method
It is developed by H.Hotelling. It seeks to maximize the sum of squared loadings of each

factor extracted in turn. The aim of the principal components method is the construction out of
a given set of variables X j ‘s ( j = 1,2,3 …….k) of new variables (pi) called principal
components which are linear combinations of the X.
The method is being applied mostly by the using the standardized variables,
The aij are called loadings and are worked out in such a way that the extracted principal
components satisfy two conditions i) Principal components are uncorrelated
ii) The first principal pi has the maximum variance, the second principal component p2 has the
next maximum variance and so on.
III .The Maximum likelihood method
It consists in obtaining sets of factor loadings successively in such a way that each in turn
explains as much as possible of the correlation matrix. It is a statistical approach in which one
maximize some relationship between the sample of data and the population from which the
sample was drawn. The loading obtained on the first factor are employed in the usual way to
obtain a matrix of the residual coefficient. A significance test is then applied to indicate
whether it would be reasonable to extract a second factor. This goes on repeatedly in search of
one factor after another. This method is very difficult in comparison to the other methods.
Merits:
1. The technique of factor analysis is quite useful when we want to condense and simplify
the multivariate data.
2. the technique is helpful in pointing out important and interesting that were there all the
time, but not easy to see from the data alone

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3. The technique can reveal the latent factors that determine relationship among several
variables.
4. the technique may be used in the context of empirical clustering of products, media or
people ie., for providing a classification for providing a classification scheme when data
scored on various rating scales have to be grouped together.
Application :
It is used to identify underlying dimensions or constructs in the data and to reduce the number
of variables by eliminating redundancy.
Inputs :
Usually a set of variables values for each individual or object in the sample.
Output ;
The factor loadings ie correlation between the factors and the variables are used to interpret
the factors.
Key assumptions:
The list of variables are complete and adequate for each factor.
Limitation
1. It involves laborious computations involving heavy cost burden.
2. the results of a single factor analysis are considered generally less reliable.
3. It can be used only when researchers has good knowledge and experience in handling.
4. It is highly subjective process.
5. No statistical tests are regularly employed in factor analysis.
IV.CLUSTER ANALYSIS
• The basic idea of cluster analysis is to group similar objects together.

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• A cluster is consists of variables that have high correlation with one another and
Comparatively low correlation with variables other clusters.
• The objective of cluster analysis is to determine how many mutually and exhaustive groups or
clusters, based on the similarities profiles among entities really exist in the population and then
to state the composition of such groups.
• There are two approach to clustering. Hierarchical and Non-Hierarchical.
• Hierarchical clustering can start and divide and in one cluster and divide and sub divide them
until all objects are in their own singly object cluster. This is called the top-down or decision
approach.
• In contrast the bottom up or agglomerate approach can start with each object in its own cluster
and systematically combine cluster until all objects are in one cluster.
• When one objects is associated with another in a cluster, it remains clustered with that object.
• The non-Hierarchical clustering differs from clustering only in that it permits objects to leave
one cluster and join another as clusters are being formed if the clustering criterion is improved
by doing so.
• Instead of using the tree like construction process found Pn Hierarchical clustering, cluster
seeds are used to group objects within a pre-specified distance of the seeds. Cluster seeds are
initial centroids or starting points of the cluster.
• Hence in this approach a cluster center is initially selected and all objects within a pre-
specified threshold distance are included in that cluster.
• There are several methods of groupings objects into cluster. In the Hierarchical approach the
commonly used methods are singly linkage, complete linkage, average linkage, ward’s method
& the centroid method.
• In Non-Hierarchical methods the three most commonly used approaches are sequential
threshold parallel threshold and optimizing procedures.
4.8.3.4 Methods of Grouping Clusters

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I. Hierarchical Clustering
a. Single Linkage
It is based on the shortest distance. It finds the two-individual separated by the shortest
distance and places them in the first cluster and places them in the first cluster. Then the next
shortest distance PS found and either a third individual joins the first wo to form a cluster or a
new two individual cluster is formed. The process continues until all individual are in one
cluster. This procedure is also referred to as the nearest neighbor approach.
b. Complete Linkage
This procedure is similar to singly linkage except that the clustering criterion is based on the
longest distance. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the farthest neighbor approach.
The distance between tow clusters is the longest distance from a point in the first cluster to a
point in the second clusters.
c. Average Linkage
It starts out the same as single linkage and complete linkage but the clustering criterion is the
average distance from individuals in one cluster to individuals in another such technique do
not use extreme values as do single linkage or complete linkage and partitioning is based on
all members of the clusters rather than on a single pain of extreme members.
d. Ward’s Method
It is based on the loss of information resulting from grouping objects into clusters as measured
by the total sum of square deviation of every object from the mean of the cluster to which the
object is assigned. As more clusters are formed the total sum of squared deviations increases.
At each stage in the clustering procedure the error sums of square is minimized over all
partitions obtainable by combining tow clusters from the previous stage. This procedure tends
to combine clusters with a small number of observations. It is also biased toward producing
clusters with approximate the same number of observations.
e. Centroid Method

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In the centroid method the distance between the group centroid is measured. The centroid is
the point whose co-ordinates are the means of all the observations in the cluster when two
clusters combine a new cluster is computed. Thus, cluster centroids migrate or move as the
clusters are combined.
II. Non-Hierarchical Clustering
1.Sequential Threshold
In this case a cluster centroid is selected and all objects within a pre-specified threshold value
are grouped. Then a new cluster center is selected and the process is repeated for the
unflustered objects, and so on for unclustered objects, and son on. Once objects enter a cluster,
they are moved from further procession.
2.Parallel Threshold
This method is similar to the proceeding one except that severe cluster centers are selected
simultaneously and objects within the threshold level are assigned to the nearest center. The
threshold level can then be adjusted to admit fewer or more objects to the cluster.
3.Optimizing
This method modified the previous two procedures in that objects can later be reassigned to
clusters by optimizing some overall criterion measure. Such as the average within cluster
distance for a given number of cluster.
Number of Clusters
1. The analyst can specify the number
2. He can specify the level of clusering with respect to the clustering criterion.
3. Determine the number from the pattern of clusters, the program generates.
4. The rate of total withing group variance to between grouped variance can be plotted
against the number of cluster.
1. Application Cluster analysis is used to group variables, objects or people

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2. Input It is any valid measure of similarity between objects such as correlations

3. Output The output is the formation of clusters.
4. Key assumptions
The basic measure similarity on which the clustering is based is a valid measure of the
similarity between the objects.
There is theoretical justification for structuring the objects into clusters.
Advantages:
1. Main use of cluster analysis in marketing is market segmentation
2. It provides better understanding of buyers behaviour.
3. It can also be used in the development of potential new products.
4. It helps for reducing a large mass of data into meaningful aggregate which are far more
manageable than a large number of individual observation.
Limitation
1. the lack of specificity has resulted into several methods of cluster analysis
2. cluster analysis lacks standard statistical tests
It requires a good deal of computational time almost as much as factor analysis needs4.9
CANONICAL CORRELATION ANALYSIS
When the researcher has two criterion variables (dependent variable) and multiple predictors
variables (independent varible) canonical correlation analysis is an appropriate statistical
technique. Multiple regression analysis investigates the linear relationship between a singly
dependent or criterion variable and multiple independan variables. Canonical correlation is a
extension of multiple regression. It focuses on the relationship between two sets of interval
scale variables.

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For eg. The relationship between the performance of a brand (measured as sales, marker share,
growth in sales, proft etc) and marketing-mix variables (price, promotion, distribution,
advertising etc) can evaluated through canonical analysis.
Application
Suppose we wish evaluate the association between a set of export-interest variable (criterion
set) and some firm characteristic (predictive set) e want to know how several from
characteristic such as willingness to export (y1) and level of interest on seeking government
assistance (y2) influence export interest behavior. Computing the canonical correlation
assesses the relationship between the y-set and x-set of variable.
Canonical correlation can be defined as the correlation between the linear combination of the
dependent variables and the linar combinations of the independent variables.
Calculations of the canonical correlation maximize the correatlion between two linear
combinations for eg. The linear combination for firm characteristics might and the linear
combination for the export interest variables might be Then the correlation between W and Y
is defined as canonical correlation.
Application
Canonical analysis is a technique to assess relationship between multiple dependent and

multiple independent variables.
Input
The inputs are the variables value for both the dependent and the independent variables.
Output
It helps to assess relationship between the linear composites of the dependent variable s with
linear composite of the independent variables.
Statistical Test
The significance of canonical function and the variable are evaluated with an F- Statistic.

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LIMITATIONS
1. Canonical weight is derived to maximize the correlation between the linear composites and
not the variance extracted.
2. It reflects shared variance between the linear composites and not the variance extracted.
3. Canonical weights are subject to a great degree of instability.
4.9 Exercise:
Shot Answer Type Questions
1. Why is eigenvalue is considered as important?2010
2. What is data mining?2011
3. Distinguish between R^2 and adjusted R^2011
4. What is cluster analysis?2011
5. What are the assumptions used in chi-square test?2012
6. Explain the steps in data preparation.2013
7. List down any two widely used statistical software for data analysis.2013
8. Differentiate between multiple regression analysis and multiple discriminate
analysis.2014
9. What is discriminant analysis? April/ may 2015
10. What is MDS? April/ may 2015
11. Define hypothesis.2007
12. What is canonical correlation analysis? 2007
Long Answer Type Questions

1. What is discriminate analysis? What are the methods involved in discriminate
analysis?2010,2011
2. Explain the series of steps to be taken in the application of multivariate regression. Give
example.2010,2011

195
3. Describe the purpose and basic principles of factor analysis. How do you
interpret the results of factor analysis.2013
4. Write a note of the application of statistical software for data analysis.2013
5. Discuss the various types of analysis of data pointing out the
assumptions and significance of each.2013
6. Write short note on cross tabulation.2014
7. Write short note on multi collinearity.2014
8. Write short note on coefficient of variation.2014
9. Write short note on Analysis of variance (ANOVA).2014
10. What is multivariate data analysis? Classify and explain about multivariate
techniques .2014
11. Describe the bivariate data analysis procedures. april /may 2015 (reg 2013)
12. Explain the steps in cluster analysis. april /may 2015 (reg 2013), 2007
13. What are the steps involved in conducting MDS?April/ May 2015 (reg 2009/2010)
14. Classify scale evaluation of a Multi item scale. April/ May 2015 (reg 2009/2010)
15. Describe data preparation process. April/ May 2015 (reg 2009/2010)
16. Simulate a situation relavant for application of factor analysis and
explain the process.2007

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UNIT 5
REPORT DESIGN WRITING & ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH
5.1 RESEARCH REPORT
5.1.1. Meaning of Research Report
After the entire hard work a researcher has put into designing research,
collecting, analyzing the data and testing hypotheses, it is time to start communicating
researcher result.
This is a critically important final step in the research process. Without proper
communication research findings will not be known to those who could benefit from it.
Research report is the written way of communicating the results of an investigation. It

is a document which reflects about how the research is conducted the care that has been
exercised throughout the study and the findings in a manner that can be utilized for decision
making.
It is observed that executive are rarely interested in the methodology adopted by the
researcher in the investigation they are interested only in the final results.
From their view point the research is the written presentation which the executive see about a
project carried out by the researcher but initiated by the decision marker (executive) and it
conveys the information desired by the decision maker in an understandable form.
According to Lancaster, “A report is a statement of collected and considered facts so

drawn up as to give clear and concise information to persons who are not already in
possession of the full facts of the subject matter of the report”.
A research report is a written document specifying the purpose, scope, objective(s),

hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally recommendations of a research
project to others.
The researcher has to convince the client (and others who may read the report) that
the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit.

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5.1.2 Characteristics of Research Report
1) Accuracy: Information presented in reports should be accurate. Inaccurate

information may often land the managers in trouble. The report must present information as
accurately as possible.
2) Simplicity: A report should be simple. This would help in arriving at decisions

quickly and easily.
3) Clarity and Completeness: The report should be complete in all respects. There
should be no room for ambiguity.
4) Brevity: Executives do not find sufficient time to read lengthy report. Therefore
the reports should briefly reflect the essential points.
5) Appearance: The arrangement organization format layout and make up of a report

should be pleasing and as for us possible eye catching.
6)Comprehensibility and Readability: Reports must be easy to read and understand.

They must avoid technical language as far as possible. The writer must present the facts
through elegant and grammatically correct English.
7) Reliability: Reports should be reliable and should not create an erroneous

impression in the minds of readers either due to oversight or neglect.
8) Economy: Report writing should not be a costly exercise. The most economical
methods and standard quality must be employed while conveying the matter.
9) Timelines: To be useful and purposive, reports should research the well in time.
Any delay in submission of reports makes the preparation of reports a futile exercise and
sometimes obsolete too.
10) Logical content : The content of the report must be presented in a logical manner.
The facts must be reported in an unbiased manner. Distinctive points must bear self
explanatory headings and sub – headings.

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5.1.3 Different Types of Research Report
Various types of research are as follows:
Different Types of Research Report
Technical Report
Popular Report
Interim Report
Summary Report
Algorithmic Research Report
1. Technical Report : In the technical report the main emphasis is on the methods
employed, assumptions made in the course of the study. The detailed presentation of the
findings including their limitations and supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows
i) Summary of Results : A brief review of the main findings just in two or three
pages.
ii) Nature of the study : Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms the working hypothesis the
type of analysis and data required etc..
iii) Research Methodology: Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample
design viz.., sample size, sample selection etc
iv) Details of data : Discussion of data collected; their sources, characteristics
and limitations. If secondary data are used their suitability to the problem at
head is fully assessed. In case of a survey the manner in which data were
collected should be fully described.
v) Analysis of data and Presentation of Findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts should be fully narrated. This in fact happens to be the main
body of the report usually extending over several chapters.

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vi) Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results should be explained.
vii) Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted should be prepared
and attached
viii) Technical Appendices: Appendices should be given for all technical matters
relating to questionnaire mathematical derivation, elaboration on particular
technique of analysis and the like ones.
ix) Index : index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the
end.
2. Popular Report: The report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization
of technical, particularly mathematical details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
Attractive layout along with large print many subheadings even an occasional cartoon
now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides in such a
report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.
Given below is a general outline of a popular report:
i) Findings and their Implications : Emphasis in the report is given on the

findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
ii) Recommendations For follow – up : Recommendations for action up on the
basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
iii) Objective of the study : A general review of how the problem arises is
presented along with the specific objectives of the project under study.
iv) Methods Employed : A brief and non – technical description of the methods
and techniques used including review of the data on which the study is based
is given in this part of the report.
v) Results: This Section constitutes the main body of the report where in the
results of the study are presents in clear and non – technical terms with liberal
use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
vi) Technical Appendices: More detailed information on methods used forms
etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not
detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.

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There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared.
The only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity
and policy implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical
details of all sorts to the extent possible.
3. Interim Report : When there is a long time lag between data collection and the
presentation of the results as in the case of a sponsored project, the study may lose its
significance and usefulness and the sponsor may also lose interest in it one of the most
effective ways to avoid such eventualities is to present an interim report.
This short report may contain either the first results of the analysis of some
aspects’ s completely analyzed. Whatever may be coverage of the interim report, it fulfills
certain functions it facilitates the sponsoring agency to take action without waiting for the
full report. It helps to keep alive the agency’s interest in the study and prevent
misunderstandings about the delay. In addition it serves to spread over a longer period the
time consuming process of discussion of research findings and implications. The report
also enables the researcher to find the appropriate style of reporting.
The interim report contains a narration of what has been done so far and what
was its outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that part of analysis which has
been completed.
4. Summary Report : A summary report is generally prepared for the consumption of the
lay audience viz., the general public. The preparation of this type of report is desirable
for any study whose findings are of general interest. It is written in non – technical
simple language with a liberal use of Pictorial charts. It just contains a brief reference to
the objective of the study, its major findings and their implications. It is a short report of
two or three pages. Its size is so limited as to be suitable for publication in daily
newspapers.
5. Algorithmic Research Report : There are Problems viz., production scheduling JIT
supply chain management, line balancing, layout design, portfolio management, etc.,
which exist in reality. The solution for each of the above problems can be obtained
through algorithms. So the researchers should come out with newer algorithms or
improved algorithms for such problems. For a combinatorial problem the researcher

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should attempt to develop an efficient heuristic. The algorithmic research report for
combinatorial problem.
(i) Algorithmic research report for combinatorial problem
(ii) Exact algorithmic research report for polynomial problem
5.1.4 Formulation of Research Report :
Once clear about the purpose of writing a report the persons for whom it is
meant, the facts to be examined, the facts to be included the time at your disposal and
knowledge about the type of report you are going to write, it is time to start the work
The following five steps are suggested to write report :
1. Investigating the Sources of Information : Investigating the sources of information

is a kind of spadework it is to be done right in the beginning. The extent of
investigation will of course, decide the length and importance of the report major
sources of information are company files personal observation interview letters,
questionnaire and library research.
2. Taking Notes : In the course of investigations the writer keeps on taking notes of
anything that appears to be related to the subject. He might not analyze them
simultaneously but record them for later use. As the writer Keeps terming them in his
mind over and again a kind of pattern starts emerging and he begins to be clear about
what is relevant and what is not.
3. Analysing the data : Next it is the time to analyze the collected data in the light of
the pattern that has evolved. A lot of data will have to be rejected while a need might
be felt to collect more data. The final pattern will emerge at this step. The writer
should never hurry through this step since this is the most important stage in writing
a report.
4. Making an outline : Once the final pattern of the report has taken shape in the
writer’s mind be should prepare an outline to write the report in this outline the
problem is stated the facts are recorded they are briefly analyzed and the logical
conclusion is arrived. An outline is not essential but it has been found extremely
helpful in writing a systematic report.

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5. Writing the Report : The last step is that of writing the report. It wll need a constant
shuttling between the outline and the notes. First a rough draft of the report is
prepared. Then it is revised pruned and polished. If the writer has some more time at
his disposal, he will find it advantages to come back to his rough draft after say a
couple of days. The short interval will make his revision really meaningful. The
writer should also be careful that the language of the report is simple unambiguous
coherent and free from grammatical error. It is now time to type it out in a proper
from and submit it
5.1.5. Contents of Research Reports
There is no one best structure for all report. However the physical structure can be
employed to create desirable emphasis and clarity. The use of widely spaced paragraphs
varied margins, separated headings, different type of sizes and colors all make it possible to
emphasize major points and to clarify the sequence and relationship of ideas. A report must
use the format that best fits the needs and wants of its readers. The following format is
suggested as a basic outline that has sufficient flexibility to meet most situations. It should
not be thought of as a rigid outline that must always be followed.
1. Title page : The title page should indicate the topic on which the report has been
prepared the person or agency who has prepared it the person or agency for whom it has
been prepared and the sate of submission (or completion) of the report if it is intended for
the attainment of some degree it should also be specified on title page.
2. Table of Contents : The table of contents is an outline of the order of the chapters
sections and sub sections with their respective pages. If report includes a number of
charts, figure, tables, maps, diagrams and graphs etc., a separate table for each category
would immediately follow the table of contents.
3. Foreword : This section serves to introduce the reader to the research project. It should
give the background of the problem (e.g. how and when it came into existence) the
importance of the problem and whether any previous research was done that is pertinent
to the specific project being reported.
4. Statement of objectives : The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth
clearly. The reader must know exactly what the report covers. If the particular project is
part of a large problem. It is desirable to state the overall problem and the problem
solution process. Sometimes it may even be wise to provide some background

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information on how the problem arose and what previous research work, if any has been
carried out. If such information will help in understanding the report, it should be
furnished but it should be kept as brief as possible.
5. Literature Review : The review is a careful examination of a body of literature pointing
toward the answer to the research question. Literature reviewed typically includes
scholarly journals, scholarly books authoritative databases and primary sources.
Sometimes it includes newspapers magazines, other books films and audio and video
tapes and other secondary sources.
6. Methodology : The purpose of the methodology section is to describe the research
procedure. This includes the overall research design, the sampling procedures the data
collection method, the field methods and analysis procedures
i) Research Design : Research design denotes the description of the research
technique. It defines exploratory, conclusive and experimental design. They
have their respective merits and demerits. The methodology will reveal why a
particular design is being used for conducting the research.
ii) Data Collection Methods : The methodology reveals the methods of data
collection. There may be primary sources and secondary sources of data
collection. The researcher should explain why a particular method has been
utilized to collect the data. A copy the questionnaire may be included to
demonstrate the method and from of data collection. The methods of
interviewing are also given in the beginning of the report to reveal the
technique of data collection.
iii) Sampling : In describing the sampling procedure, it is first necessary to
indicate the nature of the universe studied, the exact sampling units such as
stores, consumers or business executives, must be defined and the
geographical limits be specific if there were any difficulties in identifying the
sampling units in the field the procedure used for overcoming such difficulties
must be explained. If the sampling unit definition used differed from the
commonly accepted one the fact should be noted and the differences should be
period out to avoid possible confusion. The sampling is based on probability
and non probability methods. Each method has serval techniques with their
own advantages and disadvantages. The researcher should explain why a
particular selection process has been used. The sampling units and size may be

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depicted on a map for example the number of villages selected in a particular

district may be mentioned on the map. The map itself will reveal the coverage
of the population by sampling.
iv) Field Work : The researcher should explain the quality and nature of the field
force. The methods of their selection training and motivation should to given
before presentation of the final report because this will help in understanding
the quality of the data collection and their interpretation in the light of their
attitudes and merits.
v) Analysis and Interpretation : Relatively little can be said about the analysis
and interpretation methods. The findings tend to show what has been done in
this regard. If any special statistical techniques have been used, they should be
mentioned. If various executives have assisted in interpretation, this fact
should be noted. This may help main acceptance of the report and since
interpretation is at least partially subjective it helps readers appraise the
interpretation given.
7. Limitation : The report should also point out the main limitation of the research reported
therein. This will be helpful to the reader who can form his own opinion as to how far the
results are reliable. In addition it will be useful to researchers who subsequently undertake
a study on the same or a related theme.
8. Findings : Findings are the results of the study. This section makes up o the bulk of the
report. It is not just an assortment of statistical tables and charts but an organized
narrative of the results. Summary tables and graphic methods of presentation should be
used liberally. Highly detailed tables should be relegated to the appendix. The specific
objectives of the study should be kept in mind and findings presented with them in view.
Too often writers feel they must present all findings regardless of their bearing on the
objectives of the study. The list of information needed to achieve the objectives, which
was prepared in the problem formulation step, should limit the scope of the findings
presented.
9. Conclusions and Recommendations: Conclusions should be drawn with direct reference
to the objectives of the study the readers should be able to read the objectives. When they
turn to the conclusions section. They should be able to find specific conclusions relative
to each objective. If as sometimes happens the study does not obtain satisfactory data

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from which to draw a conclusion relative to an objective this should be acknowledge

rather than disguised.
While it is almost always necessary for the researches to draw conclusions it is not
always possible or advisable for them to make recommendations. On occasions the
researches may be specifically asked not be make recommendation. In other situations
where the researches have worked on one problem but have limited knowledge of the
company’s background and general operating policies. It would be unwise to recommend
definite courses of action even if asked to do so. Making recommendation assumes
considerable knowledge of the total picture including the resources of the firm and all the
alternative courses of action. Often research workers do not have this knowledge.
10. Annexure : This is the last section of the report. A annexure gives supplementary
information which supports the body of the report but which cannot be given within it. If
it is given within the main report, it may distort the focus on the main theme and confuse
the reader. The purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for those report items that
do not - fit in the main body of the research report because they are either too detailed
or too specialiosed.
For Example : the appendix may contain a detailed statement of the sample design, the
formulas used to determine the sampling error, detailed statistical tables and the various
research forms used such as the questionnaire and the written interviewer instructions.
Nothing should be relegated to the appendix if its absence from the report will make it
difficult for the readers to understand the results. If certain data are discussed in any
detail, the tables containing such data should be included in the report at that point. In
many cases the main ideas can be presented graphically in the findings section. In this
case the tables on which the charts are based should be included in the appendix. This
permits anyone who wishes to check the details to do so.
11. Bibliography and references: The Bibliography contains the detailed information on
books, journals and other materials, showing the title of the books / reports used in the
preparation of the reports, names of authors publishers the year publication and if
possible, the page numbers.
A reference list is a subset of bibliography including details of all the citations used in
a literature survey and elsewhere in the research report, arranged in alphabetical order of the
last names of the author.
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5.1.6 Significance of report Writing

1. Provides Details : It is the research report that gives every detail of research.
2. Source of Concise and organized Data : A research report is a published document and
as such lucid explanation is to be given for the understanding of every reader.
3. Reflects Final Research : Research report reflects the final research which has been
carried out by the researcher. Skill and care shall be taken to write a report because it is
the final work of the research.
4. Tool of Evaluating Researcher : It is the research report which discloses the
scholarliness of the researcher.
5. Bibliographical Evidence : A research report gives scope of further research and as such
it is considered as bibliographical evidence.
5.2 RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT

5.2.1 Introduction
There is no one best format for all reports \.however, the physical format can be
employed to create desirable emphasis and clarity. The use of widely spaced paragraphs,
varied margins, separated headings, different types of size and colors all make it possible to
emphasize major points and to clarify the sequences and relationship of ideas. A report must
use the format that best fits the needs and wants of its readers. The following format is
suggested as a basic outline that has sufficient flexibility to meet most situation. It should not
be thought of as a rigid outline that must always be followed.
1. Title of the report

2. Table of content and chapteriztion
3. Executive summary
4. Introduction
5. Statement of objectives
6. Methodology
i) Research design
ii) Data-collection method
iii) Sampling
iv) Field work
v) Analysis and interpretation

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7. Limitations
8. Findings
9. Conclusions and recommendations.
10. Appendix
i) Copies of forms used
ii) Details of sample with validation
iii) Tables not included in findings
iv) Bibliography
5.2.2 Title of the project
The title page should indicate the topic on which the report has been prepared-the
person or agency who has prepared it, the person or agency for home it has been
prepared and the date of submission (or completion) of the report. The topic of the
study should be defined in specific, self-explanatory terms and the title should not be
too long.
The title of the report should succinctly indicate what the study is all about. For
example
1. A study of customer satisfaction with the Pizza Hut at Sunshine City, Illinois
2. Factors influencing the burnout o nurses in Monroe hospital
3. Antecedents and consequences of white – collar employees resistance to
mechanization in service industries
4. Factors affecting the upward mobility of women in accounting firms
5. A study of portfolio balancing and risk management in investment firms.
The first two projects will relate to applied research, whereas the last three will be in the
realm of basic research.
In addition to the title of the project, the title page will indicate the name of the sponsor of the
study, the names of the researchers and
The table of contents is an outline of the order of the chapters, sections and sub-sections with
their respective pages. If report includes a number of charts, figures, tables, maps, diagrams
and graphs etc. a separate table for each category would immediately follow the table of
contents.

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This section lists all the main chapter headings and the essential sub-headings and the
essential sub-heading in each with the appropriate page number against each. The listening
of main chapters is generally preceded by some preliminaries like preface or
acknowledgement, list of tables, list of figures, abstract or synopsis and their respective pages
in small roman numbers and followed at the end by appendices and indexes.
Contents should neither be too detailed, nor should it be too sketchy. The table of
contents serves an important purpose in providing an outline of the contents of the report. The
capitalized title ‘contents’ should be the central heading of the page and the capitalized word
‘CHAPTER’ and ‘PAGE’ should lead to the numbers of chapters and those of pages
respectively on the left and right margins. An example has been given in the table 5.1.
Chapterization means scanning of the entire roject take-0up by the learner. The
subject of the project is to divided into different parts. Arrange them in a systematic way and
mention which aspect of the work will be studied in which chapter. It should be so planned
that one chapter will seem to be a continuation of the previous on.. the last chapter will
contain an analysis of the data/facts collected in the previous chapters and interpretation of
the same to arrive at a conclusion. The conclusion will indicate to what extent the objectives
of the learner has been fulfilled.
5.2.3 Contents of chapter
Contents of chapter consist of the contents of individual chapters in more details, the topics
which are going to discuss in the chapters. Sometimes objectives of learning the chapter are
also mentioned in the content of chapter. While table of content contain outlines of overall
chapter. A working comment of chapter provide information about the sequence of topic in
the chapter flow of idea in the chapter.
The content of chapter, writing outline formally lists the sequence of topics a way that is
hierarchical and logically exhaustive. A system of text headings and sub-headings on the
other hand is functional and natural for learning a subject rather than for expressing a form.
Headings in a table of content chunk information in a way that tells readers what to learn. The
content of chapter thus helps the reader to construct meaning from next.

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Difference between content of Chapter and Table of Content
The difference between content of chapter and tables of contents often confuses even
experienced authors and editors. Headings in table of contents play a significant role not only
in learning. But also in topical balance packages. And marketing and sales.
A content of chapter expresses the book logical development and the author’s
progression of thought, using a conventional outline format with Roman numerals the Roman
alphabet, Arabic numbers, etc. the product is layers of logically differential sub tonics that are
exhaustively subsumed under larger topics. Some items serve only a abstract or analytical
categories umbrella concepts that are inclusive of the topics that actually will be addressed in
the writing. The outline then is a system of classifying information taxonomy
In contrast the content in a final chapter in a table of contents group information in a

functional informational way. All the headings are real and all have actual content under
them they are not empty pages or logical abstractions. Every headings is followed preferably
by three or more paragraphs of text. The table of content therefore. Is more like a roadmap or
a concept web than taxonomy.
5.2.5. Executive Summary
The executive summary provides the reader with an overview of the report’s essential
information. It is designed to be read by people who will not have time to read the whole
report or are deciding if this is necessary ; therefore ,in executive summary one needs to say
as much as possible in the fewest words. The executive summary should briefly outline the
subject matter, the background problem, and the scope of the investigation , the method of
analysis , the important findings arguments , and important issues that rose in the discussion ,
the conclusion and recommendations. The executive summary should not just be an outline of
the points to be covered in the report with no detail of the analysis that has taken place or
conclusions that have been reached.
The executive summary stands as an overview at the front of the report but it is also
designed to be read alone without the accompanying report (this would often occur in the
workplace ); therefore , one needs to make sure it is self-sufficient and can be understood in
isolation. It is usually written last (so that it accurately reflects the content of the report) and
is usually about two hundred words long (i.e., not more than a page).

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5.2.5.1 Need of Executive Summary
The executive summary is the researcher report in miniature. It should be

logical, clear, interesting – and exciting. A reader should be able to read through it in four or
five minutes and understand.
The executive summary should be no more than two pages long. The farther it goes
past the less it qualifies as in effective executive summary. If capturing an entire research in
two pages or less sounds like a tall order, it is in fact it is probably the most difficult part of
the report to write. That is because it is usually more difficult to write concisely that it is to
write at length.
The executive summary should serve several purpose, both for researcher and for
readers of the business plan. For researcher. It should accomplish the following.
1. Crystallises the Thoughts : since the executive summary is the research report in
miniature, it contains the report’s highlights its key points to write an executive
summary focus on the issues that are most important to the research’s success past
and future and set aside those matters that are tangential.
2. Sets Priorities : The executive summary like the research report, should be organized
according to the item’s order of importance. Writing it forces researcher to pick and
choose from among the many points that make the research report and decides on
their order of importance.
3. Provides the Foundation of the Full plan : Once researches have written a version
of the executive summary. Researcher have made the process of writing the plan
much easier. It has provided with a take off point for each section of the plan. The
four or five sentences that summarize the means of making the product or providing
the service give the basis for that section of plan. It is much easier to begin writing
with something on the page than it is to begin with a blank page.
For readers the executive summary is usually the first stop in the reading process. This
assumes that the executive summary is at the very beginning of the report and that the reader
goes from front to back. It can control the former. But not the later some investors e.g turn
first to the founder’s resume and others to the marketing section.

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5.2.5.2 Writing Executive Summary :
1) The researcher should plan to create a summary each time be writes a research report
exceeding four pages. Write the summary before writing the main report and make sure it is
no more than 1/10 the length of the main report.
2) List the main points the summary will cover in the same order they appear in the main
report.
3) Write a simple declarative sentence for each of the main points.
4) Add supporting or explanatory sentences as needed, avoiding unnecessary technical

material and jargon.
5) Read the summary slowly and critically making sure it conveys the purpose of research
message and key recommendations. It is desirable that the readers are able to skim the
summary without missing the point of the main report.
6) check for errors of style, spelling, grammar and punctuation. Ask a fellow writer to proof
read and edit the document.
7) Ask a non technical person e.g parents or spouse to read the document. If it confuses or
bores them. The summary probably will have the same effect on other non technical readers.
5.2.5.3 Tips for Effective Executive Summary
Writing an executive is a difficult and complex task. Some tips to consider when
writing and considering the format of an executive summary in a full length report.
1. The last task should be writing the executive summary

2. Use a summary of each important section of the report
3. Use bullets to improve the presentation of the executive summary
4. The contents should include information such as
i) A fast overview
ii) Basic information about each section
iii) Important facts and figures and
iv) Main conclusions
5. Only use this format as a short summary of information

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6. Ensure the reader can use the page to provide the summary of the report in a
nutshell.
5.2.6 Introduction to Report
The introduction is certainly the most read section of any deliverable, and it
largely determines the attitude of the reader/ reviewer will have toward the work. Therefore it
is probably the most delicate part of the writing of a report. A report’s introduction
summarizes the contents by describing the purpose of the report and giving an overview of
the main ideas expressed within it.
The importance of the introduction in all forms of exposition is that it prepares the
reader to receive, with the greatest economy of effort, what the writer intends to present. The
introduction permits the researcher to launch immediately into the task of relating to their
readers to the subject matter of the report. Specifically the introduction makes clear the
precise subject to be considerd indicates the reasons for considering the subject and lays out
the organization and scope of the report. This is where the researcher tells the reader what he
plans to tell and why and how he will tell it.
The introduction should focus reader’s attention on the subject to be treated. It should
enable them to approach the body of the report naturally and intelligently. This section serves
to introduce the reader to the research to the research project. It should give the background
of the problem (for example how and when it come into existence) the importance of the
problem the various dimensions of the problem and whether any previous research was done
that is pertinent to the specific project being reported.
The specific design of the introduction of the report will vary based on the type of
paper one is writing. For example introduction for a research paper sometimes are as long as
two pages. For smaller papers an introduction in only supposed to be 4-5 sentences. In either
case there are several components and topics that should be addressed in the report regardless
of the structure paper.
5.2.7 Statement of objectives
The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth clearly. The reader
must know exactly what the report covers. If the particular project is part of a large problem.
It is desirable to state the overall problem and the problem solution process. Sometime it may
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even be wise to provide some background information on how the problem arose and what
previous research work. If any has been carried out. If such information will help in
understanding the report, it should be furnished but it should be kept as brief as possible.
A purpose statement is a declarative sentence which summarizes the specific topic

and goals of a document. It is type included in the introduction to give the reader an accurate,
concrete understanding what the document will cover and he / she can gain from reading it.
To be effective a statement of purpose should be
1. Specific and precise – not general broad or obscure

2. Concise one or two sentences
3. Clear not vague ambiguous or confusing
4. Goal oriented stated in terms of desired outcomes.
Importance of Statement of Research Objectives
1. To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures.

2. To find the truth which is yet to be discovered.
3. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(exploratory)
4. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a
group (descriptive research)
5. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (diagnostic research)
6. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (hypothesis testing)
5.2.8 Methodology
The purpose of the methodology section is to describe the research procedure. This
includes the overall research design, the sampling procedures, the data collection method the
field methods and analysis procedures.
1. Research Design : Research design denotes the descriptive of the research technique.
It defines exploratory, conclusive and experimental designs. The have their respective
merits and demerits. The methodology will reveal why a particular design is being
used for conducting the research.

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2. Data – collection Method : The methodology reveals the methods of data collection.
There may be primary sources and secondary sources of data collection. The
researcher should explain why a particular method has been utilized to collect the
data. A copy of the questionnaire may be included to demonstrate the method and
form of data collection. The methods of interviewing are also given in the beginning
of the report to reveal the technique of data collection.
3. Sampling : In describing the sampling procedure, it is necessary to indicate the nature
of the universe studied. The exact sampling units, such as stores, consumers or
business executives must be defined and the geographical limits specified. If there
were any difficulties in identifying the sampling units in the field, the procedure used
for overcoming such difficulties must be explained. If the sampling unit definition
used differed from the commonly accepted one, the fact should be noted and the
differences pointed out to avoid possible confusion.
The sampling is based on probability and non probability methods. Each method has
several techniques after their own advantages and disadvantages. The researcher should
explain why a particular selection process has been used. The sampling units and size may be
depicted on a map. For example the number of villages in a particular district may be mention
on the map. The map itself will reveal the coverage of the population by sampling.
4. Fieldwork: The researcher should explain the quality and nature of the field force.
The methods of their selection training and motivation should be given before
presentation of the final report because this will help in understanding the quality of
the data collection and their interpretation in the light of their attitudes and merits.
5. Analysis and Interpretation: Relatively little can be said about the analysis and
interpretation methods.
5.2.9 Limitations
The report should also point out the main limitations of the research reported therein.
This will be helpful to the reader who can form his own opinion as to how far the results
are reliable. In addition, it will be useful to researchers who subsequently undertake a
study on the same or a related theme.
The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology

that impacted or influenced the application or interpretation of the results of the study.

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They are the constraints on generalisability and utility of findings that are the result of the
ways in which the researcher chose to design the study and or the method used to
establish internal and external validity.
Adding exceptions or limitations in a report prevents other people from

criticizing research methods or results of conclusions in a report the researcher will
acknowledge the limitations of their research method or other aspects of the report in
relevant sections for example limitations affecting the methods used will be included in
the methodology section of the report some report formats specify limitations in another
section of the report such as only in the conclusion but it is normally the researcher who
decides where the limitations should be written
5.2.10. Findings
Findings are the results of the study. This section makes up the bulk of the report. It is
not just an assortment of statistical tables and charts but an organized narrative of the results.
Summary tables and graphics methods of presentation should be used liberally. Highly
detailed tables should be relegated to the appendix. The specific objectives of the study
should be kept is mind and findings presented with them in view. Too often writers feel they
must present all findings regardless of their bearing on the objectives of the study. The list of
information needed to achieve the objectives which was prepared in the problem formulation
step, should limit the scope of the findings presented.
After one has obtained entered and analyzed the data from a survey the next step is to
share the results. Once may have several different intended audiences or stakeholders each
with unique interests in the evolution. When possible and appropriate remember to share the
results with those who participated in the evaluation. They are often interested in learning
more about the evaluation in which they participated.
Very often one will have to write reports, which are documents containing factual and
objective information that one have collected through research. Analytical research reports,
which are written after having gathered important information from primary research
resources such as surveys or experiments rather than published documents present original
data that are collects and analyses. learning to write them well especially the results and
discussion section, sometimes called findings or simply Results is an important skill one will
need to learn. To accomplish this one will need to do the following
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1. Use text and visual aids property

2. Interpret results
3. Use headings and sub headings
4. Use language of reporting appropriately
5. Refer to figures correctly.
5.2.11.Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusions should be drawn with direct reference to the objectives of the study. The
reader should be able to read the objectives. When they turn to the conclusion section. They
should be able to find specific conclusion relative to each objective. If as sometimes happens,
the study does not obtain satisfactory data from which to draw a conclusion relative to an
objective. This should be acknowledged rather than disguised.
When it is almost always necessary for the researchers to draw conclusion, it is not
always possible or advisiable for them to make recommendation. On occasions the
researchers may be specifically asked not be make recommendations. In other situations
where the researchers have worked on one problem but have limited knowledge of the
company’s background and general operating policies, they would be unwise to recommend
definite courses of action even if asked to do so. Making recommendations assumes
considerable knowledge of the total picture, including the resources of the firm and all the
alternative courses of action. Often research workers do not have this knowledge.
5.2.12 Appendix
This is the last section of the report. An appendix gives supplementary

information which supports the body of the report but which cannot be given within it.
Essentially, an appendix should be used to remove from the main text all information
which is not needed by the majority of the users of the report. Human nature being what it is
and report being as busy as they are, the shortest report usually wins in attracting attention
and also in being read as opposed to being glanced at and forgotten. If the main text is
uncluttered by detailed statistics, maps, explanations of technical terms, or experimental data,
it will be kept as short and therefore as readable as the material allows.

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An appendix then, is a good place for background information’s which most readers
will take for granted but which a few need to be told. It is excellent for supporting statistics,
and diagrammatic material which is not needed as the report is read.
It is an ideal place for lists of symbols, technical terms, and abbreviations which are familiar
to some but not all readers. If few readers know them, they may be better placed near the
beginning of the report.
As in amy aspects of report presentation, tone (getting it right for the reader) is all important.
Readers may feel patronized if no much is explained and bewildered if too much is taken for
granted. Putting helpful back up material into an appendix can satisfy all parties.
Then is particular important when the readers have varied expertise. The engineer
may not want complex technical material to be interwoven with details of costing, but both
technical and financial readers will be happy to find the latter in an appendix.
The research scientist may be fascinated by the experimental details and will be happy to
find them in an appendix. While the report is primarily used by the marketing people who
want results, not laboratory tests. Appendices are the report writer’s friends but while they are
developing so is the main text of the report.
Appendices are where researcher store materials that support the research but which are
inappropriate to include in the body of the report. However include only selected material
that directly support report example of such materials include.
1. Relevant letters to participants and organizations (e.g regarding the eithics or conduct
of the project)
2. Details of questionnaires surveys or other relevant instruments that were developed
for the purpose of the study.
3. Background reports or raw data.
4. Figures or images (e.g picture, graphs, diagrams and tables) which researcher writes
about in essay. They can either be put in the text, near the appropriate paragraph or
the end. Researcher should always refer to the figure when he is writing about it
Appendices and figures are optional blocks of information at the end of the essay.
Appendices give the reader additional but not essential facts and explanations. For example if
researcher refers to a theory case history, lesson plan, biography or other extra material in the
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body of essay but do not want to explain it in detail, researcher can put it in an appendix and
simply write appendix includes some other essential components of report structure these
are.
1. Glossary : Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers. Arrange terms in
alphabetical orders. Use italics or underlines for terms that the glossary will define.
Footnote the first italicized terms will be defined use a reverse indent for each
definition and treat each definition as a separate paragraph.
2. Index : index lists topics alphabetically and guides the reader to various places that
discuss certain subject matter in the report. Only in very lone perd\son index is
required.
The report will have a contents page it may have an index. It is possible to improve
the presentation further by making it even for readers to find their way around the
report.
In reports in which detailed structure is very important and highly specific selective
reading is expected, both paragraph numbers and page numbers can be shown.
Moreover both sequences of numbering should be shown in the chapter headings at
the section level within the chapters and the sub sections.
3. Bibliography and references : A bibliography sometimes called “works cited” or
“references” usually appears as an alphabetical list of sources at the end of a written
work (e.g book, book chapter or article) it identifies the sources the author used in
their research and writing.
Which may include books , journals articles, report interviews , websites, video or
audio recordings etc, all department have different guidelines as to how references are
to be presented it is important to each the preferred format, style of references and
presentation requirements in one’s own department.
Reference lists where researcher lists the authors whom he has cited in his paper, are
commonly required in disciplines that use in text referring many lectures cross mark the
in text reference against the reference list.

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5.3 REPORT WRITING
5.3.1 Introduction
Reports are a highly structures form of writing often following conventions that have laid
down to produce a common format. Structure and convention in written reports stress the
process by which the information was gathered as much as the information itself.
Often inadequate attention is given to repotting the findings and conclusions. This is
unfortunate. A well presented study will often impress the readers more than a study with
greater scientific quality but with a weaker presentation. Judging a report as competently
written is often the key first step to a manager’s decision to use the findings in decision
making and also to consider implementation of the researcher’s recommendations. Report
writing skills are especially valuable to the junior executive or researcher who aspires to rise
in an organization. A well written study frequency enhances career prospects.
5.3.2 Pre – Writing Concerns
The effectiveness of a research report depends on how well it is presented. A

report has many parts and all parts should display interconnectivity. This interconnectivity is
possible only with a meticulous organization of the different parts of the report. This
organization should be reflected in the sections of the report. A good researcher spends
significant amount of time in designing this initial section wherein he tries to relate the
purpose of the report, the audience it is meant for the technical background and the
limitations under which the report is written.
Customizing the report to the tastes of different audience is necessary. The gap arising
due to degree of difference between the subject knowledge of the writer and the reader should
be taken in to account. The technical knowledge of the end users may not match that of the
researcher to understand the theme of the project and relate the conclusions to the specifies
objectives outlined in the report. In facts all parts of the report should coherently pursuer the
research problem. This means that the conclusions and findings when integrated backwards
should show some connection with the research objectivies, which were framed in line and
how the project was accomplished. As the final organized report is written after the research
is over, the researcher can relate the facts and present the findings in a manner that would

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appeal to the reader. Pre writing concerns therefore play an important role in designing the
research report pre writing entails the following sections.
1. Outline : The best way to organize a report pre develop an outline of the main
sections. The outlining stage gives a natural progression to the various stages of
report writing. The outlining stage concentrates on how it should be presented to
make an impact on the readers. In trying to establish the outline should introduce the
complete scope\e on the report. The outline should contain the main headings of the
headings of the various sections along with their sub headings and sub headings. This
task is now made easy with the help of special software that helps in drawing a
proper outline for a project report.
Two styles of outline can be generally identifies the topic outline and the sentence
outline. The topic outline includes a key word or phrase that reminds the writer of the nature
of the argument represented by the keyword. The sentence outline on the other hand gives a
description of the ideas associated with the specific topic. A traditional outline structure for a
technical report is shown below.
1. Major topic heading

2. Major subtopic headings
3. Subtopic
4. Minor subtopic
5. Further detail
6. Even further detail
Software for developing outlines and visually connecting ideas simplifies this once onerous
task. Two styles of outlining are widely used the topic outline and the sentence outline. In the
topic outline a key word or two are used. The assumption is that writer knows its significance
and will later remember the nature of the argument represented by that word or phrase or
alternatively the outline knows that a point should be made is nor yet sure how to make it.
The sentence outline expresses the essential thoughts associated with the specific
topic. This approach leaves less development work for later writing , other than elaboration
and explanation to improve readability. It has the obvious advantages of pushing the writer to
make decisions on what to include and how to say it. It is probably the best outlining style for

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the inexperienced researcher because it divides the writing job into its two major components
what to say and how to say it.
Here is an example of the type detail found with each of these outlining formats :
Topic Outline Sentence outline
1. Demand 1.Demand for refrigerators
2. How measured 2.Measured in terms of factory shipments as reported to the U.S

department of commerce.
3. Voluntary error 3.Error is introduced into year comparisons because reporting is

voluntary
4. Shipping error 4..A second factor is variation from month to month because of
shipping and invoicing patters
5. Monthly 5.Variations upto 30 per cent this year depending on whether

variance shipments were measured by actual shipments data or invoice date.
2. Bibliography: Bibliography is a list of citations or reference to books or periodicals

on a particular topic. It is to provide the details of the secondary sources used to
prepare the technical or long report. Special software can he searching, sorting,
indexing and formatting bibliographies into any requires style. This software helps to
cite reference from outline sources and translate them into database records, which
can be used for future referrals.
5.3.3 Writing the draft
Once the outline is complete, decision can be made on the placement of graphics,
tables and charts each should be matched to a particular section in the outline. While
graphics might be added later or tables changed into charts, it is helpful to make a first
approximation of the graphics before beginning to write.
Each writer uses different mechanisms for getting though into written from.
Some will write in long hand relying on someone else to transcribe their prose into world
processed format. Others are happiest in front of a word processor, able to add, delete
and move sections at will whichever works is the best approach to use.

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Computer software packages check for spelling errors and provide a thesaurus for
looking up alternative of expressing a thought. A CD – ROM can up the 20 volume
oxford English Dictionary. Believed to be the greatest dictionary in any language.
Common word confusion (there for their to for too or effect for affect) will not be found
by standard spelling checkers. Advanced programs will scrutinize the report for
grammar, punctuation, capitalization, doubles works transposed letters homonyms style
problems, and readability level. The style checker will reveal missed works and indicate
awkward phrasing.
5.3.3.1 Role of Audience
In any writing situation the audience has a role. Like actors in a drama, audience
members play a part using the document as a “script”. They perform actions after receiving
the information in the document. Those who take the most active roles are as a “script” and
decision makers. Users need a document that gives specific instructions for physically
carrying out a process. Decisions makers need document that give then information they can
use to come to an informed decision.
A good writer changes a document to accommodate different audience roles. The

topics (and even the sub topic) may be similar, but the document will be quite different
because of the different roles of the intended audiences. To determine the audience’s role ask
these questions.
1. Who will Read this Document : The audience could be a single person
(supervisor) a small group (members of a committee) or a large group (the readers
of a user manual) sometimes the researcher has both primary audience, the person
to whom he address the document, and a secondary audience, other people who
could read it for information but not immediate action.
2. What is the Audience’s Need ? : Why is the reader concerned with the content of
the document? It must be assured that the matter should serve the purpose for
which they were prepared. It needs to be aware of possible problems so that it can
keep the customer happy with the product and with the company’s service it must
use that information in different ways with various people- the customer and other
people in the company. In short it needs the information to help in carrying out job
responsibilities.

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3. How does the Writer’s Goal Fullfill the Audience’s Need? :As a writer the
basic goal is to enable the audience to act. One can do so by creating a specific
message that has a specific purpose one needs to answer two questions:
i) What is the basic message?
ii) What is the Purpose?
In general the message is the basic facts the researcher wants to present the purpose is to
inform instruct or persuade the audience. The combination of the tqo is goal . for example if
the goal is to inform the reader of the results of a survey. The researcher should write a memo
that enables the reader to find the correct data if the goal is to persuade has reader to act in a
certain manner because of the data, the researcher should write a memo that enables the
reader to find the correct data. If the goal is a persuade the reader to act in a certain manner
because of the data, the researcher should write a report that clearly points out the
significance of the data and the action they support.
4. What is the Audience’s Task? : what will the reader do after reading the
document? This is why the audience is involved in the situation. Thus
involvement can have many factors, but a key one is a need for information that
will allow the reader to carry out a task demanded by a role.
The researcher can easily see the different effects of need by considering two
audiences – operators of a machine and their department managers. Both groups need
information but of different kinds. Operators need to know the sequence of steps that make
the machine run how to turn it and off how to set perform its intended actions and how to
troubleshoot if anything goes wrong. Managers need to know whether to purchase the
machine because it is a useful addition to the workstation. They need to know whether the
machine’s capabilities will benefit staffed and budget. They need to know that the machine
has a variable output that can be changed to meet the changing flow of ordered in the plant,
that the personal on the floor can easily perform routine maintenance on the machine without
outside help and that problems such as jamming can be easily corrected.
Because the needs differ from the tasks the documents directed at each are different.
For the operator, the document would be a manual with lots of numbered how to do it steps .
photos or drawings of important parts and an index that allows the operator to find relevant
information quickly.

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For the manager the document would contain explanatory paragraphs rather than
numbered how to do it steps. Instead of photos, it might use a line graph that shows the effect
of the variable rate of production or a table that illustrates budget, cost or savings.
5. Is there more than One Audience? : sometimes a document has more than one
audience. In these situation the researcher must decide whether to write for the
primary on the secondary audience. The primary audience is the person actually
addressed in the document. A secondary audience is someone other than the
intended receiver who will also read the document. Often the researcher must
write with such a reader in mind. The secondary reader is often far from the reiter,
so the document must be formal. The following two examples show how a writer
changes a document to accommodate primary and secondary audience.
For Example : Suppose the researcher has to write a memo to his supervisor
requesting money to travel to a convention so that he can give a speech. This
memo is just for the supervisor’s reference all he needs is a brief notice for his
records as an informal memo intended for a primary audience it might read like
this.
March 19,2012
John
This is my formal request for $750 in travel money to give my speech about widgets to
the annual society of manufacturing Engineers convention I San Antonio in May
Thanks for your help with this
Fred
In this brief note is all the supervisor needs, neither a long formal proposal with a little page
and table of contents nor a formal business letter would be appropriate. The needs of the
primary audience dictate the form and content of this memo.
Suppose however that the supervisor has to show the memo to his manager for approval. In
that case brief information memo would be inappropriate. His manager might not understand
the significance of the trip or might need to know what work activations will be covered . in
this new situation the document might look like this .

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Date : March 19,2012

To John Jones
From Fred Johnson
Subject : Travel money for speech to society of manufacturing engineers convention.
As I mentioned to you in December, I will be the keynote speaker at the Annual convention of
the society of Manufacturing Engineers in San Antonio. I would like to request $750 to defray
part of my expenses for that trip.
This group the major manufacturing Engineering society in the country has agreed to print the
speech in the conference proceedings so that our work in widget quality control will receive wide
readership in M.E circles the society has agreed to pay $250 toward expenses but the whole will
cost about $1000.
I will be gone four days May 1 -4 warren lang has agreed to cover my duties during that time.
Work on the Acme widget project is in such good shape that I can leave it for those few days.
May I make an appointment to discuss this with you?
This document differs considerably from the first memo. It treats the relationship and the
request much more formally. It explains the significance of the trip so that the manager. The
secondary audience, will have all the information it needs to respond to the request.
5.3.3.2. Readability
Sensitive writers consider the reading ability of their audience to achieve high
readership. One can obtain high readership more easily if the topic interests the readers and is
in their field of expertise. In addition he can show usefulness of the report by pointing out
how it will help the readers. Finally he can write at a level that is appropriate to the
audience’s reading abilities. To test writing for difficulty level use a standard readability
index. The fletch Reading Ease score gives a score between 0 and 100. The lower the score
the harder the material is to read. The flesh Kincaid grade level and gunning’s fog index both
provide a score that corresponds with the grade level needed to easily read and understand the
document. Although it is possible to calculate these indexes by hand, some software packages
will do it automatically. The most sophisticated packages allow specifying the preferred
reading level. Words that are above that level are highlighted to allow choosing an
alternative.

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Advocates of readability measurement do not claim that all written material

should be at the simplest level possible. They argue only that the level should be appropriate
for the audience. They point out that comic books score about 6 on the Gunning scale (i.e
person with a sixth grade education should be able to read that material). Time usually scores
about 10 while the Atlantic is reported to have a score of 11 or 12 material that scores mush
above 12 becomes difficult for the public to read comfortably. Such measures obviously give
only a rough idea of the true readability of a report. Good writing calls for a variety of other
skills to enhance reading comprehension.
5.3.3.3. Comprehension
Good writing varies with the writing objective Research writing is designed to convey
information of a precise nature. Avoid ambiguity, multiple meanings and allusions. Take care
to choose the right words – words that convey thoughts accurately clearly and efficiently.
When concepts and constructs are used they must be defined either operationally or
descriptively.
Words and sentence should be carefully organized and edited. Misplaced

modifiers run rampant in carelessly written reports. Subordinate ideas mixed with major ideas
make the report confusing to readers, forcing them to sort out what is important and what is
secondary when this should have been done for them.
Finally there is the matter of pace. Pace is defined as:
The rate at which the printed page presents information to the reader. The proper pace in
technical writing is one that enables the reader to keep his mind working just a fraction of a
second behind his eyes as he reads along. It logically would be slow when the information is
complex or difficult to understand, fast when the information is straightforward and familiar
if the reader’s mind lags behind his eyes the pace is too rapid if the mind wanders ahead of
his eye (or wants to ) the is too slow.
If the text is overcrowded with concepts there is too much information per sentence. By
contrast sparse writing has too few significant ideas per sentence. Writers use a variety of
methods to adjust the pace of their writing.
1. Use ample white space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect on
the reader.
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2. Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organization of the
topics
3. Relative difficult text with visual aids when possible.
4. Emphasize important material and deemphasize secondary material through sentence
construction and judicious use of italicizing, underlining capitalizing and parentheses.
5. Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the unknown and
long. Graduate students in particular seem to reveal in using jargon, pompous
constructions and long or arcane words naturally there are times when technical terms
are appropriate. Scientists communication efficiently with jargon but the audiences
for most applied research are not scientifically trained and need more help than many
writers supply.
6. Report and summaries critical and difficult ideas so that readers have time to absorb
them.
7. Make strategic use of service words these are words that do not represent objects or
ideas but slow relationship transitional words, such as the conjunction are service
words so are phrases such as on the other hand in summary and in contrast.
5.3.3.4 Tone
Proper use of tone is essential for better reading effects. This highlights the attitude of
the writer and reflects his understanding of the reader. The report should make tactful use of
details and generalizations. It should focus on the facts and not the opinions of the writer. The
report should make use of passive voice as far as possible and should the use of first person.
Recommendations should not undergo any sort of alternations to give them a positive image.
Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate the reader can and should be referred to
but researchers should avoid referring to themselves. One author notes that the “ application
of the ‘you’ attitude … makes the message sound like it is written to the reader not sent by
the author. A message prepared for the reader conveys sincerity personalization warmth and
involvement on the part of the author”. To accomplish this remove negative phrasing and
rewrite the thought positively DO not change the recommendations or the findings no make
them positive. Instead review the phrasing which of the following sounds better?
End users do not want the information systems department telling them what software
to buy

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End users want more autonomy over their computer software choices.
The message convey the same information but the positive tone of the second message does
not put readers from the information systems department on the defensive.
5.3.3.4. Final Proof
Final editing of the draft should be taken up after a gap of at last a day. This helps in
identifying mistakes. If any better and correcting the mistakes. Final editing requires various
questions to be answered pertaining to the organization. Contextual, and layout of the final
report. This can be done a couple of times and looking at the report with a different focus
each time. The executive summary follows the final stage of editing.
It is helpful to put the draft away for a day before doing the final editing. Go to
the beach ride a bicycle in the park or see a movie do anything that is unrelated to the
research project. Then return to the report and read it with a critical eye. Does the writing
flow smoothly? Are there transitions where they are needed? Is the organization apparent to
the reader? Do the findings and conclusions adequately meet the problem statement and the
research objectives? Are the tables and graphics displaying the proper information in an easy
to read format? After assuring that the draft is complete, write the executive summary.
Guidelines for proofreading a Research Report
1. Double check the spellings of proper names, such as the names of people and
places.
2. Check to see that the quotations used fit grammatically into the sentences in which
they appear.
3. Check to see that the language is not too informal.
4. Check all titles of works to make sure that these rules have been followed.
5. Check every sentence to make sure that it has an end mark. If the sentence ends
with a parenthetical citation. Make sure that the citation appears before the end
mark. In the case of a long indented quotation, the citation should follow the end
mark.
6. Check ever quotation in the body of the text to make sure that it begins and ends
with quotation marks. Make sure that quotations within quotations in the body of

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the text are enclosed in single quotation marks. If a quotations is more that four
lines long, it should be set of from the text and indented without quotation marks.
7. Check to see that points of ellipsis have been used properly in edited quotations.
8. Make sure that every quotation summary or paraphrase is followed by a
parenthetical citation.
9. Make sure that every citation corresponds to an entry in the works cited list.
10. Check every quotation against the note cards to make that it is accurate.
5.3.4 Presentation Considerations
The final consideration in the report writing process is production. Reports can be
typed: printed on an ink jet laser colour or other printer – or sent out for typesetting.
Most student and small research and small research reports are typed or produced on a
computer printer. The presentation of the report conveys to the readers the professional
approach used throughout the project. Care should be taken to use compatible fonts
throughout the entire report. The printer should produce consistent, easy to read letters
on quality paper. When reports are photocopied for more than one reader. Make sure the
copies are clean and have no black streaks or gray areas.
Overcrowdings of text creates an appearance problem. Readers need the visual

relief provided by ample white space. We define “ample” as 1 inch of white space at the
top bottom and right hand margins. One the left side the margin should be at least 1 ¼
inches to provide room for bindings or punched holes. Even greater margins will often
improve report appearance and help to highlight key points or sections. Overcrowding
also occurs with the report contains page after paper blocks of unbroken text. This
produces an unpleasant psychological effect on readers because of its formidable
appearance overcrowded text however may be avoided in the following ways.
1. Use shorter paragraphs as a rough guide any paragraph longer than half a page is
suspect. Remember that paragraph should represent. A distinct thought.
2. Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples.
3. Use headings and sub headings to divide the report and its major sections into
homogenous topical parts.
4. Use vertical listings of points (such as this list)

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Inadequate labeling creates another physical problem. Each graph or should contain enough
information to be self explanatory. Text headings and sub headings also help with labeling.
They function as sings for the audience, describing the organization of the report and
indicating the progress of discussion. They also help readers to skin the material and to return
easily to particular sections of the report.
A business researcher can present the findings of the research either in an electronic
format or as a printout. Irrespective of the medium the researcher choose to present his report
he should ensure that the findings are presented in a professional manner to the end used
some of the important aspects that should be considered for presenting a report are listed
below:
1. Reports should be typed or printed using an ink jet laser or printer

2. The report should have a uniform font
3. The findings of the research study should be placed under appropriate headings and
sub headings
4. Leave ample space between the lines and on all sides for better reading overcrowding
creates problems and is stressful for the eyes.
5. Split larger text paragraphs into smaller paragraphs.
6. Use bullet points to lists specific points.
7. Ensure that appropriate labels are assigned to every table figure and graph that
appears in the report.
5.3.5 Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation
of the research report of paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be
scrupulously adhered to and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided
as soon the materials for the research paper have been assembled. The following points
deserve mention so far the mechanics of writing a report are concerned.

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Mechanics of writing a research Report
Size and physical Design Procedure
Treatment of Quotation The Footnotes
Documentation Style Resource and time constraints
Use of statistics charts and graphs The final Draft
Bibliography
1. Size and Physical Design : The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8.5” x
11” in size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue ink should be used. A
margin of at least one and one half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at
least half an inch at the right hand of the paper. There should also be one inch
margins, top and bottom the paper should be neat and legible. If the manuscript is t o
typed, then all typing should be double spaced on one side of the page only except for
the insertion of the long quotations.
2. Procedure : Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered.
3. Layout :Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the
report should be thought of end decided and accordingly adopted.
4. Treatment of quotations : Qutations should the placed in quotation marks and
double spaced forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotations is of a
considerable length (more than four type written lines) then it should be single spaced
and indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes : Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the following :
i) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary
to the body of the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words,
footnotes are meant for cross references citation of authorities and sources,
acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should
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always be kept in view that footnote is neither an end nor a means of the
display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of
footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed.
ii) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or
quotation which they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily
separated from the textual material by a space of half an inch and a linc about
one and a half inches long.
iii) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively usually beginning with 1 in each
chapter separately. The number should be put slightly above the line say at the
end of a quotation. At the foot of the page again the footnote number should
be indented and typed a little above the line. Thus consecutive numbers must
be used to correlate the reference in the text with its corresponding note at the
bottom of the page, except in the case of statistical tables and other numerical
material where symbols such as the asterisk or the like one may be used to
prevent confusion.
iv) Footnotes are always typed single space though they are divided from one
another by double space.
6. Documentation Style : Regarding documentation the first footnote reference to any
given work should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts
about the edition used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence.
i) Regarding the Single Volume Reference:

a) Author’s name in normal order ( and not beginning with the last name as in a
bibliography) followed by a comma;
b) Title of work underlined to indicate italics
c) Place and date of publication
d) Pagination reference (The page number)
ii) Regarding Multivolume Reference :
a) Author’s name in the normal order.
b) Title of work underlined to indicate italics
c) Place and date of publication
d) Number of volume
e) Pagination references (the page number)

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iii) Regarding Works Arranged Alphabetically : For works arranged

alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries , no pagination reference is
usually needed.
iv) Regarding Periodicals Reference:
a) Name of the author in normal order
b) Title of article in quotation marks
c) Name of Periodical underlined to indicate italics
d) Volume Number
e) Date of Issuance
f) Pagination
V) Regarding Anthologies and collections Reference :Quotations from anthologies or

collections of literary works must be acknowledged not only by author, but also by the name
of the collector.
Vi . Regarding Second Hand Quotations Reference : If such cases the documentation

should be handled as follows:
a) Original author and title

b) “quoted or cited in”
c) Second author and work
Vii. Case of Multiple Authorship : If there are more than two authors or editor then in the
documentation the name of only the first and multiple authorship is indicated by “ et al” and
others.
7. Punctuation and Abbreviations in Footnotes : The first item after the number in the
footnotes is the author’s name given in the normal signature order. This is followed
by a comma. After the comma the title of the book is given the article (Such as “A”
“AN” , the etc) is omitted and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are
capitalized. The title is followed by a comma. Information concerning the edition is
given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place pf publication is then stated.
It may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to the a famous one
such as lond. For London N.Y for new York N.D for New Delhi and so on.
8. Use of statistic, Charts and Graphs : A judicious use of statistics in research reports
is often considered a virtue fo it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and
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simplification of the material and research results. One may well remember that a
good picture is often worth more than a thousand words. Statistics are usually
presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line graphs and pictograms.
9. The final Draft : Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done
with great care before writing the final draft.
10. Bibliography : Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report.
11. Preparation of the Index : At the end of the report, an index should invariably be
given the value of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide to the reader.
Index may be prepared both as subject index as author index. The former gives the
names of the subject topic or concepts along with the number of pages on which they
have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the latter gives the similar
information regarding the names of authors. The index should always be arranged
alphabetically.
5.3.6 Precautions in Preparing Research Report
Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of

the report. A good research report is one, which does this task efficiently and effectively. As
such it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view.
1. Concise and Complete : while determining the length of the report (Since research
reports vary greatly in length ) one should keep in view the fact that it should be long
enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest
2. Maintain Interest : A research report should not if this can be avoided be dull it
should be such as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Avoid Technical Jargons : Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be
avoided in a research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply
as possible this in other words means that reports should be written in an objective
style in simple language avoiding expressions such as it seems there may be and the
like.
4. Explanatory : Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the
main findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings
for this purpose charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various
results in the main report in addition to the summary of important findings.

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5. Objective Layout : The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. Free from Bias and Errors : The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes
and must be prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of
report writing such as the use of quotations footnotes, documentation, proper
punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes’ and the like.
7. Logical presentation : The report present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It
must reflect a structure where in the different pieces of analysis relating to the
research problem fir well.
8. Original Presentation : A research report should show originality and should
necessarily be an attempt to slove some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the
solution of a problem and must add to the store of Knowledge.
9. Recommendations for Follow Up : Towards the end the report must also state the
policy implications relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually
considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the probable future of the
subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be done in that
particular field.
10. Incorporate Technical Appendices : Appendices should be enlisted in
respect of all the technical data in the report.
11. Bibliography : Bibliography of sources consulted is a must necessarily be
given
12. Proper Indexing : index is also considered an essential part of a good report
and as such must be prepared and appended at the end.
13. Enticing Appearance: Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and
clean whether typed printed.
14. Mention Limits and constraints : Calculated confidence limits must be
mentioned and the various constraints experiences in conducting the research
study may also be stated in the report.
15. Reflect the research Duties : Objective of the study the nature of the problem
the methods employed and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly
stated in the beginning of the report in the form of introduction.

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In spite of all that has been stated above one should always keep in view the fact
report writing is an art which is learnt by practice and experience rather than by mere
doctrinarian.
5.4 ETHICS IN RESEARCH
5.4.1 Intoduction
The field of research nowadays is a prominent field of concern. With the increase in
the popularity of the field there are various new trends entering into the field. Ethics is
used to be followd while undertaking the process of research. Certain issues need to be
considered widely while undertaking any kind of research. These issues range from the
issues of personal concern to the issues of social concern. Researchers are not always
tactful or candid with subjects when they do their studies. For example : questions in
field surveys may be perceived as embarrassing by respondents or as an invasion of
privacy also researchers in laboratory studies have been known to deceive participants
about the true purpose of their experiment because they felt deception was necessary to
get honest responses.
Maintaining integrity this process can be challenging as research endeavors become

increasingly commercial, take place in a variety of settings involve various stakeholders
draw on multiple funding sources and involve judgment where bias and personal interests
can affect data. Conflicts of interest can easily arise and threaten the integrity and
creditability of the research researchers funders and the filed as a whole it is whole it is
important that researchers to be able to identify these conflicts of interest and know gown
to manage them when they arise.
Protecting the participants of surveys and trials from researchers misconduct

was historically the first aim of ethical codes for research and many documents now
exist in which guidelines are given for ethical standards for research on humans.
The study of research ethics helps to prevent research abuses and assists
investigators in understanding their responsibilities as ethical scholars. Research ethics
places an emphasis on the humane and sensitive treatment of research participants who
may be placed at varying degrees of risk by research procedures. It always the
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researcher’s responsibility to ensure that his may be placed at varying degrees of risk by
research procedures. It is always the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that is or her
research is ethically conducted. The researcher must ensure that the research plan can
pass an ethical evaluation. Researchers have the right to search for truth and knowledge
but not at the expense of the rights of other individuals in society. Similarly participants
have basic rights when they elect to participate in a research study chiefly rights to
privacy and to protection from physical and psychological harm. The goal of research
ethics is to minimize the risk to participate many academic disciplines including
disciplines in the social sciences , have professional bodies that have publish guidelines
to help researchers think through ethical issues as they pertain to their research most
published ethics guidelines have identified common principles of research ethics.
5.4.2 Principles of Ethical Research
The basic principles of research ethics are discussed below:
1. Non Maleficence : The most basic principle of research is that participants not be
harmed by participating in the research project. It is important to note that harm may
occur intentionally or non intentionally during the course of a research study and thus
the researcher must be aware of the various possible adverse events that are likely to
occur through the duration of a project. If a particular research procedure produces
unpleasant effects for participants, the researcher should have the firmest scientific
grounds for conducting it.
2. Beneficence : It is important that research not only does no harm but also potentially
contributes to the well being of others. At times this might place a researcher in a
difficult position. What is beneficial to one group may not be to another.
Part of the principle of beneficence is question of competence. People who are

professionally trained by accredited and acknowledged institutions are much likely to be
competent at what they do. Thus the qualifications of researchers are of considerable
importance. The principle of beneficence requires social and behavioral researchers to
conduct research that is effective and significant in promoting the welfare of people.
3. Autonomy : The principle of autonomy incorporates the freedom of individual’s

action and choice to decide whether or not to participate in research. No person
should be forced, either overtly or covertly to participate in research. At the core of
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the principle of autonomy is the right of participants to participate voluntarily in

social research or decline to participate. In the past, prisoner populations have been
used for medical and psychological research. Very commonly these prisoners were
unable to refuse participation. To this end the principle of informed consent is of
paramount importance. Participants need to be informed about the nature of the
research project in which they are asked to participate so that they can make an
informed decision about participation. Thus participants must be given clear and
sufficient information on which to base this decision. Informed consent requires that
all participants be fully informed of the nature of the research, as well as the risks,
benefits expected outcomes and alternatives, before they agree to participate. The
principle of autonomy can however affect the generalisability of results. People who
agree to participate in research may differ from the many others who do not
volunteer. This is known as the volunteer effect.
4. Justice : The principle of justice is based on the assumption that all people are
equals. Thus people should not be discriminated against on the basis of race, gender
disability status income level or any other characteristic in research.
5. Fidelity : The principle of fidelity implies faithfulness and keeping promises or
agreements specifically between the researcher and the participant. Thus engaging in
deception or breaching confidentiality is an ethical violation that infringes on a
participant’s rights.
6. Respect for Participant’s Rights and Dignity : As human beings all participants
have legal and human rights. No research project should in any way violate these
rights when participants are recruited it is necessary therefore to ensure that the
dignity and self respect of participants are always preserved. Sometimes well
meaning researchers fail to respect clients rights.
5.4.3 Ethical Behaviour of Research
Ethical issues in business research are more important today than ever. A number of
ethical issues are present in the practice of business research. Ethics is defined as a field
of inquiry into determining what behaviors are deemed appropriate under certain
circumstances, as prescribed by codes of behavior that are set by society. How one
responds to ethically sensitive situations depends on his philosophy – deontology or
teleology. Several organizations in the research industry have codes of ethical behavior
for both buyers and suppliers of research. Sugging is illegal. Frugging is very unethical.
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Ethical issues include research integrity, treating others (buyers, suppliers, the public and
respondents) fairly respondent fairness issues include deception confidentiality and
invasions of privacy. Unsolicited telephone calls and e mail spam are an invasion of
privacy.
Research companies faced with a declining pool of willing respondents in the general
public, will rely more heavily on recruiting their own panel members. It is believed that
by recruiting and maintaining their own panels of respondents research companies will
come to value their “ panel equity” and it is seen even fairer treatment of respondents in
the future.
There are many ways a society may prescribe wanted and unwanted
behaviours. In business, if there are practices that are not illegal but are nevertheless
thought to be wrong, trade associations or professional organizations will often prescribe
a code of ethical behavior.
This has been the case in marketing and more specifically in marketing research. The
American marketing association (www.marketingpower .com) the council of Amercian
survey research organizations (www.casro.org) the Qualitative research consultants
Association (www.mra.net.org) and the Canadian based professional market society
(www.pmrs-aprm.com) all have codes of ethics. The European based ESOMAR the
European society for marketing research (www.esonlar.n1) also has a code of ethics.
All over the world marketing research organizations are striving to achieve
ethical behavior among practitioners of marketing research.
Codes of Ethics
Several associations have codes of ethics, however almost all of these different
organizations have codes which address the following areas.
1. Prohibiting Selling (Sugging) or fund raising (Frugging) under the guise of

conducting research.
2. Maintaining research integrity by avoiding misrepresentation and omission of
pertinent research data.
3. Treating outside clients and suppliers fairly.

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5.4.3.1 Sugging and Frugging
The first provision of the AMA code deals with prohibiting selling or fund raising
under the guise of conducting research sugging refers to “selling under the guide of a
survey”. Typically sugging occurs when a researcher gains a respondent’s cooperation
to participate in a research study and then use the opportunity to attempt to sell the
respondent a good or service. Most consumers are quite willing to provide their attitudes
and opinions of products and services in response to a legitimate request for this
information suggers (and fruggers) however take advantage of that goodwill by
deceiving unsuspecting consumers. Consumers soon learn that their cooperation in
answering a few questions has led to their being subjected to a sales presentation. In
sugging and frugging, there is no good fake survey is to sell or raise money. Of course
these practices have id to the demise of the pool of cooperative respondents. The
Telemarketers and consumer fraud and abuse prevention Act of 1994 made sugging
illegal. Under this Act telemarketers are not allowed to call someone and say they are
conducting a survey and try to sell a product or service. Although telemarketers are nor
able to legally practice sugging the act does not prohibit sugging via the mail frugging is
closely related to sugging and stands for fund raising under the guise of a survey
because frugging does not involve the sale of a product or services it is not covered in
the Telemarketing and concumer fraud and Abuse Prevention Act of 1994, but it is
widely considered to be unethical. Actually sugging and frugging are carried out by
telemarketers or other direct marketers. Researchers do not practice sugging and
frugging. However these topics are covered because bothe sugging and frugging are
unethical treatments of potential respondents in marketing research.
The business research industry recognizes that it must attempt to influence

legislation in a way that will be favourable for the industry.
5.4.3.2. Research Integrity
Sometimes research is not totally objective, information is withheld falsified or

altered to product vested interests.
Marketing research information is often used in making significant decisions. The outcome of
the decision may have an impact on future company strategy, budgets jobs, organization and
so forth with so much at stake the opportunity exists for a lack of total objectivity in the
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research process. The loss of research integrity defined as performing research that adheres to
accepted standards, may take the from of withholding information falsifying data, altering
research results or mininterpreting the research findings in a way that makes them more
consistent with pre – determined points of view. A recent example illustrates how research
integrity is a serious issue. Forrester research Inc. relased a report concluding that developing
and deploying web based portal applications is substantially was funded by Microsoft
technology than it is using a linux / J2E combination when it was learned that the research
was funded by Microsoft it brought about skepticism on the part of several CEOs including
one who stated “ I am not a big fan of any of those marketing research firms. I do not believe
them to be independent. Forrester CEO Geroge colony stated that , “ the company was taking
steps to “ tighten” its internal processes and its integrity policy.
The impetus for a breach in research integrity may come from either the supplier or
buyer. If a research supplier known’s that a buyer will want marketing research services in
the future, the supplier may alter a study’s result or withhold information so that the study
will support the buyer’s wishes. Before of research integrity need not be isolated to those
managing the research project. Interviewers have been known to make up interviews and to
take shortcuts in completing surveys. In fact there is some evidence that this is more of a
problem than was once thought. Maintaining research integrity is regarded as one of the most
significant ethical issues in the research industry.
5.4.3.3. Treating others Fairly
Several ethical issues may arise in the practice of business research that center around
how are treated. Suppliers buyers, respondents and the public may be treated unethically.
1. Buyers : one of the most frequently stated problem facing marketing researches was
fair treatment of buyer firms. Passing hidden charges to buyers, overlooking study
requirements when subcontracting work out to other supplier firms, and selling
unnecessary research are examples of unfair treatment of buyer firms. By overlooking
study requirements such as qualifying respondents on specified characteristics or
verifying that respondents were interviewed, the supplier firm may lower its cost of
using the services to naïve buyers by convincing them to use a more expansive
research design.

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Sharing confidential and proprietary information raises ethical questions. Virtually all
wok conducted by marketing research firms is confidential and proprietary. Researchers build
– up a storehouse of this information as they conduct research studies most ethical issues
involving confidentiality revolve around how this storehouse of information or background
knowledge is treated.
2. Suppliers : Buyers also abuse suppliers of marketing research. A major problem

exists e.g when a firm with internal research capabilities issues a request for proposals
(RF) from external supplier firms. External firms then spend time and money
developing research designs to solve the stated problem estimating costs of the
project, and so on. Now having collected several detailed proposals outlining research
designs and costs, the abusing firm decides to do the job internally. Issuing a call for
proposals from external firms with no intention of doing the job outside is unethical
behavior.
Failure to Honour Time and money Agreements :
Often buyer firms have obligations such as agreeing to meetings or the
provision of materials needed for the research project. Supplier firms must have these
commitments from buyers in a timely fashion in order to keep their time schedules.
Buyer firms sometimes abuse their agreements to deliver personal or these other
resources in the time to which they have agreed. Also buyers sometimes do not
honour commitments to pay for services. Although this happens in many industries,
research suppliers do not have the luxury of respossession, although there are of
course legal recourses.
3. Respondents : Respondents are the “lifeblood” of the marketing industry.
Respondent cooperation rates have been going down and the industry is concerned
with the ethical treatment of the existing respondent pool. Marketing researchers must
honour promise made to respondents that the respondent’s identity will remain
confidential or anonymous if they expect respondent to cooperate with request for in
formation in the future.
Respondent Fairness : Some of the issues business researchers must face in order to
treat respondents fairly :
1. Deception of Respondents : Respondents may be deceived during the research

process. Kimmel and Smith point out that deception may occur subject recruitment
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(they are not told the true identity/sponsor of the research etc) during the research
procedure itself (they are viewed without their knowledge etc) and during post
research situations (there is a violation of the promise of anonymity) also these
authors suggest that there are serious consequences to this deception.
For example : of where deception is used in marketing research is mystery shopping.

Mystery shopping is the practice of gathering competitive intelligence by sending people
posing as customers to gather price and sales data from unsuspecting employees. shing and
Spence argue that though the information given out the mystery shopper is not confidential it
is still given under in industry and many would argue that it is unethical. Few however would
argue that it does not involve deception.
2. Confidentiality and Anonymity : one way of gaining a potential respondent trust is

by promising confidentiality or anonymity. Confidentiality means that the researcher
knows who the respondent is but does not identify the respondent with any
information gathered from that respondent to a client. So the respondent’s identity is
confidential information known only by the researcher. A stronger appeal may be
under conditions of anonymity. The respondent is and remains anonymous or
unknown. The researcher is interested only in gathering information from the
respondent and does known who the respondent is ethical issues arises when the
respondents are promised confidentiality and anonymity and the researcher fails to
honour this promise.
3. Invasions of privacy : Marketing research by its nature is invasive. Any information
acquired from a respondent results in some degree of invasiveness. Ethical issues
some of them legal, abound in the area of invading other’s privacy. Two areas that are
most responsible for consumer concern are unsolicited telephone calls and spam.
Since marketing researchers rely heavily on telephone surveys and more recently
online survey research both these areas are significant to the market research
industry.
4. Unsolicted Telephone Calls : Telemarketer’s abuse consumer privacy by flooding
consumers with unsolicited telephone calls has resulted in consumer’s putting
pressure on congress for relief. Researchers must work especially hard to encourage
consumer good well and to ensure that they are viewed separately from telemarketers.

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5. Spam : when online survey research became a possibility by accessing respondents

via the internet some organizations viewed this as an easy, fast way to gather survey
information. They were little concerned with ethical issues when they obtained e
mail lists to target survey recipients. They began sending out thousands of surveys to
unwary persons. The practice of sending unwanted e mail is called email is called
“spamming” an electronic message has been defined as spam if :
a) The recipient’s personal identity and context are irrelevant because the message is
equally applicable to many other potential recipients.
b) The recipient has not verifiably granted deliberate, explicit and still revocable
permission for it to be sent and
c) The transmission and reception of the message appear to the recipient to give a
disproportionate benefit to the sender.
The name spam comes from a monty python skit in which a restaurant customer is
deluged with many repeated requests (Sung by waiter) to order the canned luncheon
meat, spam, finally the customer yells – “ I do not want any spam”
6. Online Survey Research and spam: The practice of sending spam threatens online
survey research. Potential respondents flooded with unwanted e-mails will come to
regard all but the most personal message as trash, marketing research organizations
fight to reduce spam.
Since improper online Surveying could be considered spam, the marketing research
industry has worked hard to establish codes of ethics dealing with proper online surveying.
In conclusion marketing research firms are working hard to project the privacy of
their respondents. The firms in the industry realize that they must rely on consumer
cooperation for information requests. In order to achieve a cooperative pool of potential
respondents, marketing researchers must attempt to separate themselves from unscrupulous
direct marketers. The industry has been considering developing and using an “industry
identifier” such as a “Your Opinion Counts” to help consumers more easily identify
legitimate marketing research firms. While this idea has been around for several years, it is
being discussed again among industry leaders. Those in the industry think that respondent is
becoming such a problem that CMOR has created a position, direction Respondent
cooperation. However in the meantime, the future is cloudy in terms of how legal actions will

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affect research. Already research firms realizing that respondents are their “lifeblood” are
moving in the direction recruiting their own panels of willing respondents recruiting and
maintaining a panel requires a considerable investment. Panel equity the value of readily
available access to willing respondents, may become more and more important in the future.
Marketing research firms, recognize the value they have in panels. This will make even
greater efforts to ensure fair and ethical treatment of their panel respondent.
4. Public: Sometimes researchers are asked to do research on products thought to be

dangerous to society. Ethical issues arises as researchers balance marketing
requirements with social issues. This is particularly true in the areas of product
development and advertising. For example marketing researchers have expressed
concern over conducting research on advertising to children. Some advertising has
had the objective of increasing the total consumption of refined sugar among children
via advertising scheduled during Saturday morning TV programs. Other ethical
concerns arise when conducting research on products researchers thought were
dangerous to the public such as certain chemicals, cigarettes, alcohol, and sugar.
Some marketing research firms take a proactive position on helping their clients
implement strategy that considers ethical issues. For example ABACO marketing research in
sio Paulo, Brazil, incorporates ethical considerations in their evaluations of client’s
promotional materials. Their AD – VISOR service provides ethical scores and compares
them with norms this allowing clients to understand consumers ethical evaluations of
proposed communication message.
5. Client : The complexity that is surrounding the research client relationship deserves
special attention from an ethical standpoint. The various concerns regarding the ethics
and client are as follows.
i) Abuse of Position : since the researcher processes the researcher has a
responsibility not to take unfair advantage of his position. The researcher
should make every effort to follow correct research procedures, adopt a
suitable approach and research design. In short the researcher must conduct
quality research while respecting the client’s resources of time and money.
ii) Unnecessary Research : The researcher has the ethical duty not to perform
unnecessary research. For example, primary research is not requires if
secondary data provides the necessary information.
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iii) Unqualified Research : The researcher sometimes may not possess technical
expertise that is required for the research. Thus it is his duty to let the client
know these limitations and refuse the project.
iv) Disclosure of Identity : The client has the right to expect that its identity will
be protected before during, and after the completion of the project. The
researcher is ethically bound not to reveal the client’s identity to competitors
respondents etc., without the consent of the client involved.
6. Team Members : The researcher or the research firm has the right to be treated
ethically as well. Ethical treatment by clients involves several issues.
1. Improper Solicitation : When a research firm submits a proposal to a
prospective client it should be confident that the client is seriously
considering employing firms. The client should also refrain from using
these techniques in future without prior permission by the researcher who
has developed the technique.
2. Misrepresentation of Findings : The client should distort the research
findings to their own benefit at the expense of the researcher’s reputation.
The client should reveal the truth and nothing else.
3. Additional Request : The client assigning the project to a particular
researcher may request him to provide some additional information at the
original project cost. This extra information involves additional
expenditure of the researcher.
5.4.4 Subjectivity in Research
Subjectivity refers to that the results are researcher dependent different

researchers may reach different conclusions based on the same interview. In contrast
when a survey respondent provides a commitment score on a quantitative scale, it is
thought to be more objective because the number will be the same no matter what
researcher is involved in the analysis. Subjectivity guides every thing from the choice
of topic that one studies, to formulating hypotheses, to selecting methodologies, and
interpreting data. In qualitative methodology the researcher is encouraged to reflect on
the values and objectives he brings to his research and how these affect the research
project. Other researchers are also encouraged to reflect on the values that any
particular investigator utilizes.

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A key issues that arises with the recognition of subjectivity is how it

affects objectivity. Two positions have been articulated. Many qualitative researchers
counterpoise subjectivity and objectivity is said to negate subjectivity since it renders
the observer a passive recipient of external information, devoid of agency. And the
researcher’s subjectivity is said to negate the possibility of objectively knowing a
social; psychological world. The investigator’s values are said to define the world that
is studied. One never really sees or talks about per se. one only sees talks about what
one’s values dictate. A world may exist beyond values, but it can never be known as it
can never be known as it is only as values shape our knowledge of it.
Subjectivism is often as the sine qua non of qualitative methodology. However

this is untrue. Qualitative methodology has on objectivist strand as well. Objectivism
states that the researcher’s subjectivity can enable her to accurately comprehend the
worlds as it exists in itself. Of course subjectivity can bias the researcher and
preclude objectivity understanding a subject’s psychological reality. However this is
not inevitable in fact one of the advantages of recognizing subjectivity is to reflect on
whether it facilitates or impedes objective comprehension. Distorting values can the
be replaced by values that enhance objectivity.
Objectivism integrates subjectivity and objectivity because it argues that

objective knowledge requires active, sophisticated subjective processes – such as
perception, analytical reasoning, synthetic reasoning, logical deduction and the
distinction of essences from appearances. Conversely subjective processes can
enhance objective comprehension of the world.
Difficulties in Achieving Objectivity of Research
Objectivity is the first condition of research. It means willingness and ability to

examine evidence dispassionately. In other words, objectivity means basing conclusion on
facts without any bias judgment. The conclusion should be independent of one’s personal
beliefs like , dislikes, and hopes it is very difficult tyo achieve objectivity in research. This
difficulty arises out of the adverse influences of :
1. Personal prejudices and bias,

2. Value judgments,
3. Ethic dilemma and,
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4. Complexity of social phenomenon.
5.4.5 Objectivity in Research
Objectivity pre supposes an independent reality that can be grasped. If there is no

independent reality or if reality cannot be apprehended, of if reality is merely the concoction
of the observer, then the notion of objectivity is moot.
To objectivity comprehend people’s psychology the researcher must organize

his subjectivity appropriately hypothetical concepts must be well defined so that they can be
identified unambiguously an appropriate methodology must be adopted in order to solicit
complete, meaningful evidence that can be used to test the validity of hypothetical concepts.
And the evidence must be analyzed through sensitive, systematic procedures which can
detect its features and compare them to the characteristic of hypothetical concepts. In this
way the researcher can be warranted in believing that his/her concepts illuminate the true
nature of people’s psychology Nebulous hypothetical concepts insufficient or inappropriate
behavioral evidence, and arbitrary analyses vitiate objectivity and allow the researcher to
impose his /her theoretical constructs or the data.
When measuring something is considered we encounter the concepts of subjectivity

and objectivity. A subjective phenomenon is one that only the subject himself or herself can
perceive. Other people cannot see or feel or directly measure an individual’s subjective
perceptions. On the other hand an objective phenomenon is one that can be observed and /or
directly measured by someone other than the subject it is happening to for example pain and
fatigue are subjective phenomena frequency encountered in medical and allied medical fields.
They are subjective because they are perceptible only to the person experiencing them.
Although an outside observer may be able to point to some of the effects of such subjective
phenomena in another person.
There are some research methods in which the degree of subjectivity personally
biased perspective can raise concerns for example in unstructured interviews non focused
observations or case studies the views of the researcher may affect the way they seek out or
record information. This would make their data less objective than that derived from methods
such as the mechanical recording of a skinner box a forced choice questionnaire or a
rigorously controlled experiment. Nevertheless there is still a clear role for such research is

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psychology. More subjective research methods offer opportunities to identify novel aspects of
behavior that may be overlooked in more objective, and therefore constrained investigations.
Whilst the early psychological method of introspection was ousted by more scientific
and objective experimental ones, psychology has seen a recent return to more subjective
techniques e.g discourse analysis such qualitative methods make use of subjectivity as an
advantages subjective data such as individual experiences and opinions are included in the
research rather than being deliberately screened out.
In research objectivity is considered superior to subjectivity to the extent that

subjectivity has been demonized ,associated with distortion and bias and ought to be erased
from the research process. It is not argued that objectivity should be discouraged, but that
subjectivity should be not defined only in terms of what objectivity can be seen as a unique,
useful and personal quality of the researcher.
Measures for Achieving Objectivity of Research
The following measures may contribute to some degree of objectivity in research:
1. Patience and self-control

2. Open mindedness
3. Use of standardized concepts
4. Use of quantitative Method,
5. Group research or cooperative research and
6. Use of random sampling techniques.
5.5 EXERCISE
5.5.1 Short Answer Type Questions
1. Discuss the characteristic of research report
2. Write a short note on interim report?
3. How title of a report is selected?
4. What is the difference between content of chapter and table of Content?
5. Explain report Writing?

250
6. What is the role of audience in report writing?
7. What are the important aspects that should be considered for
report presentation?
8. What is the significance of footnote in report Writing?
9. Give the principle of ethical research?
10.Explain the term sugging and frugging
5.5.2 Long Answer Type Questions
1. What do you mean by research report? Explain the types of research report give the
significance of research report
2. How research report is written? Are the essential contents of research report?
3. Give research report’s format discuss it in detail
4. How a research report is written? What are the things that play an important role
while writing a draft? What type of precautions should be taken while report writing?
5. What is the significance of the ethics while writing a research report? What are the
ethical issues related to research report?
6. Discuss the ethical behavior in research? Define subjectivity and objectivity of

research
******************

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Part -A
1. What is Sampling Design?
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame.
2. Define Error Variance.
Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such there
would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected.
3. What is confidence level?
Confidence level is the expected percentage of times that the actual value will fall within
the stated precision limits.
4. Write a note on Focus Group?
Focus group involves a formalized process of bringing small group of people together for
an interactive and spontaneous discussion on any one particular topic.
5. Static the nature of Dynamic Panel.
Members change from time to time as the study progresses to successive phases.
6. What is Factor?
A factor is an underlying dimension that account for several observed variables.
7. Write a note on Factor Loadings.
Factor loadings are those values which explain how closely the variables are related to each
one of the factors discovered.
8. What is Eigen value?
When we take the sum of squared values of factor loadings relating to a factor, then such
sum is referred to as Eigen value.

252
9. Define R- Type Factor Analysis.
High correlations occur when respondents who score high on variable 1 also score high on
variable 2 and respondents who score low on variable 1 also score low on variable 2. Factors
emerge when there are high correlations within groups of variables.
10. What is cluster Analysis?
Cluster analysis is to determine how many mutually and exhaustive groups or clusters,
based on the similarities of profiles among entities, really exist in the population and then
state the composition of such groups.
11. State the nature of Static Panel.
The same members form part of the panel over an extended period of time.
12. What is Panel?
Panel refers to the sample of individuals, house holds or firms from whom information
may be collected in successive time periods.
13. Explain about dichotomous questions.
Two alternatives are suggested in dichotomous questions. The choices presented should be
mutually exclusive.
14. Write a note on Electronic questionnaire design?
Electronic questionnaire combines questionnaire based survey functionality with that of a
web page or web site.
15. What is Centroid Method?
The centroid method tends to maximize the sum of loadings, disregarding signs, it is the
method which extracts the largest sum of absolute loadings for each factor in turn.

253
16. Briefly explain about Clinical Interview?
It is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of
individuals life experience.What is Multivariate Analysis Techniques?
All statistical techniques which simultaneously analyse more than two variables on a
sample of observations can be categorized as multivariate technique.
17. Write a note on Sociometry.?
Sociometry attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by asking them

to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations.
18. What is research proposal?
A research proposal is also a type of research report prepared for getting the permission to
proceed with the research work. It is a work plan, outline, statement or intent or draft plan of
the proposed research work.
19. What is Gantt Chart?
A Gantt chart represents the schedule of a project. Unit of time is represented along the
horizontal axis and sub processes are explained on the vertical axis. The lines indicate the
starting and ending point of each sub process.
20. Define Research.
According to Clifford woody research comprises of defining and redefining problems,
formulationg hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating data,
making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
21. List the objectives of Research.

254
Gain familiarity about the subject 2. portray characteristics of the subject 3. determine
frequency of occurrence of events 4. hypothesis of causal relationship
between variables.
22. What is Replicability?
The results of the test hypothesis should be supported again and again when the same type of
research is repeated in some other circumstances.
23. Define Research Design.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
24. State the different types of hypothesis.
1.Statement Hypotheses
2. Directional hypothesis
3. Non directional hypothesis
4. Null Hypothesis
5. Alternate hypothesis
25. What is Experimental design?
Experimental design enables a researcher to alter systematically the variables involved in the
study. The independent variables are manipulated and the effects of the same on the
dependent variables are observed.
26. What is Pilot Testing?
Pilot testing reveals error in the design and improper control of extraneious or environmental
conditions.

255
27. What is Intervening Variable?
An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time, the independent variable start
operating to influence the dependent variable and the time the impact is felt on it.
28. List the factors affecting internal validity of Experimental design? History,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection, statistical regression experimental mortality,
diffusion, compensatory equalization, rivalry
29. Explain the importance of research?
To face competitive global market 2. to identify critical issues 3. to understand,
predict and control events in the environment 4. to sense spot and deal with problems before
they go out of hand 5. to eliminate or avoid making decisions on subjective or biased manner.
30. Write about the building blocks of science in research?
Deduction and induction are two important aspects of the scientific research through
which the answers to a research question can be arrived at.
31. List the different types of variables.
Dependent variable 2. independent variable 3. moderating variable 4. intervening
Variable
32. Write about the Hallmarks of Scientific Research?
1.Purposiveness 2. Rigor 3. Testability 4. Replicability 5. precision 6.
confidence 7.objectivity 8. Generalizability 9. Parsimony
33. Give the characteristics of Mapping rules.
1.Classification 2. Order 3. Distance 4. Origin
34. What is One shot case study?
A single group of test subjects is exposed to the independent variable treatment X, and then

256
a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken O1. one shot case study does not use
pretest and control group.
35. List the factors affecting External validity of Experimental design. The reactivity of
testing on the experimental treatment 2. Interaction of selection and the
experimental treatment 3. other reactive factors.
36. What is one sample test?
One sample test are used when a single sample is taken is undertaken to know whether the
sample comes from a specified population.
37. What is Technical Report?
A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether
for record keeping or for public dissemination.
38. What is Popular report?
A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.
39. When oral presentation is necessary?
At times oral presentation of the research of the study is considered effective, particularly
in cases where policy recommendation are indicated by project results.
40. What is Footnote?
Footnotes are meant for cross reference, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement
and elucidation or explanation of a point of view.
41. What is long report?
A long report examines the problem in detail and requires more extensive effort in
preparation.

257
42. State operating report.
Operating report provide managers with detailed information regarding all activities like
sales, inventory, costs etc.
43. What is periodic report?
Periodic report describes the activities in a department during a particular period.
44. What is Investigative report?
Investigative report analyses the facts and present recommendations and conclusions.
45. What is trouble shooting report?
It is a form of problem solving report which discusses the source of the problem, extent of
damage done and solutions possible.
46. what is feasibility report?
A feasibility report is a problem solving report that studies proposed options to assess
whether all or any one of them is sound.
47. What is Compliance report?
Compliance report explains what a company is doing to conform to the government
regulations.
48. What is Interim compliance report?
Interim compliance report can also be prepared to monitor and control the licenses granted by
the government.
49. What is Pictogram?
A chart that uses symbols instead of words or number to portray is known as pictogram.
50. What is Decision Chart?

258
A decision chart or decision tree is a flow chart that uses graphs to explain whether or not to
perform a certain action in a certain situation.
51. What is Static group comparison?
This design uses two groups one receives the experimental stimulus and the other serves as a
control group and is not given the treatment. The dependent variable is measured in both
groups after the treatment.
52. What is complex factorial design?
A design which considers three or more independent variables simultaneously is called
complex factorial design. This is also known as multi factor factorial design.
53. What is Quasi Experiment?
Quasi experiments are done in natural environment, but treatments are given to one or more
groups.
54. What is Group time series design?
This design introduces repeated observations before and after the treatment and allows
subject
to act on their own control.
55. What is nominal scale?
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number to events in order to label them. A
nominal scale simply describes difference between things by assigning them to categories.
56. What is ordinal scale?
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the
scale equal interms of some rule.
57. What is Interval scale?

259
In the case of interval scale the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been
established as a basis for making the units equal.
58. What is Ratio scale?
Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such
as weight, height, distance are examples.
59. What is content validity?
Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of
the topic under study.
60. what is criteria related validity?
It relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the existence of some current
condition.
61. What is predictive validity?
It refers to the usefulness of test in predicting some future performance.
62. What is concurrent validity?
It refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to other measures of known validity.
63. What is construct validity?
A measure is said to possess construct validity to the degree that it conforms to predicted
correlations with other theoretical propositions.
64. What is reliability?
Reliability refers to consistency ie. A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies
consistent results.
65. What is Test-Retest Reliability?
The conduct of resurvey is call test-retest arrangement which involves comparisons between

260
the two tests to learn about the reliability.
66. What is Equivalence?
Equivalence is concerned with how much error may be introduced by different investigators
or different sample of items being studied.
67. What is Split – Half reliability?
Split – Half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument. This
technique can be used when the measuring tool has many similar questions or statements.
68. What is Inter- item consistency reliability?
It is a test of the consistency of respondents answers to all the items in a measure. If the items
are independent measures of the same concept, they will be correlated with one another.
69. Define Rating Scales.
Rating scales are used to judge properties of objects without reference to other similar
objects. An object is judged in absolute terms against certain specified criteria.
70. What is Likert Scale?
Likert scale is designed to examine how strongly the respondents agree or disagree with
statements relating to the attitude or object on a five point scale.
71. What is Itemized rating scale?
It is five point or seven point scale with anchors provided for each item and the respondent
states the appropriate number on the side of each item or circles the relevant number against
each item. The responses to the items are then summated.
72. What is staple scale?
It is simplified version of semantic differential scales. It is used when it becomes difficult to
find bipolar adjectives that match the investigative questions.

261
73. What is Grahic rating scale?
The respondent indicates his rating by simply making a mark at the appropriate point on a
line that runs from one extreme to the other.
74. What is Consensus Scale?
As the name suggests is developed by consensus by a panel of judges. The judges select
certain items which enable to measure a concept.
75. What is Paired comparison scale?
The paired comparison scale is used when the respondents are expected toexpress attitudes or
choice between two objects at a time.
76. Write about forced ranking scale?
Forced ranking scale is easier and faster compared to the paired comparison method . It
requires the respondents to rank a list of attributes.
77. What is sequential sampling?
The ulitimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
78. Write about area sampling?
When the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we
first divide the total area in to a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called
geographical clusters.
79. What is Convenience sampling?
When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called as convenience sampling.
80. What is judgement sampling?

262
In judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he
considers as representative of the population.
81. What is Main report?
The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken down in to
readily identifiable sections.
82. What is Moderating variable?
The variable that moderates the relationship between dependent and independent variable is
called as a moderating variable.
83. What is non directional hypothesis?
Non directional hypothesis postualate relationship but does not offer indication of the
direction
of the relationship.
84. What is structured observation?
In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the
style of recording the observed information is called as structured observation.
85. What is unstructured observation?
When observation is to take place without the characteristic of structured it is termed as
unstructured observations.
86. What is participant observation?
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is
observing, so that he can experience what the the member of the group experience.
87. What is disguised observation?
When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the
263
people he is observing.
88. What is controlled observation?
When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving

experimental
procedure, then it is termed as controlled observation.
89. What is uncontrolled observation?
If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation.
90. Write a note on Interview method?
The interview method of collection involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral verbal responses.
91. What is personal interview?
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face to face contact to the other person or persons.
92. What is telephone interview?
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone
itself.
93. What is warranty card?
Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer
durables to collect information regarding their products.
94. What is store audit?
Store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufacturers through their salesmen at
regular intervals.

264
95. What is the purpose of Eye camera?
Eye camera are designed to record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a specific portion
of a sketch or diagram or written material.
96. What is pupilometric camera?
It record dilation of the pupil as a result of visual stimulus. The extent of dilation shows the
degree of interest aroused by stimulus.
97. What is Audiometer?
It is used by some TV concerns to find out the type of programmes as well as stations
preferred by people. A device is fitted in the television itself to record theses changes.
98. What is the use of Psychogalvanometer?
It is used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a result of the visual stimulus.
Part – B
1. Explain the various Data Collection Methods.
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Methods.
2. Write a detailed note on Multivariate Analysis Technique?
Objectives, Types – Multiple Regression, Multiple Discriminant Analysis,

Multivariate Analysis of Variance, Canonical Correlation Analysis, Factor Analysis
3. Explain the method of Factor Analysis.
1.Centroid Method
2. Principal – Component method of factor analysis
3.MA likelihood method
4. R – Type
265
5. Q – Type Method
4. Explain in detail the important Projective Techniques and Pictorial techniques.
1.Projective techniques Word Association test
2. sentence completion test
3. Story completion test
4. Verbal projection test Pictorial techniques:
1. Thematic Appreciation test
2. Rosenzweig test
3.Rorschach test
4.Holtzman Inkblot test
5. Tomkins Horn picture arrangement test .
5. Explain about the design of Electronic Questionnaire.
1. General organization – Welcome, Registration, Introduction, Screening test, questionnaire,

additional information, Note of gratitude
2. Layout
6. Write about the type of activity under observation?
1.Non Verbal Analysis
2. Linguistic behavior
3. Extralinguistic behavior
4. Spatial relationship
5. Non-behavioral Analysis
6. Records Analysis
266
7. Physical condition Analysis 8. Physical Process
7. Write a detailed note on different types of Analysis Techniques.
1. Multivariate Analysis Technique
2. Factor Analysis
3. Canonical correlation Analysis
4. Cluster Analysis
5. Latent structure analysis
6. Path Analysis
8. Explain the different types of report. Classified on the basis of the following:
1.Source
2. Frequency
3. Length
4. Intent
5. Function
6. Subject dealt
7. Legal Reports
9. Discuss the different stages in report writing. I Pre-writing stage
1.. Analyzing the situation a. Problem definition b. Developing the statement of
purpose c. developing a preliminary outline investigating the information 3. adapting the

report 4. selecting the appropriate channel and medium
II Writing stage
Deciding the formal and length, preprinted form, Memo, letter, manuscript, choosing
267
the approach, structuring the report, composing reports III Post writing stage Revision,
producing, proof reading.
10. Explain the Research Process in detail
Formulating the research problem 2. Extensive Literature survey 3. Development of working

hypthesis 4. Preparing the research design 5. Determing sample design 6. collection of data 6.
Analysis of data 7. Evaluation of the report
11. Write a detailed note on Experimental Research Design?
Pre-experimental designs
True experiments/Lab experiments
Field experiments: Quasi/Semi experiments
12. Explain in detail the different types of Research.
1. Descriptive 2. analytical 3. exploratory 4. historical 5. diagonastic 6. empirical 7.
Applied 8. fundamental 9. conceptual 10. qualitative 11. quanitative 12. one time study
13. longitudinal study
13. Discuss the different techniques of Measurement Scales.
Arbitrary scaling 2. Consensus scaling 3. Analysis scaling 4. Likert scales 5. cumulative

scales 6. Factor scales.
14. How to check the validity in Experimentation?
Validity are judged by the factors affecting internal and external validity. Internal factors:
History, maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection, statistical regression experimental
mortality, diffusion, compensatory equalization, rivalry
External factors: The reactivity of testing on the experimental treatment
2. Interaction of selection and the experimental treatment 3. other reactive factors
15. Write the steps involved in conducting focus group interview?

268
Planning the focus group study Conduct the focus group discussions Analysing and reporting
the results.
16. List the various types of questions used in framing the questionnaire.
(a) Open ended question
(b) Structured question
(c) Dichotomous question (d)Multiple choice question
(e) Checklist question
(f) Ranking question
(g) Positively and negatively worded question
(h) Double barreled question
(i) ambiguous question
(j)Memory related questions
(k) Leading questions
(l)Bad questions
17. What are cautions to be followed before using secondary data?
a. Reliability of data
(b) suitability of data
(c) adequacy of data
18. What are the various factors affecting method of data collection?
(a) Nature , scope and object of enquiry
(b) Availability of funds
(c) Time factor
(d)Precision required
269
19. What are the various important sampling distributions?
(a)Sampling distribution of mean
(b) Sampling distribution of proportion
(c) Student’s T distribution
(d) F distribution
(e) Chi square distribution
20. What are the various factors affecting determination of sample size?
(a) Nature of universe
(b) Number of classes proposed
(c) Nature of study
(d)Type of sampling
(e) standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
(f) Availability of finance
(g) other consideration
21. Discuss the procedure for Hypothesis testing?
(a) Making a formal statement
(b) Selecting a significance level
(c)Deciding the sampling distribution to use
(d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value
(e) Calculation of the probability
(f) Comparing the probability
22. What are the various steps in conducting factor analysis?

270
(a) Formulate the problem
(b) Construct the correlation matrix
(c) Identify the method of factor analysis
(d) Determine the number of factors
(e) Rotate the factors
(f) Interpret factors
(g) Calculate factor scores
(h) Select the surrogate variables
(i)Determine the model fit.
23. Discuss the steps in conducting cluster analysis?
( a) Formulate the problem
(b) select a distance measure
(c)Select a clustering procedure
(d) Decide on the number of clusters
(e) Interpret and profile clusters
(f) assess the validity of clustering
24. Elaborate about the steps involved in Two group discriminant analysis.
(a) Formulate the problem
(b) Research design issues
(c) Assumptions
(d) Estimating the discriminant functions
(e) assess the validity of discriminant analysis

271
(f)Interpretation of discriminant functions
(g) Validation of discriminant results.
25. Write a note on Panel and its types?
Panel refers to the sample of individuals, households or firms from whom information may
be collected in successive time periods.
Types: Static, Dynamic

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1

1.1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research

According to Francis Rummel, “research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new

According to Robert Ross, Research is essentially an investigation a recording and analysis of

1.1.2 Features of Good Research

Features of good research are as follows:

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.3. Objectives of research

The objectives of research are as follows:

1.1.3 Research Process

1. Defining research problem

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.5. Scope of Research

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Scope of Research in Management

Accounting and Finance Human Resource Development and

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.6. Research Approach

A research approach can vary significantly depending on what is to be research, if it is a scientific

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1) Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

Techniques of Quantitative Research

1) Observation: Observation is an activity of a person which senses and assimilates the

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.6.2. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers

Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in that it is often

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

1) Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

1) Whilst not as time or resource consuming as quantitative experiments, qualitative

Techniques of Collecting Qualitative Data

Quantitative research techniques are of following types:

1) Depth Interview: Depth interview is a qualitative research technique that involves

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

3) Projective Techniques: A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect from of

1.1.6.3. Qualitative versus Quantitative Data Analysis

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Making Future Forecast Understanding Marketplace

Understanding Perceived Value of

Solving Operational and Planning

Exploring New Business Broadening and Deepening

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.8. Limitations of Research

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1.1.9. Research in an Evolutionary Perspective

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Knowledge creation is fundamental to social development and is an age old concept.

1.2. Business Research

1.2.1. Meaning and Definition of Business Research

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Business research is an important management activity that helps companies to determine

1.2.2. Objective of Business Research

There are five major objectives of business research

1.2.3. Types of Business Research

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

1) Exploratory: When the purpose of research is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or

PONJESLY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING / DOMS BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS